College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Unity University
College of Business, Economics and Social Sciences
Department of Common and supportive Courses

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills/Sophomore English

Course Number: EnLa 102
Credit Hours: 3
Contact Hours: 4
1. COURSE OBJECTIVE
This course aims at developing your basic writing skills: writing meaningful and
grammatically correct sentences, well-organized paragraphs and essays. To this end,
the following major topics have been included: mechanics (capitalization and
punctuation), combining sentences, revising sentences for faulty writing (writing
grammatically correct and meaningful sentences), paragraph and essay writing.
A variety of exercises and guidelines/models are provided to help you better understand
the contents of the course and improve your writing skills. As this is an academic
course, it will surely help you in our attempt to do well in your major field of study and
other academic subjects as well. This is so because most of the term and research
papers, reports and graduation essays that you are required to produce at this level
presuppose the possession of basic paragraph and essay writing skills, among others.
This course is designed to meet the needs of a wide-ranging groups of students
studying in various colleges and universities. Its contents have been tried on different
groups of students of various age groups and have been found to be of general appeal.
Students majoring in English as well as those taking the courses SOPHOMORE
ENGLISH, BASIC WRITING SKILLS, COLLEGE LEVEL WRITING, or WRITING
FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES, etc. will find this MODULE more relevant. It must also
be emphasized that anyone interested in developing his/her basic writing skills will
undoubtedly benefit from working with this material.
2. ASSESSMENT MODALITIES

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 1 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Test 1: Mechanics, Joining and Improving Sentences (10%)

Test 2: Paragraph Unity and Coherence (5 %)
Assignment 1: The Process of Writing (5%)
Assignment 2: Paragraph Writing (15 %)
Assignment 3: Essay Writing (10)
Attendance (5%)
Final Examination (50%)
Text
Basic Writing Skills (Prepared by Alamirew Kassahun, PhD, TEFL, 2021)
References
McDougal, L. (1985). Building English Skills (Orange Level)
McDougal, L. (1986). Basic English Skills (Blue Level)
Carol, A. & Senn J.A.(1986). Heath Grammar and Composition (2nd course)
Note to instructors: Given the emphasis that should be given to paragraph and essay
writing, the sections on capitalization and punctuation should be set as reading
assignments. A session or two can be devoted to them to bring students' attention to
the importance of capitalization and punctuation in making writings clear and
understandable. The actual lessons should begin with Session 1: Revising sentences.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 2 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

BASICS OF CAPITALIZATION
One way through which you can make your writing meaningful is by using capital
letters where appropriate. There are many rules for the use of capital letters which you
may well be familiar with.
PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
 Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing. A proper adjective is
formed from a proper noun. A common noun, which is not capitalized, except when it is
at sentence beginnings, is a general name of a person, place or thing.
Common Noun Proper Noun Proper Adjective
person Elizabeth Elizabethan
country Ethiopia Ethiopian
city Paris Parisian
There are many different proper nouns. The rules below and the corresponding
examples will help you solve the capitalization problems that proper nouns present.
A. Names of persons
 Capitalize the names of persons and also the initials and abbreviations
that stand for those names.
Abebe Sintayehu
Dr. Amare Masresha
Elizabeth M. Grant
Elizabeth Mason Grant
 Capitalize titles used with names of persons and also the initials or
abbreviations that stand for titles.
Judge Mitiku Lemma
Professor White
Mr. Edward Scott

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 3 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Dr. Meskerem Lemma

Rev. Itafa Gobana
 Do not capitalize titles used as common nouns:
Have you seen your doctor?
She is the company president.
The judge entered the courtroom.
 Capitalize titles of very high importance, even when these titles are
used without proper names.
The Pope
The President of the United States
The Prime Minister of Ethiopia a United States Senator
B. Family relationships
 Capitalize such words as mother, father, aunt, and uncle when these
words are used as names. When the noun is modified by a possessive
word, it is not capitalized.
Hello, Mother, Is Dad home yet?
My aunt is going to visit my grandmother next week.
C. The pronoun I
 Capitalize the pronoun I regardless of where it occurs in sentences.
Is he taller than I?
I am sure that he is.
Continents: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe
Bodies of water: the Pacific Ocean, the Columbia River, the English Channel, the
Gibe River
Landforms: the Cape of Good Hope, the Mississippi Delta
Political units: Great Britain, First Congressional District, Los Angeles
Public area: Awash National Park, the National Museum
Roads and highways: Haile Gebreseilase Street, Lincoln Highway, Route 23
F. Directions and Sections
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 4 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 Capitalize names of sections of the country

Industrial production was high in the North.
The first English settlements were along the East Coast.
The Southwest is our fastest-growing region.
 Capitalize proper adjectives derived from names of sections of the
country.
Western dress
Southern-style cooking
A New England town
 Do not capitalize directions of the compass.
We headed south for our vacation.
The pioneers moved west over the channel.
The school is southwest of our home.
 Do not capitalize adjectives derived from words indicating direction
A north wind
The east side of the building

EXERCISE 2
Re-write the following sentences using capital letter as appropriate.
1. The lake is in Siberia, in the soviet union.
2. The island of Capri is in the bay of naples.
3. Of the seven contitnets, asia and Africa are the two largest.
4. lake tana is found in bahir dar.
5. Last summer, we drove along the gulf of mexico to new Orleans and then north
to Memphis.
6. The omo national park has beautiful sceneries.
7. The abay river crosses cairo.
8. Next week we elect the representative from the eighth congressional district.
9. We had a family picnic at langano resort hotel.
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 5 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

10.The blue grotto is a famous tourist attraction on Capri.

G. Names of Organizations and Institutions
 Capitalize the names of organizations and institutions including
political parties, governmental bodies or agencies, schools, colleges,
churches, hospitals, clubs, businesses, and abbreviations of these
names.
Gillette Company
Tulube Junior Secondary School
Unity University
You-Go Bible Club
Pastor David Church
Dembel City Center
St. Paul Hospital
 Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital
when they are not used as names.
This fund drive benefits the hospital.
Our school is going to be re-built.
H. Names of Events, Documents and periods of Time
 Capitalize the names of historical events, documents, and periods of
time.
The Battle of Adwa
Middle Ages
Wuchale Treaty
Bill of Rights
World War II
I. Months, Days and Holidays
Capitalize names of months, days, holidays, but not the names of seasons.
March summer
Friday spring

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 6 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Labor Day
J. Races, Languages, Nationalities, Religions
 Capitalize the names of races, languages, nationalities, and religions
and adjectives derived from them
French African Amhara
Oromo Catholic Lutheranism
Catholic
K. School Subjects
 Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except course names
followed by a number
physical education
social studies
Financial Accounting I
 Remember that the names of languages are always capitalized.
English Spanish Amharic Afan Oromo
L. Ships, Trains, Airplanes, Automobiles
 Capitalize the names of ships, trains, airplanes, and automobiles.
Tekeze
Cutlass
Boeing
Mazda
M. B.C, A. D.
 Capitalize the abbreviations B.C and A.D.
The first Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C.
The Norman Conquest took place in A.D. 1066.
EXERCISE 3
Re-write the following sentences adding capital letters where necessary.
1. The fourth of july is an important date in American history.
2. My sister is a class president at jimma senior secondary school.
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 7 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

3. I registered for ancient history I, business math II, social studies, English and
music.
4. Our car was made by American motors corporation.
5. In 1898 the treaty of paris ended the Spanish-american war.
6. They own Mercedes benz and suzuki.
7. My favorite subjects are home economics and shop.
8. The prophet Muhammad founded the religion of islam.
9. His followers are called moslems or muslims.
10.In 44 b.c. Caesar was assassinated.
FIRST WORDS
A. Sentences and Poetry
 Capitalize the first word of every sentence and the first word in most
lines of poetry.
Sentence: My sister likes tennis. She is the captain of her team.
Lines of poetry: Listen my children, and you shall hear
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere…
B. Quotations
When you write the exact words of a speaker or writer, you are giving a direct
quotation.
 Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.
Professor Zeleke said, “The presence of life after death is like a joke to me.”
 Sometimes a direct quotation is interrupted by explaining words like
she said. This is called a divided quotation. Do not capitalize the first
word of the second part of a divided quotation unless it starts a new
sentence.
“Well,” he said, “what you say is quite right.”
“I agree,” he said. “What you say is quite true.”
C. Letters

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 8 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 Capitalize the first word, words like Sir and Madam, and the name of
the person addressed in the greeting of a letter.
Dear Mr. Alemu
Dear Ms. Tizita
Dear Mr. Tadele
 In the complimentary close, capitalize the first word only.
Yours very truly
Sincerely yours
D. Outlines
 Capitalize the letters and the first word of each line of an outline
I. Improve your handwriting
A. Form letters carefully
1. Watch a ,e, r, l and t
2. Watch u, v, and o
B. Proofread your work
E. Titles
 Capitalize the first word and all important words in chapter titles; titles of
magazine articles; titles of short stories, essays, or single poems; and titles of
songs or short pieces of music.
Chapter: Chapter 5, “The Undersea World’’
Magazine article: “Sleep and Dreams”
Short story: “The Last Leaf”
Essay: “Nature”
Poem: “O Captain! My Captain!”
Song: “Dangerous”
 Capitalize the first word and all important words in titles of books, newspapers,
magazines, plays, movies, television programs, works of art, and long musical
compositions.
Book: Fikir Iske Mekabir
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 9 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Newspaper: The Daily Monitor

Magazine: Tsigereda
Play: Tidar Sitaten
Television program: Ethiopian Idol
Movie: Yewendoch Guday; The Proposal
Work of art: Maresha
Long musical composition: Peter and the Wolf
EXERCISE 4
Re-write the following sentences using capital letters where necessary.
1. 1.the last chapter of the Sherlock holmes book valley of fear is “danger.”
2. 2.the famous actor will smith said, “all I know is just what I read in the papers.”
3. “don’t go,” he said. “I haven’t explained yet.”
4. the morning paper is the herald tribune.
5. very sincerely yours,
6. “hurry up!” father said. “if we don’t leave soon, we’ll be late.”
7. did you enjoy the movie the right stuff?
8. the article “images of youth past” appeared last fall in an issue of life magazine.
9. I have always enjoyed the wizard of oz, but I was thoroughly entertained by the
movie the wiz.
10.“I’m afraid so,” genet replied. “we’re too late.”
EXERCISE 5
Proofread the following letter. Re-write it, using correct capitalization.
March 15, 2008
Dear ms harmon:
in february, the evening star ran an ad for your auto wrecking business, compacted
cars company. After reading the ad, I had an idea. I wonder if your company would
donate any used inner tubes to camp lone pine. Our campers could then go tubing on
red mill river. You may be asking yourself, “what is tubing?” let me explain that tubing
is a simple water sport in which swimmers put on inner tubes and float down the river.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 10 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Your generosity would make a better summer for the children at our camp. Also, I
would encourage their parents to take their old fords, Chevrolets, and other cars to
your company.
i could pick up the inner tubes on any Tuesday after 1:00 p.m.
thank you for your consideration.

respectfully yours
roger m.glass
BASICS OF PUNCTUATION
PRE-TEST
Try to punctuate this paragraph without reading the various punctuation
marks and their functions discussed in this chapter.
Dannys hobby is collecting old blues records His collection began accidentally When his
sister Laura moved away she gave him hers She said Take care of these Danny Theyre
an important part of the past He thanked her politely but it took him a while to
appreciate the records After listening to them he became an ardent blues fan He liked
the stories in the songs the emotion in the singers voices and the heavy rhythmical beat
of the music Danny started adding to the collection He browsed at record stores second
hand shops and garage sales His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of
music For Lauras birthday Danny taped some hits from the 80s that showed the
influence of the blues He wanted her to know the past was an important part of the
present
In general, punctuation marks are used in order to make your communication clear and
easy to read, you need to punctuate it. Punctuation marks indicate pauses in a
sentence and you need to strike a balance between too many and too few of them. If
you have too many, your document is broken up too much and becomes disjointed. If
you have too few, it becomes difficult to follow. The following paragraph has no
punctuation marks at all. Can you see how difficult it is to see what the writer means?

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 11 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

I am afraid that owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the
office at the moment it is not possible to agree to your request immediately
not that it is likely to be turned down of course but we do need his approval
for agreements of his nature however he will be back next week and I will
make sure that he deals with it as soon as possible.
Now here is the same paragraph, but this time the writer has over punctuated it.
I am afraid that, owing to the fact that, the Managing Director is out of the
office, at the moment, it is not possible to agree to your request,
immediately--- not that it is likely to be turned down, of course; but we do
need his approval, for agreements of his nature. However, he will be back
next week; and I will make sure that he deals with it, as soon as possible.
Can you see how disjointed it is to read? It is almost jerky in fact. Let us see how it
looks when properly punctuated.
I am afraid that, owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the
office at the moment, it is not possible to agree to your request
immediately-- not that it is likely to be turned down of course, but we do
need his approval for agreements of his nature. However, he will be back
next week and I will make sure that he deals with it as soon as possible.
This is easier to read than the other two versions, and the sense is quite clear the first
time you read it. Punctuation is often a matter of style, but there are certain rules which
should be followed if your correspondence is to make sense to your readers. In this
chapter, we will be looking at both the rules and the points of style governing
punctuation marks.
COMMA (,)
Commas are used to prevent confusion and to keep items from running to one another.
Following are some specific rules for commas that are used to separate items.
A) ITEMS IN A SERIES
Three or more similar items together form a series. A series can be composed of words,
phrases or clauses.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 12 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Words:
 Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are all members of the rose family.
(Nouns)
 Meseret will sing, dance, or tell jokes. (Verbs)
 We were tired, dirty, and wet. (Adjectives)
Phrases:
 The cat could be in the closet, under the bed, or behind the couch.
Clauses:
 We don’t know when we are leaving, where we are going, or what we should
take.
When a conjunction connects the last two items in a series, some writers
omit the last comma.
Although this is acceptable, it can be confusing. Therefore, it is always better
to include the comma before the conjunction.
Confusing: I had juice, bacon and corn pancakes.
Clear: I had juice, bacon, and corn pancakes.
You can use a comma to separate adjectives qualifying the same noun as in:
 Please enclose a large, brown envelope.
This again is a matter of preference, and you could just as well leave the comma out.
One situation in which you must leave it out is when the second adjective and the noun
actually form a compound noun together. Take ‘filing cabinet’ as an example. ‘Filing’ is
not a qualifying adjective in this context. It is part of the noun. A filing cabinet is
something very different from an ordinary cabinet, so ‘filing’ does not describe the
cabinet in the way that ‘brown’ describes the envelope in the previous example. So
you should not write Please supply a large, filing cabinet.

B) COMPOUND SENTENCES
A comma is usually used to separate the independent clauses in a compound
sentence.
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 13 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Don’t tease the dog, or it may bite you.

I play the flute, and my sister plays the cello.
A comma is not needed in a very short compound sentence.
Selam left but I stayed.
Whether or not you use a comma in this context will depend on the length of the
sentence in question and the amount of separation, and the kind of meaning you would
like to communicate. So if your sentence is long you might put in a comma, introducing
a pause so that the reader can absorb what he or she has read so far.
C) INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS
Use a comma to separate an introductory word, phrase, or clause from the rest of the
sentence.
Words: Yes, I will go.
Finally, may I offer my congratulations on your success this year?
(Similar words include now, oh, well, why, yes, and so on)
Prepositional phrase: After the earthquake in town, we all helped each other.
(a comma comes after
two or more prepositional phrases or a single phrase of four or more words)
Participial phrase (this could be past participle or the ing-form of a verb used
at the beginning of a sentence)
Annoyed by what he said, she left the room without saying anything.
Hearing the noise outside, we all went under bed.
Others: In Room 47, 35 students were studying.
Is it possible to say: In Room 4735 students were studying?
D) COMMAS WITH INTERRUPTORS/COMMAS THAT ENCLOSE
Some expressions interrupt the flow of a sentence. These expressions generally add
information that is not needed to understand the main idea of the sentence. They may
well be omitted without affectingthe meaning of the sentence in question.
Use commas to set off words or groups of words that interrupt the flow of
though in a sentence.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 14 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

The movie, to tell the truth, was rather boring.

This is not, I am sure, what the Board had in mind.
The report, moreover, is altogether wrong.
When these interrupters are used at the beginning of a sentence, only one
comma is used.
To tell the truth, the movie was rather boring.
E) COMMAS WITH APPOSITITVES
Use commas to set off most appositives.
An appositive is a word or a group of words used directly after another word
to explain it.
The speaker, a famous explorer, told about New Guinea.
The leader, the person on horseback, moved away.
When the appositive is short name or noun, it is not set off by commas.
This is my sister Tizita.
F) DIRECT ADDRESS
Names, titles, or words that are used to address someone are set off by
commas.
Sarah, you are a high scorer.
Your essay, Mimi, was excellent.
Have you had your lunch, Amsal?
G) DATES AND ADDRESSES
In dates, use a comma between the day of the month and the year.
I was born on June 18, 1980.
In a sentence a comma follows the year.
The postmark read July 5, 2009, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Use a comma between the name of a city or town and the name of its state
or country.
Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa
Jimma, Oromiya

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 15 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Munich, Germany
In writing an address as part of a sentence, use a comma after each
independent part
I live at Haile Gebresislasie Street, Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Forward our letter to 651 Sentinel Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203, where we
will be moving next month.
Note that you do not place a comma between the state and the ZIP code.
Wrong: Wisconsin, 53203
H) COMMAS WITH QUOTATIONS
Use commas to set off the explaining words of a direct quotation.
The explaining words used in giving a direct quotation are such brief
statements as Hannah said,
Ashenafi answered, or Gemechu asked.
The pilot said, “We will land in a few minutes.”
In this sentence, the explaining words come before the quotation. A comma is then
placed after the last explaining word.
Now look at this quotation:
“We will land in a few minutes,’’ the pilot said.
If the explaining words come after the quotation, as in the example above, place a
comma within the quotation marks after the last word of the quotation. Sometimes a
quotation is separated into two parts by the explaining words. This is often done to add
variety to the sentence construction. Here is an example:
“We will land,” the pilot said, “in a few minutes.”
Do not confuse direct and indirect quotations. Indirect quotations are not set off from
the rest ofthe sentence by commas.
The pilot said that the plane would land in a few minutes.
I) COMMAS IN LETTER PARTS
Use a comma often after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the
complimentary close of a friendly or business letter.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 16 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Dear Tadele, Yours sincerely,

J) COMMAS TO PREVENT MISREADING
When no specific rule applies, but there is a danger of misreading, use a
comma.
Who she is, is a mystery.
Inside, it was warm and cozy.
EXERCISE 1
Add commas where necessary.
1. My sister was born in Tokyo Japan on January 1 1965 and I was born in
Frankfurt Germany on January 1 1968.
2. Whatever it is it is a strange-looking creature.
3. Because my parents work for the government I have lived in Bole Sub-city Addis
Ababa for over ten years.
4. At the movies I like fresh hot buttery popcorn.
5. My sister can play the guitar the ‘kirar’ and the mandolin.
6. The exam however will be given as scheduled.
7. After circling the airport from an hour we finally landed.
8. W/ro Almaz to be frank was not behaving as usual.
9. I will be right back Abebe.
10.No the garage sale isn’t until next week.
11.The man in blue said “Let’s stand together on this one
12.“It is up to you to make that decision” Belete emphasized.
13.Although Mesele needed help he said nothing.
14.My hobby playing tennis has taught me endurance.
15.Sisay finally arrived but it was too late to go anywhere.
16.The team captain the player in the blue jersey is a good student.
17.Dear John
Would you please send me Amare’s new address? I’d appreciate it.
Your friend

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 17 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Alex
18.She is a very good journalist and I am a very good anthropologist.
19.19. Fishing playing tennis swimming and playing football are my leisure time
activities.
20.They drove away in a bright shiny expensive car.
SEMICOLON (;)
Use a semicolon to join the parts of a compound sentence when no coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, so) is used.
Daniel has finished his homework; Amele has not begun hers.
Use a semicolon to emphasize a statement. In this sense, the statement after the
semicolon looks punchy and emphatic.
We must improve our productivity; we face bankruptcy if we don’t.
Use a semicolon to balance contrasting statements, as in
We offer a home delivery service; other firms do not.
The main purpose of the semicolon here is to highlight the contrast between your
service and that of other firms.
Use semicolons to separate to separate longer items in a list We saw under commas
that they are also used to separate items in a list. There is no absolute rule to say when
you should use commas and when you should use semicolons, but a good rule of
thumb is that semicolons should be used when the items in the list are clauses and
when the items themselves contain commas. Let us look at some examples
a) I recommend the following: that we increase our sales staff by five; that we
double our advertising budget; and that we introduce more stringent quality
control measures.
b) We have three main requirements: high quality, durable materials; reasonable
prices; and fast, reliable delivery.
In the first example, the items in the list are clauses; to separate them only with
commas would make them appear to run into each other. In the second, there are
commas in two of the items in the list. If the lists themselves were separated by

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 18 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

commas, it would be confusing to read. Unlike commas, when you are using semicolons
to separate items in a list, you do have a semicolon before the final ‘and’ or‘or’.
Use a semicolon before a word that joins the main clauses of a compound sentence.
Such joining words are therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, besides,
nevertheless, yet and consequently.
It was a sunny day; however, it was quite cool.
EXERCISE 2
Use semicolons where appropriate.
1. It was a clear day moreover it was perfect fro swimming.
2. Genet prepared dinner Birhanu set the table.
3. Addis Ababa, Jimma and Dire Dawa Awassa, Wonji and Mekele Ambo, Arba
Minch and Mugar have football clubs.
4. Treza was reading a mystery Salia was talking on the phone.
5. Our school offers better quality education theirs doesn’t.
6. Kebede crossed the finish line ten feet ahead of the others however he was
completely out of control when the judges told him that he was disqualified.
7. Akalu, clean the room Shemsu, serve the tea Senait, take the dog for a walk.
8. I know that there is not much time nevertheless the work must be finished by 5:
30 P.M.
9. 9. The Pep Club will handle ticket sales the cheerleaders will help the ushering.
10.Jamal studied hard for the test yet he thought it was one of the hardest ones
he’d ever taken.
THE COLON (:)
Use a colon to introduce a list of items
a) If you are trying out for the team, bring the following things: a pair of gym
shoes, your uniform, and your consent form.
Don’t use a colon if the list immediately follows a verb or a preposition
b) ) If you are trying out for the team, bring a pair of gym shoes, your uniform,
and your consent form.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 19 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Use a colon to indicate the two sides of the same theme; the first part of the
sentence makes a
statement, and the second part explains it.
a) The solution is simple: train more operators.
b) The reasons are the same in both cases: we are undervaluing our key staff.
Use a colon (like a comma) to introduce direct speech or quotation
She said: “Let us stand straight.”
Use a colon between numbers including hours and minutes
a)10:00 P.M.
b) 6:45 A.M.
Use a colon to separate Biblical chapters and verses
John 3: 16 (Chapter three verse 16)
Use a colon after salutations in business letters
Dear Sir:

EXERCISE 3
Use colons where appropriate.
1. All volunteers will need the following a notebook, a pen, and a comfortable pair
of walking shoes.
2. There are four methods of catching fish hooking, netting, spearing and trapping.
3. These are my favorite subject math, science and woodworking.
4. Mother’s plane arrives at 655 P.M. Dad’s will land at 715 P.M.
5. Bring three things to class tomorrow your text, paper, and a blue or black pen.
6. Cargo planes carry almost anything white mice, toupees and even small private
planes.
7. The idea is straightforward don’t tease the dog if you want to go in peace.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 20 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

8. Abate remarked “It is our responsibility to look after these children.”

9. For more on that you should refer to Genesis 4 12.
10.Dear Madam
This letter will confirm your reservation.
THE HYPHEN (-)
The hyphen is a very useful device, particularly in avoiding confusing or
awkward constructions. It is used in the following ways:
Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line; that is if a syllable of a
word must be carried over from one line to the next.
In the library you will find authoritative books on solar energy.
Only words of two or more syllables can be divided at the end of a line. Never divide
words of one syllable, such as worse. A single letter must not be left at the end of a
line. For example, this division would be wrong: a-waken. A single letter must not
appear at the beginning of a line, either. It would be wrong to divide dictionary like
this: dictionar-y.
Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
a) Twenty-three cents
b) Forty-two students
Use a hyphen with fractions when fractions are used as adverbs or adjectives
We won a two-thirds majority. (two-thirds is a an adjective modifying majority)
Three-fourths empty (three—fourths is an adverb modifying empty)
Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because
thirds is a noun being modified by two)
Use a hyphen to connect two or more words to form a compound word,
especially a compound adjective, as in
a) A ground-floor office
b) A like-minded colleague
c) A sales-generating strategy

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 21 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

However, you should not use a hyphen to make a compound adjective when the first
word is an adverb ending in –ly. So you should write ‘a well-designed product’, but ‘a
beautifully designed product’.
Use a hyphen or hyphens in such compound nouns as great-aunt and
commander-in-chief
a) A Portuguese man-of-war stung the swimmer.
b) He is my brother-in-law.
Use a hyphen with prefixes ex-, self-and all-; with the suffix –elect and with
all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.
a) All-star
b) Ex-wife
c) Pro-American
d) Anti-Semitic
e) Non-European
f) Self-controls
g) Self-image
Use a hyphen to differentiate between words beginning with re- which are
spelt the same but have different meanings
a)Reform-improve
b) Re-form- form again
c) Recount-tell
d)Re-count-count again
Use a hyphen to connect a letter to a noun to form a compound, as in ‘T-
junction’ or ‘U-turn’
Use a hyphen to avoid an awkward repletion of a letter, as in ‘co-operate’,
‘anti-inflation’
EXERCISE 4
Add the necessary hyphens to the following sentences.
1. The Prime Minister of Ethiopia is the Commander in Chief of the armed Forces.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 22 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. In ten years I be will twenty six years old.

3. We received the store’s new, up to date catalogue.
4. The woman had a well to do look about her.
5. You have to rewrite your sentences to make them more meaningful and
grammatical.
6. He is a self made millionaire.
7. This is a well organized essay.
8. My ex girlfriend is not a good person.
9. I am standing near the car park.
10.The postage for this package is sixty two cents.
1.2.5. THE APOSTROPHE (‘)
Use an apostrophe to show that a letter or letters have been left out of a
word.
a) Don’t for do not
b) We’ll for we will
c) Let’s for let us
Use an apostrophe and s to form the plurals of letters, figures and words
used as words.
a)two m’s
b) four 6’s
c) and’s and but’s
Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a singular noun.
a)girl’s
b)Ross’s
Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a plural that doesn’t end in s.
a) men’s
b) children’s
Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of nouns that end in s.
a)drivers’

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 23 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

b)pilots’
Use an apostrophe and ‘s’ to form the possessive of indefinite pronouns.
a)someone’s
b) anybody’s
Never use an apostrophe in a personal pronoun.
Ours, yours, its, hers, theirs
Use an apostrophe to show the omission of numbers in a date.
The class of '89(the class of 1989)
EXERCISE 5
Insert apostrophes where they are needed.
1. All of the teachers meetings are held in a library.
2. Her writing and illustrations a well known childrens literature.
3. Hannas father drove us to their familys cottage in Indibir.
4. 4.Wasnt that Charless original plan?
5. 5.Weve heard that there wont be an assembly until next week.
6. 6. Although she was the first woman to go into space, Valentina Tereshkovas
name is not well known.
7. 7. I plan to get four As and two Bs this semester.
8. 8. How many ss are there in Mississippi?
9. 9.Marthas sister and Kalkidans brother are both interns at St. Pauls Hospital.
10.The graduating classes of 87 and 88 are buying a new digital scoreboard for the
school.

QUOTATION MARKS (" ")

Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of a direct quotation.
a) Sarah said, “My feelings were hurt."
Quotation marks are not used with indirect quotations:
b) Sarah said that her feelings were hurt.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 24 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

A quotation that begins the sentence is followed by a comma inside the

quotation marks. A period follows the explaining words at the end of a
sentence.
“There is someone to see you,” my sister announced.
Divided quotations
Sometimes the explaining words break into the middle of a direct quotation. In this
case, each part of the quotation is enclosed in quotation marks. "Do you think," Girma
asked, "that you will like the team in blue?" Also, note the placement of commas.
Use quotation marks when quoting the exact words of a person, document,
book or article, as in
Johnson wrote of a "potentially damaging recession" looming.
Use quotation marks to show irony
What do you think of Green & Co’s "new" corporate image?
The implication is that you do not believe that Green & Co’s corporate image is
actually very new.
Use quotation marks to show that you do not want something/some idea to
be part of your argument
Smiths have developed a new "quick-dry" paint. This means that Smiths are claiming it
is quick to dry. You are not necessarily denying the claim, but nor are you confirming it.
You may not have enough information to form a judgment. Whether you use single (' ')
or double quotation marks (" ") is a matter of personal preference.

EXERCISE 6
Write each of the following sentences three ways as a direct quotation.
Example: Be sure that you are on time.
a) a"Be sure that you are on time" he said.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 25 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

b) He said, "Be sure that you are on time."

c) "Be sure," he said, “that you are on time."
1. Watch out for broken glass.
2. I am sure that I am right.
3. On Monday summer vacation begins.
4. Did you know that I was her boyfriend?
Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if they
belong to the quotation itself.
a) Dad asked, "Is Mersha working in the garage?"
b) "Look out!" Tena shouted.
Place question marks and exclamation points outside quotation marks if they
do not belong to
the quotation.
a)Did she say, "I will be home at midnight"?
b) The man said, "You have never won the contest"!
EXERCISE 7
Punctuate the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write ‘correct’.
1. Did the teacher say We’ll meet in the gym
2. The receptionist asked us what we wanted.
3. The speaker said, Inflation must be stopped.
4. Have the committee members arrived yet asked Tizita.
5. The best part she added is the ending.
Quotation marks for titles Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of
magazines articles, chapters, titles of short stories, essays, or single poems,
songs and short pieces of music.

Chapter: Chapter 3, "Americans in London"

Magazine article: "Images of Youth Past"
Short Story: "The Lottery"

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 26 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Essay: "My First Article"

Poem: "The Raven"
Song: "Dangerous"
Underline the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, plays, television
programs, movies, works of art, and long musical compositions.
In writing or typewriting, these titles are underlined, like this: The Right Stuff.
In print, these titles appear in italics instead of being underlined.
Book: Native Son
Newspaper: The Daily Monitor
Magazine: Tsigereda
Play: Hamlet
Television program: Ethiopian Idol
Movie: Yewendoch Guday; Titanic
Work of art: Monalisa
EXERCISE 8
Add quotation marks where necessary.
1. The television program Shai Buna raises and discusses a number of social and
economic issues.
2. Two of James Thurber’s stories are The Very Proper Gander and The Shrike and
Chipmunks.
3. Read the first chapter, Discovery in the New World.
4. I liked the story The Monkey’s Paw.
5. For my poetry assignment, I read Ex-Basketball Player.
6. The band played music from Camelot and the theme from Chariots of Fire.
7. Charlie Chaplin’s The Gold Rush and Harold Lloyd’s Safety Last are two well-
known silent films.
8. Did you see the movie Gandhi?
9. Read chapter 2, How We Came to the River.
10.This is Judy Bass’s painting Jump out of Darkness.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 27 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

END MARKS
THE PERIOD (.)
Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement. It is a kind of
sentence you use when you
want to tell something.
My brother plays the guitar.
Use a period at the end of an imperative sentence.
An imperative sentence is a sentence that requests or orders someone to do
something.
Please bring me that book.
If the imperative sentence also expresses excitement or emotion, an
exclamation point is used
after it.
Watch out!
Use a period at the end of an indirect question.
An indirect question tells what someone asked. However, it does not give the exact
words of the person who asked the question.
She asked us whether we liked strawberries.
Use a period after an abbreviation or after an initial.
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word. An initial is a single letter that stands
for a word.
Dr. Marla E.Corona
Rev. John L.Haeger,Jr.
2:30 P.M.
Periods are omitted is some abbreviations. If you are not sure whether or not
to use periods, look up the abbreviation in your dictionary.
FM (frequency modulation)
UN (United Nations)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 28 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

Use a period after each number or letter that shows a division of an outline
or that preceded an item in a list An outline A list
I. Poets 1.eggs
A. American 2. milk
1. Robert Frost 3. butter
THE QUESTION MARK (?)
Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.
Is Alex here?
The above sentence gives the exact words of the person who asked the
question. It is a called a direct
question. A question mark is used only with a direct question.
Do not use a question mark with an indirect question. Instead use a period.
Sisay asked whether Alex was here.
Use a question mark in memos or informal letters to ask for confirmation.
We will meet on (Friday?) to discuss the arrangements.
Here the writer is asking the other person if Friday is convenient.
THE EXCLAMATION POINT (!)
Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamatory sentence.
How great that looks!
Use an exclamation point after an interjection or after any other exclamatory
expression.
An interjection is a word or group of words used to express a strong feeling. It may
be a real word or simply a group of letters used to express a sound. It is one of the
eight parts of speech.
Hurrah!
Wow!
Ugh!

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 29 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

EXERCISE 9
Add the necessary punctuation in the following sentences.
1. I was supposed to meet Tizita at 10:30 AM
2. Dr James Coogan, Jr is going to talk about lifesaving
3. What is Dr hailu’s phone number
4. Help I can’t get this door open
5. One mile is equal to 16 kilometers
6. Where did I put my new sweater
7. Wow That was quite a football game
8. Mary, Look out
9. Our art supplies will cost less than ten birr, but they’ll be more that 825 birr.
10. My appointment with Dr Gamachu is at 10:20 AM
POST-TEST
You have looked at the various punctuation marks and their actual functions.
Are there any changes you would like to make?
Dannys hobby is collecting old blues records His collection began accidentally When his
sister Laura moved away she gave him hers She said Take care of these Danny Theyre
an important part of the past He thanked her politely but it took him a while to
appreciate the records After listening to them he became an ardent blues fan He liked
the stories in the songs the emotion in the singers voices and the heavy rhythmical beat
of the music Danny started adding to the collection He browsed at record stores second
hand shops and garage sales His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of
music For Lauras birthday Danny taped some hits from the 80s that showed the
influence of the blues He wanted her to know the past was an important part of the
present

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 30 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Session: 1
Topic: REVISING SENTENCES
Sub-topic: SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Session learning objective
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Observe rules on subject-verb agreement and write sentences that have subject-
verb agreement
Lecture synopsis
The sentences that we write can have different problems. The purpose of this and
subsequent sections is therefore to identify these problems and make improvements to
such sentences. Our intention is to make sure that the sentences we compose should
be grammatical and meaningful. One of the problems that we shall see relates to
subject-verb agreement. For example, students often say "He have..." instead of "He
has..." In speech it may be difficult for people to avoid such errors. However, in writing
these errors tend to be easier to correct or avoid since the writer has the time and
opportunity to revise one’s writing before presenting it to others. Observe the following
rules on subject-verb agreement.
 Subject-verb agreement in number: a singular verb is used with a singular
subject; a plural verb is used with a plural subject.
Example
1. The man sings very well. (Singular)
2. The men sing very well. (Plural)
 Words between subject and verb: the verb agrees only with its subject.
Sometimes, aword with a different number than the subject occurs between the
subject and the verb. So this word usually has no effect on the number of the
verb. Such a word(s) should be avoided for the purpose of agreement.
Example
1. One of his classmates is a guide at the United Nations. (One is the subject)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 31 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. The Congress of the United States is in session. (Congress is the subject)

3. The pears on that old tree are not edible. (Pears is the subject)
The words with, together with, along with, as well as, in addition to, are prepositions
and their presence in the sentence has no effect on the number of the verb.
Example
1. Tizita, as well as her two kids, calls me every day.(Tizita…calls me every day)
2. My two aunts, along with their cat Wuro, visit me every Sunday.(My two
aunts…visit me every day)
 Indefinite pronouns: some indefinite pronouns are always singular. Others are
always plural. Some may be either singular or plural.
Example
Each of the my classmates has come to the meeting.(singular)
Neither of the glasses was broken.(singular)
Everybody in the fields was running.(singular)
Several in this room are hard workers.(plural)
Few in the student council have been re-elected.(plural)
Both of the defenders were injured.
Singular or plural
Some all most none any
Some, all, most, none, and any are singular when they refer to a portion or a quantity.
They are plural when they refer to many individual items.
Example
1. Some of the cream was sour. (A quantity of cream/uncountable-singular)
2. Some of the books are old. (Countable-plural)
3. Most of the forest was saved from fire. (A portion of the forest-singular)
4. Most of my classmates are negligent. (A number of friends-plural)
5. All of the cotton has dried. (Uncountable-singular)
6. All of the classes are taking the test. (A number of classes-plural)
 Compound Subjects: compound subjects are joined by and are plural.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 32 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Example
My father and my teacher are very good people.
When two subjects are joined by or, nor, either…or, neither…nor to form a compound
subject are singular.
Example
1. Neither your grammar nor your punctuation is perfect.
2. My aunt or my uncle is likely to be here.
3. Either the manager or the workers are wrong.
 Subject following verb: words here and there are introduction words (they are
never subjects of a sentence). Find true subjects in the sentence to decide which
verb to use.
Example
1. There is a crow on that tree limb. (Subject: crow)
2. There are 103 known chemical elem6ents. (Subject: elements elements)
3. Here is my book. (Subject: book)
4. Here are my books. (Subject: books)
 Collective nouns: a collective noun (a word that refers to a group or collection of
things or people) is singular when it is perceived as a unit and plural when the
individual elements in the group are being considered.
Example
1. The jury has been out for 12 hours. (One unit-singular)
2. The jury are discussing the case among theme selves. (Separately considered
plural)
3. The crowd was large and disorderly.
4. The crowd were fighting among themselves.
 Words of amount and time: words or phrases that express periods of time,
fractions, weights, measurements, and amounts of money are usually regarded
as singular.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 33 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Example
1. Ten dollars is too much to pay.
2. Two-thirds of the money has been raised.
3. Five hours seems a long time for that trip.
4. One hundred pounds of bird seed is ridiculous.
5. Ten yards of curtain material was not enough.
When a fraction or percentage is used as a subject, the term following OF determines
whether the verb is singular or plural.
Example
1. Two-fifths of our profits go to the government. (Profits-plural)
2. Three-fouths of the house is now ready. (House-singular)
 Titles and groups of words: titles of books, articles, plays, films, musical
composition and names of companies, countries and organizations take singular
predicates even if their titles appear to be plural.
Example
“War of the Worlds” was written by H.G. Wells.
The Netherlands is located in Western Europe.
The United Nations is a dysfunctional organization.
EXERCISE
Choose the most appropriate form from the two forms given in parentheses
to complete each of the following sentences.
1. The chairperson of our club, together with his assistant, (has, have) come on
time.
2. Is it true that one of the passengers (is, are) missing?
3. Either of the dogs (have, has) barked.
4. (Has, have) either of the children come here?
5. Everyone in the pictures (is, are) smiling.
6. Neither the girl nor the women (is, are) responsible for the accident.
7. Either Kemal or his friends (is, are) willing to take part in the meeting.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 34 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

8. It seems that there (was, were) two men named Samuel.

9. (What is, What are) the weather predictions for this week?
10.Ethics (is, are) important in the study of religion.
11.Politics (is, are) a fascinating game.
12.Five kilograms of apples (is, are) plenty.
13.Five of the bikes (is, are) missing.
14.Two thousand dollars (is, are) a lot to pay for a used car.
15.Much of what you say (make, makes) sense.
16.The quality of the photographs (was, were) exceptionally good.
17.This is the only one of the race cars that (run, runs) so quietly.
18.With its new plays, the team (was, were) winning.
19. The Three Musketeers (is, are) an exciting novel by Alexander Duma.
20.One of the life boats (has, have) sunk.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What is a sentence fragment?
 What is a run-on sentence?
 How do you revise them?
Session: 2
Topic: SENTENCE FRAGMENTS AND RUN-ON SENTENCES
Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Revise sentence fragments
 Revise run-on sentences
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is a sentence fragment?
 What is a run-on sentence?
 How do you revise them?
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 35 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Lecture synopsis 1
Sentence fragments
A group of words that is only part of a sentence is called a sentence fragment. A
sentence fragment does not express a complete thought. A fragment is often confusing
because something is missing from the sentence. Sometimes the subject is left out, and
the reader wonders who or what the sentence is about. At other times the verb is
omitted. Then the reader wonders what happened? Or what about it? Look at these
examples:
1. shifted into a lower gear.( who shifted?)
2. The big brown jackal over there (what happened?
3. In the middle of the lake (who or what is in the middle of the lake; what is
happening there?)
Fragments due to incomplete thoughts
Here is an example of a series of fragments:
Went to British Columbia. Canada’s Pacific Province. Spectacular mountains! The
ocean ,too! Hiking and fishing the best.
Can you re-write this to make it complete?

Fragments due to incorrect punctuation

1. Cars with brake problems. Were recalled by the manufacturer.
2. Are you going? To the State Fair?
3. A diver freed a baby whale. From a fishing net.
Can you re-write these?
EXERCISE 1
Re-write the following paragraph, changing all fragments to sentences.
We usually think of mazes as no more than amusing puzzles. Found in magazines or
amusement parks. In the past, however, mazes were considered an art form. Also a
means of protection or imprisonment. Palaces in Greece and Egypt were designed as
mazes. Protected the royal families. In Greek legend, a maze was built to house a

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 36 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

horrible monster. The Minotaur. This maze was called the Labyrinth. In the 1770’s,
formal gardens were designed to include hedge mazes. Very intricate. The walls of
these mazes are tall. Thick bushes. A person who wandered in could become lost for
hours. With no idea how to get out.

Lecture synopsis 2
Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is two or more sentences written incorrectly as one. This type of
sentence confuses the reader because it does not show where the first idea ends and
the second one begins. The reader therefore needs a period or other punctuation marks
to signal the end of each complete thought. Here are some examples:
RUN_ON: A motorcycle turned into the alley it skidded on the gravel.
CORRECT: A motorcycle turned into the alley. It skidded on the gravel.
RUN_ON: Tom likes country and western music does Carla like new wave?
CORRECT: Tom likes country and western music. Does Carla like new wave?
Sometimes writers make the mistake of using a comma instead of a period.
RUN_ON: The floats were ready, the parade could begin.
CORRECT: The floats were ready. The parade could begin.
EXERCISE 2
Re-write the following paragraph, correcting run-on sentences.
Glass is a common, inexpensive material that we take for granted. Yet long ago it was
so rare and costly that it was used with gold and semi-precious stones in jewelry only
wealthy women of ancient Egypt stored cosmetics and ointments in glass bottles. For
centuries glass was used chiefly for ornaments, vases, mosaics, and tableware some
glass was used to make stained-glass church windows and to let light into houses.
Glass was used for these relatively few purposes until the 12th or 13 th century. Even
then glass was for the wealthy. When people moved, they took their valuable glass

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 37 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

windows with them, they even handed them down to their children as heirlooms. In
England a special luxury tax was imposed on owners of houses with more than ten
windows.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What is a modifier?
 What is a misplaced modifier?
 What is a dangling modifier?
 How do you revise them?
Session: 3
Topic: MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS
Session learning objectives
 At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Revise sentences for misplaced modifiers
 Revise sentences for dangling modifiers?
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is a modifier?
 What is a misplaced modifiers?
 What is a dangling modifier?
 How do you revise them?
Lecture synopsis 1
MISPLACED MODIFIERS
When modifiers are not placed at appropriate position in a sentence, they modify a
wrong word, and hence are called misplaced modifiers. Look carefully at the following
sentences which all contain misplaced modifiers.
Faulty: Our neighbors sold dress to my sister without buttons. (Without buttons, here,
modifies my sister which really becomes an odd modification. The correct place for it
would be right after dresses. Hence:
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 38 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Corrected: Our neighbors sold dresses without buttons to my sister.

Faulty: At the age of 5, the doctor administered a small pox vaccine to me (At
the age of 5 describes a doctor. However, it is very unrealistic to talk about a 5-
year-old doctor. It should modify I or me:
Corrected: When I was five years old, the doctor administered a small pox
vaccine to me.
EXERCISE 1
Misplaced Modifiers
Now try to improve the following sentences that contain misplaced modifiers.

1. An old car was pulled down the street that had a flat tire.
2. In dribbling for the basket, the ball should be bounced no higher than one’s
waist.
3. After undressing completely, the doctor examined me.
4. When two years old, my father swam across the Give River.
5. We saw a giraffe in the awash National Park that had a long neck
6. Charles took a picture of a squirrel running across the telephone wire with his
new camera.
7. Baskets were given to all the children filled with Easter eggs.
8. AIDS has consumed the lives of many people, which is a killer disease.
9. Little white boxes of wedding cake were given to all the guests tied with white
satin ribbon.
10.My little brother is now in America who studied Engineering.
Lecture synopsis 2
DANGLING MODIFIERS
Sometimes verbal phrases and other expressions that should be acting as modifiers
have nothing to describe. These are called dangling modifiers.
Dangling: To enter the contest, a formed must be signed. (“To enter the contest”
doesn’t modify any noun or expression. It therefore dangles.)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 39 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Corrected: To enter the contest, you must sign a form. (Now, “To enter the contest,”
modifies ‘you’. Thus, one way of improving sentences that contain dangling modifiers is
by assigning a subject(s) to the modifier that dangles.
Dangling: After milking the cow, I fed the horse.
Corrected: After I milked the cow, I fed the horse.
Dangling: While driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert. (Who drives
by the church?)
Corrected: While I was driving by the church, I saw the organist give a concert.
Corrected: While I was driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert.
Dangling: After glancing at the clock, the book was closed by Jamal. (Who glanced at
the clock? No one)
Corrected: After glancing at the clock, Jamal closed the book.
Corrected: After he glanced at the clock, Jamal closed the book.
EXERCISE 2
Dangling Modifiers
Revise the following sentences for dangling modifiers.
1. Turning the pages, my eye noticed the record sale.
2. To prepare for an exam, solitude and concentration are needed.
3. Dancing and drinking every night, her reputation in the village suffered.
4. Driving through town, many traffic lights delayed us.
5. While napping, the door awakened me.
6. Finding no one at home, the next move was up to us.
7. When studying at night, a good lamp should be available.
8. To have successful party, good conversation and food are always useful.
9. Climbing the hill, there was another hotel.
10. While looking for a birthday present, a bracelet caught my eye.2
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 40 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 What is an overloaded sentence?

 What is an unsupported statement?
 How do you revise them?
Session: 4
Topic: OVERLOADED AND UNSUPPORTED STATEMENTS
Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Revise overloaded sentences
 Revise unsupported statements/use reasons to support opinions

Reading assignment for discussion

 What is an overloaded sentence?
 What is an unsupported statement?
 How do you revise them?
Lecture synopsis 1
OVERLOADED SENTENCES
Overloaded or rambling sentences are long sentences containing a number of ideas,
usually connected by and’s. As a result of this, they tend be confusing and ineffective.
Such sentences violate the principle that a sentence usually contains one central
thought. When you revise such sentences
 Reduce the original sentence into two or three shorter sentences
 Reduce the number of and’s
 Join very closely related ideas or sentences
 Replace repeated words with pronouns
Example:
Lengthy: I went into the building, and I waited for the elevator in the lobby, and when
it did not come I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 41 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Revised: I went to the lobby of the building and waited for the elevator. When it did
not come, I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.
Lengthy: The Olympic Games are patterned after an ancient Greek festival, and the
first modern games were held in 1896, and since then the number of sports and
participates has greatly increased.
Revised: The Olympic Games are patterned after n ancient Greek festival and the first
modern games were held in 1896. Since then…
EXERCISE 1
Overloaded Sentences
Revise the following sentences in the same way.
1. Some children learn to read at age three or four, and others learn in school, and
experts disagree about the value of very early training in reading.
2. Hurricanes ate tropical cyclones, and they start over oceans, especially near the
equator, and the winds can reach 150 miles per hour, and the most destructive
hurricane occurred in 1972.
3. The art department offers classes in ceramics and photography, and this year there
will be a print making class, and many students are eager to learn about etching
and lithography.
4. One tree in our town is sixty-five years old, and it has a hole in the trunk, and
twenty people can stand inside it, and our elders used the tree long ago as a
meeting place.
5. Horrible faces glared t me from the shelves in the costume shop, ad all of them
were contorted, and most of them were scarred, and they were deathly gray with a
greenish cast.
6. After we practice, we can get a pizza, and then before it gets dark, we can get in a
game of tennis, and then maybe we will agree on which movie to see.
7. I searched everywhere for my missing wallet and I looked in the house, outside, and
in the car and then I retraced my steps and finally found the missing wallet in a
drawer of my desk at work.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 42 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

8. Tetanus is a dangerous illness, and it is called lockjaw, and it causes severe muscle
spasm, and is caused by toxin produced by bacteria enter the body usually through
deep wounds and tetanus can be prevented by immunization.
9. Some people think that the federal government should deregulate oil prices and that
would probably cause gas and oil prices to rise, but if gas and oil prices rise, then
people will buy less, and the country will have to import less, and maybe that will
help control inflation.
10.Tall children have learning problems and this is because people expect them to act
like older children because of their size and when adults expect a child to do more
than the child can this creates problems.
Lecture synopsis 2
UNSUPPORTED SENTENCES/STATEMENTS
These are statements that are not supported by reasons, facts, or examples. The
question ‘why?” is left in the reader’s mind.
Example
Unsupported: Some people are talking about making the school year longer. This
would be a mistake. I think that the school year is long enough as it is.
The underlined statements are just opinions. Thus, they need to be supported by
reasons, or pieces of evidence.
Supported: some people are talking about making the school year longer. I think this
would be mistake as it makes it very boring.
Unsupported: I want to get a part-time job this year. I could work at least two hours
after school each day. My parents do not approve of the idea. (The underlined
statements need to be supported by reasons.)
Supported: I want to get part-time job this year. It would help me to cover my tuition
fee. So I could work at least two hours a day after school each day. But my parents do
not approve of the idea as it may consume my study time.
Unsupported: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young children
play it. I think it would be good for everyone to learn the game.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 43 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Supported: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young children
play it I think it would be good for everyone to learn the game as it is a pass –time
game, or a puzzling game…
EXERCISE 2
Unsupported Statements
1. Parents and teachers often complain about how much time young people spend
watching TV. However, many TV shows are good for us to watch.
2. According to the state law, you have to be eighteen before you can get a decent
job. I think this is very bad. I think the law should be changed.
3. I think the idea of introducing peer evaluation is good.
4. Detroit is making a lot of small cars now. I think that is very good. I like these
small cars and hope to save enough money to own one in a few years.
5. Our Premier is not a good person.
6. Taking too much alcohol is very dangerous.
7. Going to movies is very beneficial.
8. Many people like to watch football games every Sunday.
9. We need to develop the culture of working in groups.
10. I don’t want to work with them.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What is faulty parallelism?
 What is faulty comparison?
 How do you revise them?
Session: 5
Topic: FAULTY PARALLELISM AND COMPARISON
Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Revise sentences for faulty parallelism
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 44 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 Revise sentences for faulty comparison

Reading assignment for discussion
 What is faulty parallelism?
 What is faulty comparison?
 How do you revise them?
Lecture synopsis 1
FAULTY PARALLELISM
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more expressions which belong to different
speech parts, or word classes, or structures are used in sentences. Look carefully at the
examples beneath.
FAULTY: Last summer I learned tennis, to swim and riding a horse. (In a series of
three, one is a noun, the second is infinitive, and the third is –ing, thus spoiling the
parallelism. So we can make all of them infinitives or –ing form. IMPROVED:
a) Last summer I learned to play tennis, to swim, and to ride a horse.
b) Last summer I learned playing tennis, swimming, and riding a horse.
FAULTY: Sunday is a good day for sleeping late, eating a big breakfast, and to spend
hours reading fiction. (The third item in the series is an infinitive. It is therefore to
change to the –ing, or change the other two into infinitive.
IMPROVED: Sunday is good day to sleep late, to eat big breakfast, and to spend hours
reading fiction.
FAULTY: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street.
(The first underlined part is a prepositional phrase, and the second one is a participial
phrase).
IMPROVED: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street.
FAULTY: My grandfather was a Baptist, a republican and loved to argue.
Noun Noun Verb
IMPROVED: My grandfather was a Baptist, a Republican and an arguer.
Noun Noun Noun
FAULTY: I found him both cooperative and that he knew the work
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 45 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Adj. Dependent clause

IMPROVED: I found him both cooperative and knowledgeable.
Adj. Adj.
IMPROVED: I found that he was cooperative and that he knew the work.
EXERCISE 1
Now try to improve the following sentences in the same way.
1. A good scholar must be precise and possess originality.
2. Consider the origins of man and how he has developed.
3. This morning I went to the hairdresser, shopping at Merkato, and lunching at
Bole.
4. He was praised by the priests, flattered by the pops but the people hated him.
5. The pilot received orders to bomb the target and that he would then return
home.
6. He hoped for an increase in salary and to get a longer holiday.
7. Adane plans to study electronics and then working in his uncle’s plant in Jimma.
8. To develop the reading habit, get yourself some interesting books and
magazines, and a little reading should be done each day.
9. The ancient Egyptians had broad shoulders, narrow hips, and with finely molded
hands and feet.
10.The atmosphere of the earth bends the moon’s rays and giving a false
impression of its position in the sky.
Lecture synopsis 2
FAULTY COMPARISON
Faulty comparison occurs when wrong items are compared. Look at the
examples below:
1. Learning English in Ethiopia is different from England. (The comparison here is
made between learning English in Ethiopia, on one hand, and England on the
other. It should have been between learning English in Ethiopia, and learning
English in England.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 46 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Therefore, the sentence can be revised as:

Learning English in Ethiopia is different from learning it in England.
2. The reception on my radio is better than you. (Reception on my radio and
you are compared.) The revised version could be.
a) The reception on my radio is better than yours. Or,
b) The reception on my radio is better than the reception on your radio
EXERCISE 2
Revise the following in the same way.
1. TV commercials do not bother me as much as radio.
2. Life in Ethiopia is different from Kenya.
3. My reading styles are better than you.
4. My experience in this job is similar to my brother.
5. I like orange like you.
6. Most of my enemies are very brutal like you.
7. Many colleges and universities in Ethiopia are similar to Uganda.
8. The operation of a computer is different from a typewriter.
9. Both my sister’s dogs are very friendly like you.
10. Yabsera distastes bragging about her achievements like them.2
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What is an empty expression?
 What is a redundancy in sentences?
 How do you revise them?
Session: 6
Topic: EMPTY EXPRESSIONS AND REDUNDANCIES
Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Revise sentences for empty expressions
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 47 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 Revise sentences for redundancies

Reading assignment for discussion
 What is an empty expression?
 What is a redundancy in sentences?
 How do you revise them?
Lecture synopsis 1
EMPTY EXPRESSIONS
These are unnecessary words or phrases that add almost nothing to the meaning of a
sentence. They just make it wordy. Sentences that contain such expressions are
therefore called padded sentences.
Example
Padded: What I really want is to be an engineer.
Revised: I want to be an engineer.
(What I really… is unnecessary.)
Padded: We didn’t go to school because of the fact that there was a heavy traffic.
Revised: We didn’t go to school because there was a heavy traffic. ( Of the fact that is
unnecessary)
Padded: The point is that travel to Mars has become a reality.
Revised: Travel to Mars has become a reality (The point is that is unnecessary).
The following expressions add nothing or little to the meaning of sentences.
 due to the fact that
 because of the fact that
 owing to the fact that
 on account of the fact that
 what I mean is
 what I believe is
 what I want is
 what I want to say is, etc
EXERCISE 1
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 48 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Empty expressions
Now revise the following sentences eliminating empty expressions.
1. The reason that I called was to tell you that the meeting was cancelled.
2. Whenever it happens to rain hard, our cellar fills up with water and becomes a
lake.
3. I lied to you about the fact that I was a lawyer.
4. Due to the fact that the weather was bad, I stayed indoors and studied
5. What I really believe is that planning lies at the heart of success.
6. The thing that nobody could understand was Almaz’s fear.
7. Many people these days are dying on account of the fact that they are infected
by HIV Virus
8. You must admit that even if you don’t admire him that he okays well
9. I know that if I study hard that I can get a scholarship.
10.What I mean is that his ideas of summer camp are not realistic.

Lecture synopsis 2
REDUNDANCIES
Redundancy means repetition. There are sentences that repeat an idea and end up
where they started.
Example
Redundant: The hungry wolf ate ravenously.
Revised: The wolf ate ravenously. (‘Ravenously’ shows that the wolf was hungry. Thus
‘hungry’ is unnecessary.
Redundant: He had no friends, and so he was always alone.
Revised: He had no friends. (The second part simply repeats the first idea)
Redundant: do you have a spare pencil that you are not using?

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 49 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Revised: Do you have spare pencil: Or

Do you have a pencil that you are not using? (Spare and that you are not using mean
the same. Thus, only one of them should be maintained)
Redundant: The hot. Steamy asphalt shimmered.
Revised: The steamy asphalt shimmered. (Steamy includes hot.)
EXERCISE 2
Redundancies: Now revise the following sentences eliminating unnecessary
repetitions.
1. Friday is the final deadline for the report.
2. The descending waterfall was graceful.
3. Everyone laughed throughout the entire movie.
4. I have a minor crisis in my life, and to me it presents a problem
5. Many people don’t like going into tall skyscrapers.
6. The movie was dull, and I found it very boring.
7. Can you keep this secret confidential?
8. The observatories are open to the public and everyone is invited to see them.
9. Pieces of advice are constantly needed all of the time.
10.If you have ever been to the zoo, you know what a great time you, can have
there. The zoo is a place to visit again and again. At the zoo there is always
something new, wonderful and educational.

Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What are some of the ways in which you can begin your sentences? For
example, the most common way is with a subject.
Session: 7
Topic: VARYING SENTENCE BEGINNINGS
Session learning objectives

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 50 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

At the end of this session, students should be able to

 Vary the beginnings of their sentences
 Assess their own progress regarding revising sentences
Reading assignment for discussion
 What are some of the ways in which you can begin your sentences?
Lecture synopsis
You want people to enjoy reading what you have to say. You are therefore interested in
making your writing lively and effective. One way to achieve this is to vary the
beginnings of your sentences, to give them a new look by inverting the order of their
parts. The most natural way to begin a sentence is with the subject.
SUBJECT: The boy was caught in the pool.
ADVERB: Reluctantly, the boy fastened the collar on the bear cub.
The boy (reluctantly) fastened the collar on the bear cub.
PHRASE: a) For days he watched them. [Prepositional phrase]
He watched them for days.
b) Driving with one hand, he headed for home. [Participial phrase]
He headed for home driving with one hand.
CLAUSE: If he rode the horse with its rhythm he could ride every horse in the herd.
[Adverb Clause]
He could ride every horse in the heard if he rode the horse with its rhythm.
EXERCISE 1
Look at the additional examples below, and try the rest in the same way.
a) We can see bout 3,000 stars on a clear night.
On a clear night, we can see about 3,000 stars
b) Only the nearest and brightest stars are visible in the vast sea of stars.
In the vast sea of stars, only the nearest and brightest stars are visible.

1. Fainter and invisible stars stretch endlessly beyond the reaches of our imagination.
(Adverb)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 51 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. There are 100 billion stars in just our own galaxy, the Milky Way. (Prepositional
Phrase)
3. The Milky Way would look like a giant fried egg if we could look down on it. (adverb
clause)
4. Our sun is actually just one star in the galaxy. (adverb)
5. The Milky Way, bulging in the middle, spans 10,000 light-years at the center
(Participial Phrase-ing form)
6. Our solar system travels 250 miles per second; although we do not feel the motion.
(Adverb clause)
7. One complete orbit around the galaxy nevertheless takes 250 million years. (adverb)
8. Orbiting stars form graceful spiral arms in the outer part of the galaxy. (Prepositional
phrase)
9. One spiral arm, extending through the constellations pursues and Cassiopeia,
reaches our 7,000 light-years from the sun.(Participial phrase-ing form)
10. She left the room after eating her lunch.

EXERCISE 2: Review Exercise

Note to instructors: Before proceeding to the next topic, prepare at least 10
questions on revising sentences and ask your students to do these questions. Tell them
to correct the questions themselves out of 10 and judge where they actually are.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What do we join sentences?
 What are some of the most common methods we can use to join sentences?
 Is it possible to join sentences without using linking words?
Session: 8
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 52 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Topic: JOINING SENTENCES

Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Join sentences or sentence parts using coordination
Reading assignment for discussion
 Why do we join senescent?
 What are the most common methods we can use to join sentences?
 Is it possible to join sentences without using linking words?
Lecture synopsis 1
When we join sentences we have a definite purpose to achieve. We do not join
sentences for the sake of joining. There are two major purposes for which we do so:
first, we want to achieve coherence, or the logical flow of ideas; second, we want to
achieve brevity, that is, by bringing ideas together and avoiding repetitions, we try to
come up with short and or precise sentences. Look at the following examples which
illustrate these two major purposes:
A. She took a shower.
B. She went to the airport.
She took a shower and went to the airport.
The combined sentence shows a sequence of ideas one after the other, thus creating
coherence.
A. She bought three hand bags.
B. She also bought four leather jackets.
She bought three hand bags and four leather jackets.
Apart from showing a clear sequence of ideas, the combined sentence is also brief
because the repetition of words such as she bought is avoided.

TECHNIQUES FOR COMBINING SENTENCES

There are several ways off combining sentences:
A. Coordination
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 53 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

B. Subordination
C. Reduction
D. Appositive
E. Adjectives
Lecture synopsis 2
COORDINATION
In coordination, two sentences of equal importance are joined by ''and, ''but, ''or, or
''so, ''yet'', ''nor'' and ''for''
Linking Ideas: Addition, contrast, choice, and result.
Two sentences that state related ideas of equal importance can usually be combined
into a single statement by a comma and the word ''and''
Example
a) The storm will pass tonight. Tomorrow will be fair.
b) The storm will pass tonight, and tomorrow will be fair.
The sentence could also be joined by a semicolon
The storm will pass tonight; tomorrow will be fair.
Two sentences that express negative addition can be joined by ''nor''..

Example
a) I did not open the door.
b) My sister did not open the door.
I did not open the door nor did my sister. (Note the changes in grammar and word
order)
Two sentences that state contrast weaker contrasting ideas of equal importance can
usually be joined by a comma and the word ''but''.
a) Tomorrow will be fair. Another storm is on its way.
b) Tomorrow will be fair, butt another storm is on its way.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 54 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Two sentences that express stronger contrasting ideas can be joined by ''yet''. Or, when
the second idea or sentence expresses surprising information, the same linking word
can be used..
Example
a) I always carry a book with me.
b) I never read a single page.
I always carry a book with me, yet I never read a single page.
Two sentences that express cause effect relationships can be joined by ''for''

Example
a) Sena went to the beach.
b) Senate wanted to watch the ducks on the lake.
Sena went to the beach for she wanted to watch the ducks on the lake.
Two sentences that express a choice between ideas of equal importance usually can be
joined by a comma and the word ''or''.
a) Will the weekend be sunny? Is another storm coming?
b) Will the weekend be sunny, or is another storm coming?
Two sentences that express result are usually joined by a comma and the word ''so’
a) You can see through glass.
b) Glass is used for windows.
You can see through glass, so it is used for windows..

EXERCISE 1
Join each pair of sentences using and, but, or, or so.
1. Many people believe in UFO’s. Few have ever seen one.
2. Do I have to wear glasses? Can I wear contact Lenses?
3. My friend failed his first flying test. He became one of the most famous pilots of
his time.
4. The team’s record must improve. The coach might be fired.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 55 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

5. The force of the storm increased. The city way paralyzed.

6. He worked hard. He was promoted to the next level.
7. She denied taking the money. I am sure she was the one who was responsible
for that.
8. I play the flute. She plays the 'kirar’.
9. My dog had twelve puppies. All of them died.
10.You can take his advice which is not very good. You can try to figure out your
own solution.
11.He is a size 16. He still likes to eat much.
12.Sara is not a reliable person. Daniel is not a reliable person.
13.The teachers arrived late for the examination. The teachers missed the first train
to the school.
Joining Sentence Parts
Two sentences may express ideas that are so closely related that words are repeated in
the sentences. It is usually best to combine such sentences and eliminate the repeated.
Sentence parts with similar parts of equal importance can often be joined by ''and''
(underlined words are eliminated)
a) Abebe stepped onstage. Abebe walked to the podium.
b) Abebe stepped onstage and walked to the podium.
a) The newspapers ignored the election. TV stations ignored it, too.
b) The newspapers and TV stations ignored the election.
Sentence parts that express contrasting ideas usually can be joined by “but”
a) I arrived latte. I worked harder than anyone else.
b) I arrived latte butt worked harder than anyone else.
Sentence parts that express a choice between ideas usually can be joined by “or”.
a) Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday?
Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Friday?
b) Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday or Friday?
EXERCISE 2

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 56 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Join the related parts in each pair of sentences by following directions in

parenthesis. Eliminate the underlined words.
1. Leila called. Kedir called. (Join related parts with and)
2. The software for this system is excellent. It is expensive, though. (Join related
pats with but.)
3. Most of the popular musical groups are from Addis Ababa. Many are from Dire
Dawa. (Join related parts with or)
4. Computers fascinate some people. Computers terrify others. (Join parts with but
and replace the underlined with a pronoun).
5. Jabessa took a quick toward first base. Then Jabessa went into his windup. (Join
related parts with and).
Adding Groups of Words
Sometimes you can add a group of words without changing it. When the words give
more information about someone or something, add them near the name of the person
or thing.
a) Abay stacked the cartons. They are in the basement.
b) Abay stacked the cartons in the basement.
a) The clouds were alarming. The clouds were on the horizon.
b) The clouds on the horizon were alarming.
a) Gemechu was waiting. He was at the corner.
b) Gemechu was waiting at the corner.

EXERCISE 3
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences by adding a group of words
to the first sentence. Eliminate the underlined words.
1. The gray door leads to the main office. The door is at the end of this hall.
2. The call was from Nebiu Isayas. He is a newspaper reporter.(Use a comma )
3. The flight is from Gore. The flight is arriving at Gate 16.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 57 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

4. Brass was first produced in ancient Rome. Brass is alloy of copper and zinc.
5. The historic park contains houses and shops. The houses and shops date
back to the 18th century. (Use the-ing form of date)
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s assignment
 What does subordination as a method of joining sentences mean?
 What are some of the most common linking words used in subordination?
Session: 9
Topic: SUBORDINATION
Session learning objective
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Join sentences using subordination
Reading assignment for discussion
 What does subordination as method of joining sentences mean?
 What are some of the most common linking words used in subordination?
Lecture synopsis
In subordination one or more of the independent sentences are reduced to a dependent
or subordinate clause. One way to do this is using relative clauses in which relative
pronouns such as which, that, who, whom, whose, etc. are used.
Using Relative Pronouns
Study these facts about James Watt.
a) He was an engineer.
b) This engineer invented a steam engine.
c) His engine had a special part.
d) The part changed steam back into water.
e) Watt was born in Scotland.
f) He made his first experiments in Scotland

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 58 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Look at sentences (a) and (b). The word engineer is in both sentences. You can
join them like this.
Watt was an engineer who invented a steam engine.
The underlined part is a relative clause. In the relative clause, you replace ‘‘This
engineer’ by who.
Who is used for a person or people.
Look at how you join sentences (c) and (d).
His engine had a special part which changed steam into water.
Which is used for things.
Look at how you join sentences (e) and (f).
Watt was born in Scotland, where he made his first experiments.
Where is used for places if the place has a preposition (e.g. in, on, at, to) before it in
the second sentence. If there is no preposition, you use which.
Watt was born in Scotland. Scotland is part of Britain.
Watt was born in Scotland, which is part of Britain.
Make sure the relative clause comes immediately after the noun it describes. What is
wrong with this sentence?
The Nile flows from Lake Victoria, which is the longest river in Africa..
EXERCISE 1
Join the facts about the following personalities using relative clauses. Refer to the
example given above.
1. Gandhi
a) Gandhi was a politician.
b) He led the independence movement in India.
c) He studied in London.
d) He became a lawyer in London.
e) He went to South Africa.
f) He became a leader of the Indians in South Africa.
g) This movement won freedom from Britain in 1974.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 59 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. Columbus
a) Columbus was an explorer.
b) He crossed the Atlantic in 1492.
c) He wanted to find a sea-route to Asia.
d) Many valuable things were made in Asia.
e) He discovered a new country.
f) He discovered the country was a part of Asia.
g) He called the people Indians.
h) The people lived in the Americas.
3. Shakespeare
a. Shakespeare was a writer.
b. He was born in Stratford in 1564.
c. Stratford is a small town.
d. It is in the West of England.
e. Shakespeare wrote many plays.
f. They are still performed today.
g. He spent much of his life in London.
h. He worked in a theatre in London as a writer and actor.
Another way of subordination is using the following linking words: because, since,
however, when, although, if and so on.
EXERCISE 2
Combine the following sentences using appropriate subordinating
conjunctions.
1. Mimi came in the room. Everyone fell silent.
2. His wife had left him. His children were grown. His business was falling. He
wanted to leave for Europe.
3. I will promote him to the next level. He does his work properly.
4. There is plenty to eat. Many people are starving to death.
5. Don’t forget to call me. You see my little sister.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 60 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

6. It began to rain. Mary came in the house.

7. Many people are migrating to big cities. Many people think that life is easy in big
cities.
8. You must work hard. You want to succeed in your life.
9. There is no hard evidence for that. Many people believe that there is life after
death.
10.We will try to settle the issue once and for all. You have ample free time.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session's assignment
 What do reduction, appositive and adjectives as methods of joining sentences
mean?
 Do they involve the use of linking words? Why? Why not?
Session: 11
Topics: Reduction, Appositive and Adjectives
Session learning objectives
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Use reduction, appositive and adjectives to join sentences
Reading assignment for discussion
 What do reduction, appositive and adjectives as methods of joining sentences
mean?
 Do they involve the use of linking words? Why? Why not?
Lecture synopsis 1
REDUCTION
In reduction one of the independent clauses or sentences is reduced to a phrase: past
participle, present participle, or infinitive phrase. Look at the examples below.
a) She was annoyed by what he said.
b) She closed the door behind herself and left the room murmuring.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 61 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Annoyed by what he said, she closed the door behind herself and left the room
murmuring. (Annoyed is the past participle or verb 3 form of the verb 'annoy’)
a) We heard a loud noise outside.
b) We all went under bed.
Hearing a loud noise outside, we all went under bed. (Hearing is the present
participle or – ing form of the verb ‘hear’)
a) I went to a restaurant.
b) I saw the movie star.
I went to a restaurant to see the movie star. ‘to see the movie star’ is an infinitive
phrase because it is introduced by the infinitive form of saw with to. When you want to
express purpose in this way you can join your ideas with the infinitive phrase.
EXERCISE 1
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. She was disturbed by the death of her colleague. She didn’t come to work for
two weeks.
2. We studied for the exams very well. We felt very confident.
3. I usually had balanced diet. I did not feel ill at all.
4. I was surprised by what she said. I laughed to death.
5. I drove to town for three hours. I met my long-lost friend.
Lecture synopsis 2
APPOSITIVE
An appositive is a word, phrase or an expression that refers back to the word before
it. It is used to give more information about a certain topic of discussion, usually at
subject position. Look at the example below:
a) My hobby is playing tennis.
b) It has taught me endurance.
My hobby playing tennis has taught me endurance. The phrase playing tennis
refers back to my hobby and is therefore called an appositive. If the appositive is a

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 62 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

short expression such as this one, no commas are used but longer appositive are
usually enclosed within commas. Look at the following example:
a) Girma is a well-known human rights activist.
b) Girma was born in Nekemte.
Girma, a well-known human rights activist, was born in Nekemte.
EXERCISE 2
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. Ronaldo is a world-class football player. Ronaldo was born in Portugal.
2. 'Injera’ is a common dish in Ethiopia. 'Injera’ is said to have some iron content.
3. My new girlfriend is a very greedy person. My new girlfriend lives with me.
4. Human beings are the most complicated living beings on this planet. Human beings
are victims of their own creations.
5. Our history instructor is a very polite person. He enjoys making fun of his friends
and students alike.
Lecture synopsis 3
USING ADJECTIVES
Adjectives can be used before and after nouns and bring ideas together. Look at the
example below.
a) The horse drooped patiently in its traces.
b) The horse was old.
c) The horse was weary.
The adjectives ‘old’ and ‘weary’ refer to the horse. So, they can be placed before or
after it.
a) The horse, weary and old, drooped patiently in its traces.
b) The weary, old horse drooped patiently in its traces.
EXERCISE 3
Now try to join the following in the same way.
1. The waitress perched on the counter. The waitress was young. The waitress was
sexy.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 63 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. The puppy was lonely. The puppy was bedraggled. The puppy crouched at the
feet of the man. The man was old. The man kicked it away.
3. The man gathered the boy into his arms. The man was old. The man was grief-
stricken.
4. Police officials returned from a tour. The police officials were American. The tour
was of Japan.
5. The woman took the boy to a hospital. The woman was polite. The woman was
kindhearted.
Wrap discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Note to instructors: please, prepare about 10 questions to check your students' on
joining sentences.
Ask them to self-concept and see where they actually are
Next session's assignment
 What are the major steps you should follow to write a single paragraph or a
group of paragraphs called an essay?
Sessions: 11 and 12
Topic: THE PROCESS OF WRITING (PRE-WRITING)
Session learning objective
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Carry out the major activities in the pre-writing stage
Reading assignment for discussion
 What are the major steps you should follow to write a single paragraph or a
group of paragraphs called an essay?
Lecture synopsis
Effective paragraph or essay writing is conceived as a process. Thus, before you
embark on the actual writing of a paragraph or an essay, there are certain basic things
you should take care of. Even after you have written your paragraph or composition,
the writing does not end there. You will still be concerned with revising for more quality
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 64 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

products. It is therefore to this end that this and subsequent sessions are devoted. The
discussion is these sessions relates to paragraph writing. Essay writing will be dealt with
in the last sessions of the course.
The process of writing consists of three stages:
1. Pre-writing
2. Writing the First Draft, and
3. Revising
PRE-WRITING
The first stage in the writing process is called pre-writing. During this stage you
generate ideas, all low your thoughts to take shape, and arrive at an organized plan for
writing. In short, it is a stage at which you prepare a detailed outline for your
paragraph. Pre- writing involves five major activities:
A. Choosing and Limiting Your Topic
Your first goal during pre-writing is to think of possible subjects. As you explore your
interests and experiences, jot down all ideas that come to mind. Make lists or just write
freely for a few minutes, letting your mind lead from one thought to the next. Your
scattered thoughts will soon take the shape of clear ideas.
To produce a list of possible topics for your writing, being by asking yourself the
following wh- questions::
I. What do I know about?
II. What would I like to learn more?
III. What is happening to me or around me that I could observe or record?
The answers to these questions may provide you with possible topics for your paper..
In general, you are advised to
 Choose a subject that interests you.
 Choose a subject that will interest your audience.
 Choose a subject you know enough about now or can learn about later.

EXERCISE 1

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 65 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

a. Thinking of Subjects
For the following partial sentences, suggest possible topics.
1. Outside of school, I have learned how to -----------------
2. My hobbies are ---------------------------------------------
3. The sports and games I most enjoy are -----------------
4. The careers that interest me that most are ------------
5. My jobs around the house include -----------------------
6. The TV shows I like the most are about -----------------
7. The people I admire most are ------------------------------
8. Places I would like to visit are -----------------------------
9. The things I have done to earn more money are --------
10. I’ve always wondered why -----------------------------------
Limiting your Topic
Once you have chosen a subject,, the next step is to limit it.. Limit your subject so that
it can be adequately covered in one paragraph. The following chart shows examples of
general subjects that have been gradually limited or narrowed
GENERAL SUBJECT MORE LIMITED SUBJECT
Games, board games, chess
Football, backs, running backs
Sports basketball fouls
Novels, Fikir Eske Mekabir, the character Gudu Kassa
Trees, sequoias, age of sequoias
THE LIMITED SUBJECT does not mean it is narrow enough to be dealt within a single
paragraph. You need to focus your thoughts by expressing the main idea in a phrase.
MAKE SURE THAT YOUR LIMITED TOPIC DEALS WITH ONLY ONE ASPECT OF THE
ORIGINAL VERSION.
E.g. Limited Subject: Basketballs Fouls
Focus: Why players sometimes commit Fouls on purpose.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 66 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Now “Why players sometimes commit Fouls on purpose” is a more limited topic/ subject
that can be used for writing a paragraph. Your purpose in writing therefore will not be
anything else, butt to try to answer the question “why players sometimes commit fouls
on purpose.”
b. Limiting Subjects

EXERCISE 2
Make three columns on your paper and label them General subject, More Limited, and
Limited Subject.
Example: Cars
General Subject More Limited Subject
1. Cars old cars Ford model T
Then you can focus on one aspect of the limited subject.
Example: Ford Model T
Focus: Ford Model T as the cheapest car.
1. Music 6. Languages
2. Agriculture 7. Villages
3. Education 8. Starvation
4. Culture 9. Food
5. Religion 10. Corruption
c. Limiting Subjects
Look at the example below and narrow down the subjects as required.
a) The Spread of AIDS in Africa
b) The Spread of AIDS in Ethiopia
c) The Spread of AIDS in Addis Ababa
d) The Spread of AIDS in Bole Sub-city
e) The Support Given to AIDS patients in My Kebele.
If you carefully look at the example above, you can see that the first general or broad
subject is logically narrowed down in descending order (Starting with the most general

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 67 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

subject and ending with a more or less narrowed topic appropriate for paragraph
writing).
EXERCISE 3
Narrow the following broad subjects at least 4 or 5 steps down.
a) Marriage
b) Culture
c) War
d) Books
e) Cities
B. Deciding on Your Purpose
Once you have selected and limited your topic, you can limit it by deciding exactly what
you want to say about your topic. Do you want to analyze it? Describe it? Explain it?
Criticize it? Defend it? You must also decide what purpose your paragraph will have. Do
you want to inform? Entertain? Persuade? You main even write a purpose statement,
which you would use for your own consumption. This would help to be more focused,
and not to be outside it when you embark on the actual writing process.
Example: Ford Model T
Focus: Why Ford Model T was so popular
Purpose: to explain (by providing reasons) about the popularity of Ford Model T.
In paragraph writing,, you achieve ONLY ONE PURPOSE.. THIS IS CALLED
UNITY OF PURPOSE. Your purpose is to NARRATE, DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN or
PERSUADE.
EXERCISE 4
Write a purpose for each of the following focused topics
1. How hard the human heart works
2. What UFO’s are
3. The Benefits of owning a pet
4. The importance of self-confidence
5. School sprit at our school

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 68 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

6. The worst day of my life

7. My dream bedroom
C. Identifying Your Audience
Nott only should you determine the effect you wish to create on your readers,, you
must also pinpoint who those readers are. Your audience will indicate the type of
vocabulary and level of language you should use.
Ask yourself the following questions:
 What do my readers already know?
 How familiar are they with my topic?
 What are their attitudes or opinions toward it?
For example, if you choose the topic ‘Nuclear Physics’ with a teenager in mind, you will
definitely find out that the topic would be inappropriate for two main reasons: firstly,
conceptually, it is difficult for a teenager, also, the words you will use would be quite
technical, and can’t be understood by the teenager. Thus, you should always consider
the age and maturity of your readers, among other things.
D. Gathering Your Supporting Information
Once you have limited your subject, and decided on your audience and purpose, the
next step is to list details//supporting ideas that will help you explain or develop it.
There are many kinds of details that may be used to develop a paragraph. This will be
discussed under ‘Methods of development’ elsewhere in this course material. The choice
depends on the purpose of the paragraph and kinds of questions a reader may have
about the subject.
The focus of your subject often offers a clue to the kinds of details you should use. In
the following examples, the focus calls for facts.
Example 1
LIMITED SUBJECT: The Heart
FOCUS: How hard the human heart works
FACTS: *aircraft and weather balloons.
 Pumps a little more than 5 quarts of blood each minute.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 69 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 In an average lifetime,, beats 3 billion time

The ideas under ‘Facts’ and ‘examples’ above are called details//supporting ideas that
can be used to develop or explain the focused subject
EXERCISE 5
List four details or supporting ideas for each of the following focused subject
1. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The Appearance of my Friend
DETAILS:
2. FOCUSED SUBJECT: How to get Ready for Exams
DETAILS:
3. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Things to do in National Parks
DETAILS:
4. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The benefits of owning a cat
DETAILS:
5. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The important of self-confidence
DETAILS:
6. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Why I remember yesterday
DETAILS:
7. FOCUSED SUBJECT: My Favorite Teachers
DETAILS:
8. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Places to see buffalo
DETAILS:
9. FOCUSED SUBJECT: People whose names became words
DETAILS:
10. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Classes that tenth graders take
DETAILS:
E. Evaluating and Organizing Your Information
Looking at your lists and notes, evaluate their content. Are there any unrelated details
that should be deleted? Are there details to be added for clarity? Next, decide how your
material can most effectively be organized. What would be a clear order off this

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 70 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

particular type of information? What would make the most sense to your readers? The
details of a simple story, for example, would probably be organized in the order in
which they occurred.. The arguments of a persuasive piece would be arranged to build
up to the most powerful argument.
Example
The following example contains all the four steps we have so far seen. But the details
are not logically arranged. This means the last step is not taken care of. The writer has
simply listed his//her ideas without paying attention to which should come first, and
which should come next.

Focused Subject: Muscles Helped by swimming front Crawl

Purpose: to give factual information
Audience: My science class friends
Details:-
 leg muscles in kicking
 arm and chest muscles in reaching
 waist and lower back inside to side motion
 Neck in breathing motion
The details therefore need to be rearranged in some way. For example:
 Neck in breathing motion
 Arm and chest muscles in reaching
 Waist and lower back in side to side motion
 Leg muscles in kicking.
The arrangement here starts from the neck, and logically moves to the leg. The reverse
can also give sense.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises and the steps under the pre-writing stage
Next session's assignment

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 71 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 What is the next thing you have to do once you have a detailed plan or outline
for your paragraph?
Session: 13
Topic: THE PROCESS OF WRITING (WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT OF A
PARAGRAPH)
Session learning objective
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 Write the first draft of different paragraphs using outlines they prepare at the
pre-writing stage
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is the next tithing you have to do once you have a detailed planning or
outline for your paragraph?
Lecture synopsis
After pre-writing, you are ready for the next stage of the writing process: writing the
first draft. The first draft should contain all the elements of a paragraph: a topic
sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. At this stage, you should
not worry about details such as spelling and punctuation. You will have the opportunity
to correct these and other errors during revision. Remember, a first draft is not a final
product. Even professional writers complete several drafts of any piece of writing before
they are satisfied.
A. Writing a Topic sentence
Earlier we have pointed out that a topic sentence is one of the elements of your first
draft. By the time you are ready to write a topic sentence, you already have some
prewriting notes that include your focused subject and organized list of details. You can
now use those notes to write a clear topic sentence. A topic sentence should express
the main idea of your paragraph and bind together all the supporting details. Suppose
you had decided to write about whales. Your pre-writing notes might look like this.
FOCUSED SUBJECT: Spouts of the great whales
Details:-

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 72 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 different spouts for different whales

 blue whale-tall and slender spout
 gray whale-law and bushy
 right whale-V-shaped,, like a heart
 sperm whale -Spout blown forward at an angle
If you next try to express the main idea in one sentence, you might write the following.
Whale watchers can tells one kind of great whale from another by the shape
of its spout.
This can then be followed by supporting sentences which are written using the details
already organized.

B. Writing Supporting Sentences

When you are satisfied with your topic sentence, you can move on to the body of the
paragraph. The body is made up of supporting sentences. You will use your list of
supporting details to write the body of your paragraph.

The above details can be written as the body of the first draft. Blue whales have tall
and slender spout. Gray whales have low and bushy spouts. Right whales have V-
shaped spout which is like a heart. Sperm whales have spout blown forward at angle.

C. Writing a Concluding Sentence

Many paragraphs within a longer piece of writing do not need a concluding sentence.
Each paragraph moves smoothly into the next one. A paragraph that stands alone,
however, often does not seem complete without a concluding sentence. To write a
concluding sentence which summarizes the paragraph, read over the topic sentence
and body of your paragraph. For example, the following concluding sentence might be

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 73 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

written for the above topic sentence and details. The spouts therefore give the whale
watchers something to cheer about.
EXERCISE 1. Use the following limited topic to write the first draft of a
paragraph. First complete the blank outline provided.
Topic: The practical benefits of computers
Topic sentence: ______________________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
Supporting sentence
1:________________________________________________________
Examples: a) _____________________
b) _____________________
Supporting sentence
2:___________________________________________________________
Examples: a) ___________________
b) ___________________
Supporting sentence
3: ___________________________________________________
Example: a) _________________
b) __________________
Supporting sentence
4:_____________________________________________________
Examples a) ____________
b) ____________
Concluding sentence: _____________________________________________________
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s assignment
 How do you revise your draft paragraph? What are the aspects you should focus
on in revising or improving your draft paragraph?

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 74 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Session: 14
Topic: REVISING
Session Learning Objective
At the end of this session, students should be able to
 revise the draft paragraph(s) they have written
Reading assignment for discussion
 How do you revise your draft paragraph? What are the aspects you should focus
on in revising or improving your draft paragraph?
Lecture Synopsis
The third stage of the writing process is call led revising. During this stage, you are
expected to improve your first drafts. As you revise, look at your paragraph with a fresh
eye as if you are looking at it for the first time. You can ask yourself the following
questions:
1. Did I stick to my topic?
2. Did I include everything I wanted?
3. Are there any unrelated or unnecessary details?
4. Could any details be added to clarify or improve my writing?
5. Does my paragraph have a clear structure? (Topic, topic sentence, supporting
sentences and concluding sentence)
6. Are my supporting ideas enough and specific, and help me develop the main
idea in the topic sentence?
7. Did I use the correct format for my paragraph?(hand written paragraph should
be indented only once)
8. Is the length of my paragraph reasonable?(i.e.100-200 words)
9. Also, focus on the following to see if you have properly putt them to use;
o spelling
o punctuation
o capitalization
o tense
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 75 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

o agreement (subject-verb)
o appropriate use of connectives, etc..
10. Have I accomplished my purpose?
Finally, when you are satisfied that your writing is clear and correct, you are ready to
prepare your final copy. When you have completed your final copy, proofread your
work again.
Final Copy
Spouts of the Great Whales
Whale watchers can tells one kind of great whale from another by the shape of its
spout. For example, a blue whale has a very totally and slender spout, butt a gray one
owns a low and bushy spout. Right whales tend to have V-shaped spout, like the
human heart. The sperm whale has a spout blown forward at an angle. Such spouts
therefore give whale watchers something to cheer about.
Though this is a final copy, it does not mean that it can never be improved..
Exercise 1: revise the paragraph you have written on” The practical benefits of
computers” using the above guidelines.

Wrap up Discussion
 Feedback on the above exercise
Next session’s reading assignment
 What is a paragraph?
 What are the basic characteristics of effective paragraphs?
Sessions: 15, 16, 17 and 18
Topic: ESSENTIALS OF PARAGRAPH WRITING: Characteristics of Effective
Paragraphs
Session Learning Objective
At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 Define a paragraph
 Describe the characteristics of effective paragraphs
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 76 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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 Compose appropriate topic sentences

 Identify stray/irrelevant sentences from a paragraph
 Re-arrange jumbled sentences
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is a paragraph?
 What are the basic characteristics of effective paragraphs?
Lecture synopsis
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that presents and develops one main idea.
A good paragraph is well organized (there is a logical flow of ideas), properly linked,
and fully developed (with the help of examples, facts, or statistics). A paragraph usually
begins with an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the
main idea to be developed. However, a typical paragraph quite often has about one
hundred word to 200 words. Every word, every sentence, and every point in a
paragraph should have a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. In
short, the essential features of paragraph writing are structure, purpose, unity,
coherence, development (completeness), emphasis, length and format.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
Look at how a good paragraph is structured:
Geometry has a great many practical applications in the world around us. Bridges,
skyscrapers, Cloverleaf intersections, and railroads depend upon geometric principles
for their constructions. Even a small ten-foot bridge built to span a gulley would not
stand the strain unless geometric principles had been applied. Without blue prints,
based on plane geometry, new homes could not be designed, vehicles could not be
built, and even floor lamps could not be mass-produced. Your watch is a perfect
demonstration off geometric principles in action. Scouts use geometry for finding the
distance across a river or the height off a tree. Geometry does indeed play an important
role inhuman life.
The main idea of this paragraph is presented in the first sentence. This sentence is
called the topic sentence. It contains one main idea. The other sentences expand or
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develop the main idea-the practical applications of geometry-with specific examples.

These are called supporting sentences or developers. The last sentence, by
returning to the main idea, makes the paragraph complete. It is called the concluding
sentence. All the sentences contribute to one main idea, and thus unity is maintained.
The main idea-Geometry has a great many practical applications in the world
around us- is well explained with the help of developers (supporting sentences).Thus,
it is a well-developed paragraph. To make sure that your message will be understood,
learn to write paragraphs with a clear topic sentence, a body of supporting sentences,
and an effective concluding sentence.
INDENTAION
The first sentence of a paragraph is always indented so that the reader will know that
new subject—or a different aspect of the same subject –is being dealt with. The writer
does this by leaving a blank space at the beginning of the paragraph. Think of
indentation as simply another kind of punctuation. Just as a sentence ends with a
period (.), so each new paragraph begins with an indentation. If you are not already
familiar the idea of indentation, be sure to study the following diagram very carefully.
Indentation is very common in hand-written paragraphs. Type-written paragraphs often
leave some recognizable space between paragraphs to indicate the beginning of a new
idea:
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
LENGTH

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 78 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

A Paragraph may vary in length. Some paragraphs are quite short; others are extremely
long. Most paragraphs have more than three sentences in them and usually have
between 100 and 200 words. Take a look at the above paragraph to see if this is true.
However, it is important to note that the fact that you have written a paragraph of this
length does not necessarily mean that it is an effective one: you should make sure that
you have properly developed the paragraph.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE
EXERCISE 1
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is the proper “punctuation” for a paragraph?
Where is it located in the paragraph?
3. How long should a paragraph be?
TOPIC VERSUS TOPIC SENTENCE
As we have already said, the first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic
sentence. You may have noticed in your reading of certain English texts that it is
possible to place the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph (as a kind of
conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of link between the two parts. It is even
possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case, we say that the topic sentence
is implied or suggested. Be aware of these possibilities when you read; otherwise, you
might miss the point which the author is trying to make. Even then the best potion for
the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph. When you write, however,
remember that topic sentence placed at the beginning of paragraph is the clearest kind
of paragraph organization simple, effective, easy for you to manage, and easy for your
reader to understand. What makes a good topic sentence? The most important thing to
remember at this point is that in a topic sentence always tries to make a statement
about your topic which limits it to a certain extent:
Topic Sentence = TOPIC+ LIMITING STATEMENT
Take, for example, the general topic of soccer. There are too many things to say about
soccer to put into a single paragraph. Therefore, your problem as a writer consists of

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 79 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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deciding how you want to write about soccer. In other words, you need to limit your
discussion. One good way to limit your topic is to place keywords or phrases in the topic
sentence. These words of phrase will let the reader know how you are going to discuss
the topic. These words or phrases are sometimes called controlling words or phrases,
since they control the organization of the paragraph.
In a paragraph on soccer, for example, they will immediately indicate to the reader that
you plan to do one of several things:
o Discuss the history of soccer
o Compare it with another sport
o Describe its difficulty
o Explain the rules of the game
LIMITING A TOPIC SENTENCE
How do you limit a topic in a topic sentence? There are many ways, but the following is
a list of the most common ones. Note that these are the methods you have used to
limit or narrow your topics at the pre-writing stage. IF YOU HAVE NOT PROPERLY
LIMITED YOUR TOPIC, THIS IS WHERE YOU CAN TAKE CARE OF THAT.

Topic Statement which limits the topic

1. Soccer is now played in the Unite States.(Place)
2. Soccer has become more popular within the last five years.
(Time or period of time)
3. Soccer is a physically demanding sport.(Quality)
4. Soccer and football have a great deal in common. (Showing similarities)
5. Soccer is more dangerous than tennis. (Showing differences)
6. A soccer player can receive various kinds of penalties during a
game. (Number of things; a list)
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7. The world cup
TEFL)
Soccer Champion-
Ship Games create interest from soccer fans all over the world.
(Effect)
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EXERCISE 2: Answer the following questions.

What are eight kinds of statements which a writer can use to limit his/her topic?
a) _______________________ e. ______________________________
b) _______________________ f. ______________________________
c) _______________________ g. _______________________________
d)_______________________ h. _______________________________
EXERCISE 3: Identifying Categories Which Limit Topic Sentences
Directions: Notice the controlling words and phrases which have been
underline in the example sentence. They have also been identified as to type.
Notice also that it is possible to have more than one category in a single topic sentence.
After you have studied the example, do the same for the remaining sentences. Choose
from the eight categories.
1. Place 3. Quality 5. Differences 7. Effect
2. Time 4. Similarities 6. Number 8. Cause
1. Soccer has become increasingly popular in the United States in the last ten years.
(quality) (place) (time)
2. Team sports develop an athlete’s sense of fair play.
( )
3. Libraries have three basic kinds of materials.
( )
4. Women are paid less for equal work than men in certain U.S. companies.
( )( )
5. Pollution has caused three major problems in our town in the last five years.

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( )( )( )( )
6. Air travel is more convenient than train travel for at least three reasons.
( )( )( )
Before you actually begin to write a paragraph, it is usually a good idea to plan what
you want to say about your general topic. One way to plan is to explore the topic by
making a list of the things that come to your mind when you ask yourself questions
about your topic. Using the topic soccer as an example, you might want to ask
questions according to the categories we have already discussed.
Where is soccer played?
In Europe in Asia
In Africa in the U.S
When is soccer played?
World Cup Games Olympics
Scheduled leagues warm season
After school on weekends
How can soccer be described?
Fast uniforms
Players dangerous
Rules popular
Ball field
Plays penalties
Is soccer similar to any other game?
American football
Rugby
Lacrosse
Is soccer different from these games?
Yes- each in different ways
How many players are on a soccer team?
Eleven

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 82 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

What are the effects of playing soccer?

Athletic skill good shape
Admired by fans publicity
Sense of fair play
Why do people play soccer?
Fun
Popular
Good exercise
Of course, it would not be possible to write about all of the things on your list in one
paragraph. Therefore, after you have compiled your list, you will want to select key
words chosen from one to three categories fit together logically. Usually, key words
chosen from one to three categories will be adequate to limit your topic to the kind of
information which can be developed in one paragraph.
Notice that in the soccer example, we can choose from among the answers to our
questions to formulate all of the topic sentences shown in the box. Keep in mind that,
depending on the general topic you are working with, it is not always possible to ask
and answer questions in all of the categories.
For instance, you probably would not want to ask whether smoking is similar to
anything else. Likewise, you will probably use the number category only to place a limit
on places, time, similarities, differences, causes, and effects.
EXERCISE 4: THE TOPIC SENTENCE
Guided Practice in Exploring Your Topic
Directions: Working alone or in small groups, make a list of all the possible answers
you can think of the following questions about a famous leader with whom you are
familiar. Then, selecting key words and phrases from at least two categories, formulate
two different topic sentences.
1. Where did he/she work, live, and die?
2. When did he/she live?
3. What kind of person was he/she like?

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4. Was he/she similar to other leaders? How?

5. Was he/she different from other leader? How?
6. What were the effects of his/her work?
7. Why is he/she well known?
EXERCISE 5: Exploring Your Topic
Directions: work alone or in small groups and ask questions based on the categories
about the following topics. All of the topics are too general to write about in one
paragraph. After you have answered the questions select key words or phrases for each
topic from the categories. Then, for each topic, write two completely different topic
sentences which might be developed into two completely different paragraphs. In
parentheses beneath the topic sentences, indicate what categories you have used. Your
topic sentences should look like those in the example.
Example:
Topic: soccer
1. There are many reasons for soccer’s increased popularity
(Number) (Description)
2. Latin Americans generally prefer soccer to football.
(Place) (Differences)
Choose a Topic
1. supermarkets
2. smoking
3. study habits
4. problems between generations’
5. registration process at a university

EXERCISE 6: WRITING TOPIC SENTENCES

Directions: working alone, formulate questions about the following topic based on the
categories. Then write three separate topic sentences about the topic. When you have

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finished, compare your sentences with those of some of your classmates to decide
whether you have limited the topic adequately.
Topic: Foreign Students at Addis Ababa University
Lecture synopsis
SUPPORTING SENTENCES
(PARAGRAPH UNITY)
Remember that besides the topic sentence, paragraph includes several other sentences
which in some way contribute to or support the idea in the topic sentence. In other
words, all these sentences must be related to the topic and must therefore refer back to
the topic sentence. Notice the arrows in the following diagram:

PARAGRAPH

Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

And so forth

It is possible, of course, that some sentences may be directly related to the preceding
supporting sentences (that is, they provide examples, details, or further explanation)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 85 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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PARAGRAPH

Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence
Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

EXERCISE 7: Answer the questions below.

1. What must all supporting sentences do?
2. What is illustrated by the arrows in the two previous diagrams?
(The first diagram)
If a paragraph does all this—that is, (I) if it announces its main idea in the topic
sentence, and (2) if all the supporting sentences contribute to the reader’s
understanding of the main idea—we say that a paragraph is unified, or that it has unity.
If the paragraph fails to do this, we say that it lacks unity. In the following paragraph,
two sentences that destroy the unity are underlined. Read the paragraph twice –once
with the sentences that stray and once without. Notice that the revised paragraph is
easier to understand.
Candlelight
Candles, which go back to prehistoric times, were a chief source off light for 2, 000
years. The first candle may have been discovered by accident when a piece of wood or
cord fell into a pool off lighted fat. In ancient times, crude candles were made from fats

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wrapped in husks or moss. Early people also used torches. Latter, a wick was placed
inside a candle mold and melted wax was poured into the mold. The first lamps used a
dish off oil and a wick. Candles could be used to carry light from place to place and
could be stored indefinitely Study the following paragraph. It lacks unity. Before reading
the explanation which follows, can you figure out why it is not unified? (The sentences
have been numbered only to make the discussion easier. Do not number sentences like
this when you write a paragraph?)
1. There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next
year. 2. Applying to a college is a terribly complicated process. 3 some of my friends
chose colleges for very bad reasons. 4. John has never been to college. 5. l’ve met his
grandfather, and he still has an incredibly sharp mind for a man of his age. 6. Susan
chose a university because the food in the region was said to be quite good. 7. Susan is
really not too clever, I suppose, so I shouldn’t criticize her. 8. Actually, I think it was her
father who made the choice for her.

Did you notice that none of the preceding sentences actually discusses the topic which
was announced in the topic sentence? The paragraph was supposed to be about the
writer’s two main reasons for choosing Bingston University. However, we are never told
the reasons. The author mentions many unrelated things-his friend John, John’s
grandfather, his friend Susan, Susan’s stupidity, and so forth-but not the two reasons
for choosing Bingston University! If we wanted to show this by means of a diagram of
the paragraph, we might do it this way:
A PARAGRAPH WHICH LACKS UNITY
Topic sentence
1 … two main reasons …

(The author never mentions the reasons!)

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If we wanted to keep the same topic sentence and rewrite the paragraph in a more
unified fashion, we might end up with something like this:

There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next
year. 2. First of all there is the question of money: Bingston’s tuition is reasonable, and
I don’t even have to pay it all at once. 3. This is very important, since my father is not a
rich man. 4. With Bingston’s deferred payment plan, my father will be able to pay my
tuition without too much difficulty. 5. The second reason is the fine education, which I
feel I will receive there in agriculture, my chosen field. 6. It is a well-known fact that
Bingston hires only the finest professors in its Agriculture Department. 7. Moreover, the
University requires all agriculture students to gain practical experience by working on
local farms while they are still going to school.

Notice that in the rewritten paragraph, the writer gives us both reasons and comments
on both of them. Nothing is extra. Nothing is irrelevant to the topic announced in the
topic sentence. The paragraph is unified. This means that the reader will have to
trouble quickly understanding what the writer is trying to say.
Now Ask Yourself
 How are sentences 2 and 5 related to the topic sentence? ________________
EXERCISE 8: IDENTIFYING SUITABLE TOPIC SENTENCES
Directions: After reading each of the following paragraphs, select the most suitable
topic sentence from the three choices following it, and write the sentence which you
have selected in the blank. Then try to explain why each of the other two items is not
appropriate. Follow the example. Possible reasons for not choosing an item might be
that:
It is too general.
It is too specific
It is not a complete grammatical sentence.

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It does not relate to the supporting sentences.

Example
1. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling. Where
Britons end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the same words with - ce
(British practice versus American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British
preference for final –re over the American –er (metre versus meter). Finally, most
Americans consider neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton characteristically adds a u
and spells the word neighbor.
2.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. British and American English are not the same.
B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling
C. The endings of British and American words are not the same.
2. __________________________________________. The operation of both devices
can be thought of as being divided into three phases: input, processing, and output. In
the case of the computer, the information which is fed into the machine__ the data is
the input; the internal operations of the machine constitute the processing; and the
result__ usually a printout__ is called the output. The telephone, too, acts on
information presented to it and produces a result. The input is the actual dialing of the
number. The switching system which locates the number can be considered the
processing phase. Finally, the telephone rings on the other end of the line, indicating
that the call has been completed; this constitutes the output.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.
B. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in other
contexts.

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C. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the telephone
has much in common.
3. ___________________________________. The jack is a portable device for rising
the car. It operates by means of fore applied to a level on which the car is balanced.
The lug wrench is a tool with a fixed “jaw” for gripping the lug (the type of screw used
to hold a tire in place). It has a long handle so that it is effective in turning the lug,
either to tighten of to loosen it. These two tools, which are necessary to change a tire,
are usually found in the trunk of the car and are kept there at all times so that the
motorist can use them in case of a flat tire.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.
B. How to change a flat tire.
C. The two tools necessary to change a tire are considered standard equipment on
new U.S. automobiles.
4. ________________________________________________. The first one is the small
pocket dictionary. Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgments of earlier, more
comprehensive dictionaries. The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are usually
rather sketchy, and few or no example sentences re given to help the international
student understand how the word is actually used in a sentence. Equally inadequate is
the bilingual dictionary (Thai-English, Spanish-English, Russian- English, and so forth).
This type of dictionary is often based on the idea of making word-for- word translations,
a notion which shows no understanding of the idiomatic nature of all languages.
Moreover, bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled, as well as
hopelessly out of date even before they are published.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for international students.
B. Some dictionaries aren’t comprehensive enough.
C. The worst kind of dictionaries.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 90 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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5. _________________________. In 1980, there were approximately 25 million

Americans who were sixty-five or older. By the late 1980s, the number of these senior
citizens had risen to over 30 million. This trend toward an increasingly older population,
attributed largely to better health care, is expected to continue. In fact, the U.S. Census
Bureau projects that the number of elderly Americans in the year 2020 will reach over
50 million, double the 1980 figure.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. The population of older people in the United States has and will probably
continue to increase rapidly.
B. The increasing population of senior citizens.
C. Health care in the United States is getting better for older people.
6. _________________________. Infants usually satisfy this very basic need in the
course of an ordinary day spent with their parents (feeding, kissing, bathing, and so
forth). However, if a baby is neglected or even mistreated by being deprived of touch,
his or her development will suffer on all levels physically, intellectually, and emotionally.
Some children have even been known to die from this lack of tactile stimulation; many
doctors think that many unexplained “crib deaths” are directly related to lack of touch
and its various consequences. Children given up for adoption at a tender age and
placed in poorly run orphanages, children brought up by unaffectionate parents, and
children whose parents touch then only to beat them-__ all these types of children run
the risk of never reaching their potential as fully developed adults.
Choose a Topic Sentence
A. Babies interacting daily with their parents.
B. Physical contact is an important factor in an infant’s overall development.
C. Many children are not properly taken care of by their parents.
EXERCISE 9: SUPPLYING APPROPRIATE TOPIC SENTENCES
Directions: The topic sentences of each of the following paragraphs have been
omitted. After a careful reading, write an appropriate topic sentence for each.

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Notice that the general topics of these paragraphs are the same as those in the
previous exercise.
1.____________________________________________.When you have removed the
hub cup from the wheel which has the flat, correctly place the jack to lift the car off the
ground. Now you are ready to jack up the car high enough for the tire to clear the
ground. After you have done that, carefully loosen the nuts that hold the tire and rim in
place; the tool you use to do that is called a lug wrench. Remove the tire in place. Now
you are ready to put the nuts back on the wheel and tighten then as firmly as you can
with the lug wrench. All that remains is to replace the hubcap, lower the cat to the
ground, give the nuts a final tightening and remove the jack.
2._______________________________________________________.The one most
people are familiar with is the “desk dictionary,” sometimes referred to as a general-
purpose dictionary. Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary, which is concerned with
a word’s pronunciation more than with its meaning. A third type is the bilingual
dictionary, which lists the words in one language and attempts to give equivalent
meanings in another language. Other types include technical dictionaries, special
purpose dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.
3._______________________________________________________________. Under
this system, the customer’s monthly telephone bill includes specific information for each
long-distance call”: the date and time of each call, the rate charged per minute (based
on the company’s discount system), the length of time the call was direct-dialed or
operator-assisted, and the amount charged for the call. As each call is placed, all of this
information is fed into a computer and programmed onto each customer’s billing card,
thus simplifying and clarifying the entire billing process. The telephone company hopes
that its billing procedure will reduce the number of inquiries and free its employees to
do work which computers are not yet able to perform.
4. ____________________________________________________________. Surveys
indicate that Social Security benefits constitute the main source of income 9about 37
percent) for retired Americans who are over sixty-five years of age. The Social Security

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system, which is a fund financed jointly by workers, employers, and the federal
government, provides monthly payments to retired persons and pays for some of their
medical bills. Earnings from part-time jobs account for approximately 25 percent of the
income of retired Americans. Almost half of the retired population works on a part-time
basis, and most do so at a lower salary than they earned before retirement. Assets,
including property, stocks, and money saved during working years provide another 23
percent of retirement income. Surprisingly, money from pensions (retirement plans)
supplies only 13 percent of retirees’ total fiscal support. The remaining 2 percent is
attributed to other unspecified sources.
5. ____________________________________________________________. It will
teach you how to pronounce new words correctly. It will also show you the correct
spellings of these words. Most dictionaries will then give you certain important
grammatical information about each word__ whether it is a noun or an adjective, for
example, or how the past tense of a verb is spelled. Many dictionaries will also give the
etymology came from. But perhaps most importantly, a dictionary tells you what a word
means. Most words have several meanings, and a good dictionary helps you to
understand the word in all its different meanings by giving you clear definitions and
useful examples.
6. ______________________________________________________. In some cultures,
the act of touching another person is considered very intimate and is therefore reserved
for people who know each other very well. In the United States, for example, young
children are taught that it is rued to stand too close to people. By the time they are
adults, Americans have learned to feel most comfortable when standing at about arm’s
length away from people to whom they are talking. And many Americans do not touch
each other with great frequency while talking (this is particularly true of men). In
contrast, other cultures have more relaxed rule regarding touching. For example, it is
usual for friends-both men and women -to embrace each other when they meet. When
they talk, they touch each other more often. They are as mush at ease doing this as

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Americans are with more space between them, and they feel just as uncomfortable with
Americans’ “touching rules” as Americans feel with theirs.
7. ________________________________________________________. First, with a
word processor it is possible to type over a word or words that you want to change,
while with a standard typewriter it is necessary either to erase or use correction fluid or
tape and then type in the corrections. The second advantage is that you can add words
or sentences in the middle of a paragraph and then command the computer to put your
text back in proper paragraph form. When using a standard typewriter, the only way to
add new information is to retype the entire paragraph. A third benefit of using a
computer to write is that you can move entire paragraphs within longer papers simply
by pushing a key. With a typed text, this can be accomplished only with scissors and
paste, which produces sloppy-looking work.
8. ___________________________________________________________. To begin
with, this sense seems so essential to us that we have at least four common verbs in
English to describe various ways of using our eyes. We can look, we can glance (look
quickly and then look away), we can stare (look for a long time, perhaps rudely), and
we can glare (stare angrily). We sometimes equate this sense with intellectual
understanding. When we understand what someone is saying, we might say, “I see
what you mean.” We also use the sense of sight in the opposite way, that is, to suggest
lack of understanding. When we don’t understand something, we say that we are “in
the dark”; and in a situation which we cannot (and perhaps even stubbornly refuse to)
understand, our friends might accuse us of being “blind to the truth.” Lack or light (and
therefore of sight as well) is sometimes even associated with unpleasant character
traits: a gloomy person is too serious, and a particularly unpleasant person is said to
have a “dark side” to his or her personality. The presence of light, however __whether
applied to a person’s character or to life in general __suggests hope and optimism.
When we are feeling pessimistic about things, our friends remind us to “look on the
bright side,” or they comfort us with assurances that “every cloud has a silver lining.”
Lecture Synopsis

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METHODS OF ORGANIZATION/WAYS OF ACHIEVING COHERENCE

Once you have gathered information and ideas for your paragraph, it is important to
decide on a good order for presenting them. An orderly and logical presentation is
helpful to your readers. In other words, you should be able to create coherence (the
logical flow of ideas one after the other) by arranging the specific details in a sensible
order.. This will help your readers to understand how your ideas are related to each
other. To do so, there are many methods.
Chronological Order//Time order
This is the usual way of organizing ideas in narration and explanation. The ideas are
organized according to what happened first, then second, then third, etc. until
the final outcome. Look at the following paragraph which is organized
chronologically.
For 13 year old Karen Edwards, July 17, 1972, became a day to remember. She was
resting on the side of a motel pool in Duncansville, Pennsylvania, when she saw a
young boy struggling in the deep end. Then she saw the boy’s father dive in after him
and not come up. While others stood by, Karen jumped in and towed the drowning boy
to the side. Tired but not waiting to rest, she went back for the father, who was floating
face down. As she dragged him to the side, he began struggling, his waving arms
splashing water in Karen’s eyes. Her chest heaving, she finally made it to the side of the
pool, and in a few minutes, father, son, and Karen were all well. Karen’s quick thinking
and heroic effort had saved two lives.

EXERCISE 1: Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph

Directions: Place the following crumbled sentences in their correct order; use the time
lines on your work space. Then, if your teacher wishes, copy the reconstructed
paragraph on a separate sheet of paper.
1. First, I had to return some overdue books to the library.
2. After my early class, I had a quick cup of coffee with some friends in the
cafeteria.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 95 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

3. I got up at 6:30 A.M. as usual.

4. I went to my accounting class.
5. The subway train was a little late, so I arrived just in time for my 8:30 class.
6. I left my apartment at 7:45.
7. Before my next class, I had several things to do.
8. I also had to see my advisor in his office at 10:45 to review my schedule for next
semester.
9. Yesterday morning was typical of my busy life s a student.
10.After having planned my schedule, I had just enough time to review my notes
before my 11; 30 accounting class.
11.By 1:00 I was ready for a big lunch to help get me through the rest of my day.

ANALYSIS (Time line)

Topic Sentence:

(6:00 A.M.) ….
(7:00 A.M.) ….
(8:00 A.M.) ….
(9:00 A.M.) ….
(10:00 A.M.) ….
(11:00 A.M.) ….
(12:00 P.M.) ….
(1:00 P.M.) ….

EXERCISE 2: Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 96 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Directions: The following sentences constitute a paragraph about Abraham Lincoln

(February 12, 1809-April 14, 1865), the sixteenth president of the United States.
Unscramble them by placing them in their correct order; use the time line as your
workspace. Then, if your teacher wishes, copy the reconstructed paragraph on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. After having served only this one term in the U.S. Congress, he was defeated for
reelection and returned to practice law in Springfield.
2. It was there that, having first tried his hand at a variety of occupations
(storekeeper, postmaster, surveyor, he first became interested politics.
3. He won the election, thus becoming the sixteenth president of the United States.
4. However, he was successful in his subsequent attempts, and served four two-
year terms in the state legislature, from 1834 to 1842.
5. Shortly after becoming a lawyer, he moved to Springfield, Illinois to set up his
own law politics.
6. Lincoln’s early political career did not foreshadow the success he was to have in
politics.
7. Indeed, he had almost entirely lost any hope of holding political office when, in
185, the slavery question once again forced him into the political arena.
8. He was not successful the first time he ran for office in 1831.
9. During this same period, he added the study of law to his legislative duties,
finally completing his legal studies in 1836.
10.In 1846, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives for two
years.
11.Although he was defeated twice for election to the U.S. Congress, he finally
managed, in 1860, to be nominated by the Republican Party as its candidate for
president.
12.In his early twenties he moved to Illinois.

Topic Sentence:

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 97 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL) (1810) …. 1809: Lincoln’s birth
(1820) ….
(1830) ….
(18400….
(1850) ….
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Spatial Order
In spatial order details are presented according to their location. Such an organization
might proceed from side to side, from top to bottom (or the reverse), or from near to
far (or the reverse). Look at the paragraph bellow which is organized spatially.
The sun was setting behind me as I came over the hill. From the top off the hill, I could
see a village lying bellow me half in and half out of the slanting sunlight. Stone cottages
were lining a small stream in the middle. On the other side, at the end of a row off
houses, was a towered church with a cross shining gold in the evening light. Behind the
church, high up, a straw binding machine was still working noisily in a square off wheat
like old loom. Transitions such as from the top of the hill, lying bellow, in the middle, on
the other side, at the end… behind the church, etc. show the view// location of the
village described. They therefore mark spatial order. Other transitions used in spatial
order include at the top// bottom, in front of, near, beside, by west, east, north, south,
right, left, close to, opposite, adjacent, under, over, above, between, across, farther,
etc..

Order of Importance
In this method details are arranged in three possible orders: ascending order,
descending order and order of equal importance. In descending order, the writer lists
the most important point first, and then goes on to speak of the other points. The

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 98 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

writer usually thinks that the other points are important, too, but simply wishes to
mention the most important one first. Some writers like to imagine descending order in
the shape of a triangle with its base at the top. This kind of triangle is bigger (more
important) at the top and gets smaller (less important) as you move to the bottom.

MORE IMPORTANT

Less Important

There were several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. My chief
reason for choosing that university was its wonderful work/study program in
agriculture, my chosen field. The university requires all its agriculture students to gain
practical experience by working on local farms while they are still going to school; I
knew that this would provide invaluable experience and prepare me to better use the
skills I had learned in the classroom. Second, Bingstom hires only the finest teachers to
teach in its graduate program. Then, too, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan;
this represented a great convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable
tuition.
A. Ascending Order
Ascending order is exactly the opposite of descending order. In ascending order, we list
the minor points first, saving the most important for last. This keep[s the reader
interested, since the paragraph has a kind of dramatic structure to it: it builds up to or

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 99 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

ascends to a climax Just as a triangle was used to illustrate e descending order, we can
use a triangle to show how ascending order works. However, this time the base of the
triangle is on the bottom.

Less Important

MORE IMPORTANT

Example
The same paragraph can be used to illustrate this method. But note that the writer
arranges his reasons for his choice in ascending order. There were several reasons why
I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the tuition was reasonable. Second,
the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to my
parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to
teach in its graduate program. My chief reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory
work/study program in agriculture, my chosen field: the university requires all
agriculture students to gain practical experience by working on local farms while they
are still going to school; I knew that this would provide invaluable experience and
prepare me to better use the skills I had learned in the classroom.

Directions: After studying the diagrams below, read each of the following paragraphs
carefully, and determine which order it illustrates (equal, ascending, or descending).

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 100 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Then indicate all enumerators and listing signals which the author has used to structure
the paragraph. Finally, construct a simple list which represents the structure of the
paragraph. The first has been dome as an example.

Topic sentence

Topic sentence Topic sentence

(The writer feels all the items are EQUALLY IMPORTANT)

Example
1. Of the ten largest cities in the United States in the late 1988s, three are located
in the state of Texas. Of these, Houston, which ranks fourth in the country, has
the biggest population with 1,705,697 residents. Next is Dallas, which has
975,243 people and is the seventh largest city in the U.S. The smallest Texas
City on the top-ten list is San Antonio, ranking tenth among U.S. cities and
having a population of 842,779

Type of order used: descending order__________________________

Enumerator(s): city/population_______________________________
Listing signals: Next, the smallest (the superlative adjective often acts as a listing
signal)
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)
TEXAS CITIES WHICH FIGURE IN THE TOP-TEN LISTS
1. Houston______________________________________________________
2. Dallas________________________________________________________
3. San Antonio___________________________________________________
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 101 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. Astronomers use three basic types of telescopes to explore the vastness of

space. The refractor telescope uses two lenses-one to collect light from a distant
object and bring it into focus, and another in the eyepiece to magnify the image.
Second, there is the reflector telescope, which makes use of a concave mirror
instead of a lens to reflect light rays to the upper end of the telescope. Last, and
perhaps most important in terms of studying phenomena outside the earth’s
atmosphere, is the radio telescope, which gathers waves with a wire antenna
serving as a parabolic reflecting surface. The discovery of mysterious quasars
and pulsars was made possible by this kind of telescope.
Type or order used:____________________________________________
Enumerator(s):________________________________________________
Listing signals:________________________________________________
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)
3. Air travel, as determined by the number of passengers served in the United
States’ busiest airports, has been steadily increasing during the latter part of the
twentieth century. In 1977, 13.2 million passengers boarded, deplaned, or
transferred through Washington, D.C.’s National Airport, while in 1987 that figure
rose to over 14.3 million. Next in volume of passengers was San Francisco’s
international Airport, which served 20.2 million people in 1977 and 28.5 million in
1987, tallied an increase in air travelers from 44 million to well over 53 million.
Type of order used:______________________________________________
Enumerator (s):_________________________________________________
Listing signals:__________________________________________________
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):
4. Because the earth turns on its axis at the same time, as it is moving around the
sun, there are two ways to determine the period of time which constitutes a day.
It is possible to define a day as the interval of time between the highest points of
the sun in the sky on two successive days. This determination, mean solar time,
produces the twenty-four hour day when it is averaged out over the year. It is

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 102 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

equally possible, however, to define a day as that period of time between the
points when the vernal equinox is directly overhead. This method of measuring is
called sidereal time and is almost four minutes shorter per day than solar mean
time.
Type of order used: __________________________________________
Enumerator(s): ______________________________________________
Listing signals: ______________________________________________
Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):
5. Educational researchers have identified four distinctive learning styles which students
use when attempting to master new information and concepts. First, some students
prefer auditory learning. They learn best from lectures, tape recordings, and class
discussions. The second of these styles is tactile learning. This is learning –by-doing
approach, which involves such things as dissecting animals to handle their internal
organs rather than reading about them. Still other students are best suited to
experiential learning. Experiential learning involves making use of all their senses such
as a field trip to a forest when studying botany is the best way for these learners to
understand new material fully. The last of these styles is visual learning. The student
who favors this style relies heavily on what can be seen—books and charts, for instance
__ to acquire knowledge. Of these four learning styles, none is considered best, but
rather they are descriptive of techniques individuals use to learn effectively.
Type of order used: _______________________________________________
Enumerator (s): ___________________________________________________
Listing signals: ___________________________________________________
Lecture synopsis
Comparison or Contrast
You may also support your topic sentences by arranging the supporting sentences
according to either the similarities or the differences between two things, or between
two aspects of one thing.
COMPARISON: pointing out likenesses/similarities

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 103 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

CONTRAST: pointing out differences

In this section, we will examine several of the ways in which comparative and
contrastive paragraphs can be organized. We will first take a look at comparison.
A. Comparison
In the model paragraph which follows, notice that only similarities, or parallels, between
the life and death of Kennedy and Lincoln are mentioned. There are obviously many
differences between these two men, but the purpose of the paragraph, as it is stated in
the topic sentence, is to show the likenesses or similarities between them. In a
paragraph of comparison, the differences are often mentioned only briefly or are even
omitted entirely.
Model paragraph
Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S
presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names
Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. 3Both men had their elections legally
challenged. 4Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor as
well as for their interest in civil rights. 5Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in
1960. 6Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln.

7Neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the
day on which he was assassinated. 8Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday
in the presence of their wives.9Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey
Oswald, have fifteen letters in their names and both were murdered before they could
be brought to trial. 10Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named
Johnson, so was Kennedy. 11Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808;
Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908. 12And finally, the same
caisson carried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.
Now Ask Yourself
1. Why are no differences mentioned in the paragraph? _____________

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 104 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

2. What is the one key word in the topic sentence, which controls the development
of the paragraph? __________]
3. What two words are repeated continually? _______________
4. Do you find any examples of pronoun reference? Underline all pronouns and
draw arrows to the words they represent.
5. What enumerators and listing signals have been used?

Guided paragraph writing:

Comparative Information Transfer: use the information below to complete
the paragraph

Humans and Chimpanzees (Bases of Comparison)

1. Biological Classification
Both are classified as primates
2. Skeleton
Skeletal structure generally similar
Five gingers on each hand
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3. Locomotion
Chimpanzees most often travel using all four limbs, but can walk upright
Humans walk upright (on two legs)
 4. Off-spring (Young)

College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Although humans and chimpanzees do not seem very much alike at first glance, they
are both classified as primates and thus share a number of remarkably similar
characteristics. First of all, the skeletons of humans and chimpanzees are quite
___________; ____________ species possess five fingers on each hand, (include)
________a movable thumb which makes them capable of (grasp)________ objects.
Although chimpanzees (prefer, travel) ________on all fours, they (be able, walk)
__________ upright ________ humans. Female chimpanzees have fewer young
________ other mammals, and humans do, _______. The young of the ________
species are born after a gestation period of about __________ months and then stay
with their mothers for several years, a period which (permit, them learn) ________
what they need to know in order (survive) _________. But of all the________ between
the two species, perhaps the most notable is their intelligence. Just as humans enjoy
(discover) ______ new things, ________ chimpanzees are quite curious about what
they (know, not) ______. Even more important here is the question of language ability.
Although the sounds which (make) _______ by chimpanzees (resemble, not, really)

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 106 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

_________ those made by humans, many experts (believe) ______that chimpanzees

(can, teach) ________ to communicate by means of signs, another variety of abstract
symbols. Moreover, chimps (seem, possess) _________ the _______to learn a rather
large vocabulary of signs and then to put these signs together in entirely new
combinations-and ability which closely (resemble) ________ what humans do with
words. In other words, humans can be creative in the way they communicate, and so
________ chimpanzees.
B. Contrast
Notice that in the following model paragraph, the author concentrates on the
differences between extreme extroversion and extreme introversion. He has not denied,
however, that most people are a combination of both of these; on the contrary, the
expression a scale suggests precisely such a combination.
Model paragraph
According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, every person’s personality can be
placed somewhere on a scale running from extreme extroversion (an outgoing
personality) to extreme introversion (a withdrawn personality). 2The typical extrovert is
particularly fond of people and people-oriented activities: he or she is sociable, likes
parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or
studying alone. 3The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of
person, introspective, fond of books rather than people. 4Unlike the extrovert, who
craves excitement, takes chances, and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns
excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-
ordered mode of life. 5Whereas the extrovert tends to aggressive and loses his or her
temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under close control,
seldom behaves in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his or her temper easily.
6The introvert is more reliable and less optimistic than the extrovert. 7The extrovert
may often be subject to criminal or psychopathic behavior, in contrast to the introvert,
who may exhibit neurotic tendencies. 8A further difference between the two involves

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 107 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

the ability to remember: Studies have tended to show that the extrovert learns faster
than the introvert but, in the end, remembers less.
EXERCISE 1: Answer the following questions.
1. Why are no similarities mentioned in the model paragraph?
2. What part of the topic sentence prepares the reader to expect a paragraph of
contrast development?
3. What tow words are repeated continually? Do you find any examples of pronoun
reference? Underline all pronouns and draw arrows to the words they represent.
4. Are any listing signals and enumerators used?

EXERCISE 2: Analyzing a Paragraph of Contrast

Directions: re-read the sample paragraph carefully. Then, in the following chart,
indicate which contrast words have been used for each area of contrast. Also note
briefly the differences themselves

CONTRASTIVE
BASES OF CONTRAST
SENTENCE STRUCTURES
Extrovert Introvert
(Sociability)
Fond of people: Prefers books to On the other
2.3 Sociable, likes people, is shy and hand
Parties, etc retiring
4 (Risk-taking)
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 108 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

(Expression of feelings, aggression)

5

(Reliability, Optimism)
6

( )
7

( )
8

The following transitions are often used to show similarities and differences.
Comparison Contrast
the same as but
like however
alike while
similar to whereas
As…....as in contrast
resemble on the other hand
Both…..and all the same
Similarly, etc.. despite// in spite of
although// even though, etc.
EXERCISE 3: Paragraph unity and Coherence
A. Checking Paragraphs for Unity and Coherence
Study the following groups of sentences. Some are good paragraphs. Others
lack either unity or coherence in their presentation. Identify the groups of
sentences that are not good paragraphs. Revise them by dropping sentences,
by rearranging sentences, or by making other changes.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 109 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

1. There lived in the Land of Oz two men who were the best of friends. One was a
Scarecrow. That means he was a suit of blue Munchkin clothes, stuffed with straw,
on top of which was fastened a round cloth head, filled with bran to hold it in shape.
On the h eyes, two ears, a nose, and a mouth. The Scarecrow had never been much
of a success in scaring crows; but he prided himself on being a superior man
because he could fee no pain, was never tired, and did not have to eat or drink. His
brains were sharp, for the Wizard of Oz man was made all of tin, and his arms and
legs and head were cleverly jointed so that he could move them freely. He was
known as the Tin Woodman, having at one time been a woodchopper. Everyone
loved him because the Wizard had given him an excellent heart of red plush.
2. If parents show an interest in the programs their teenagers watch on television,
useful discussions will often result. Few things are more important to fourteen-
years-olds than having their opinions listened to and respected. The types of things
teenagers watch on television will change with age. Values and situations shown on
television can be the basis for lively exchanges of ideas.
3. My father has a peculiar habit. He is fond of sitting in the dark, alone. Sometimes I
come home very late. The house is dark. I let myself in quietly because I do not
want to disturb my mother. She is a light sleeper and has to get up early to go to
work. I tiptoe into my room and undress in the dark. I go downstairs to the kitchen
for a drink of water. My bare feet make no noise.
4. The rainy season came to the forest, as it must come every year. At the water fell
with a roar like thunder. In the morning it beat against the branches of the trees
and tore their leaves from them. It pounded against the thatched roofs of the
villages and rushed about the footpaths. Little girls set pots under the sky to catch
the water, and ran back slipping and sliding. The small, friendly rivers became deep
and wide, and covered the sides of their banks. During the darkness the people
fastened their doors and did not even look outside, for they could hear nothing but
rain, rain, rain.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 110 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

5. When my little dog died, I was very sad. It happened on Valentine’s Day. My
birthday is on February 22, eight days after Valentine’s Day. I cried a lot, but it
didn’t bring my dog back. My Dad and I buried him in a vacant lot, and put a
tombstone on the grave. On my birthday, I got new roller skates.
6. People have trouble identifying my heritage. Indians mistake me for one of their
own. In Chinatown they give me a menu written in Chinese, and once Japanese boy
asked me if I was Korean. My ancestors are full-blooded Japanese, but I have had
to get used to people thinking I’m something else.
7. The needs of our country have changed since its beginnings. The first settlers had to
work very hard. Now the majority of American workers do not do hard physical
labor. The pilgrims were able to increase their food supply and build shelters from
the cold. In Japan, too, industry is highly mechanized.
8. I grew up on the island of Puerto Rico in an atmosphere of natural story-tellers. I
had a father whose occupation took him all over the island; a grandmother, whose
stories always ended with a nonsense rhyme or song, wetting feet to jump, skip or
dance; elder sisters who still remembered tales told by a mother; and finally, a
stepmother whose literary taste was universal. I never ever went to bed without a
round of stories told. The characters of my favorite ones became part of my
everyday life: I traveled to strange lands of shepherds, princesses and princes, King
and Queens; I laughed at the cunning of the animals and suffered with the punished
ones.
B. Identifying Irrelevant Sentences (Paragraph Unity)
Directions: The following paragraphs contain sentences, which are not directly related
to the main ideas of those paragraphs. Draw a line through the irrelevant sentences (s)
of each paragraph. Then circle the key words or phrases in the topic sentence. Be
prepared to explain why you think the sentences are irrelevant.
1. Different people spend their weekends in different ways. 2some enjoy going to
the mountains to hike, ski, or just relax. 3 water skiing is much more difficult
than snow skiing. Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 111 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

activities and to get a suntan. Some of these people work very hard during the
week; others have rather relaxing jobs. 6Still others like to relax by staying home
and reading a good book.
2. Ever since the time of the Greeks, drama has played an important role in
people’s lives. The Greek tragedies and comedies were a central part of the life
of the citizens of ancient Greece. 3During the Middle Ages, Bible stories were
acted out in churches, and wandering companies of players performed in the
streets. 4William Shakespeare lived during the Elizabethan period. 5 The English
language has changed somewhat since Shakespeare’s time. In modern times,
drama is brought directly into people’s homes through the magic of television.
7Television also offers people such things as quiz and variety shows.
3. The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or aesthetic.
When the early experimenters in the field of aviation began their work, there
were many who said, “If God had wanted man to fly, He would have given him
wings.” The Wright brothers made the first powdered flights in a heavier-than-air
craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Even today there are many who
strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than “splashes of
paint and honking horns.” The painter Picasso’s well known masterpiece “The
Three Musicians: is dome primarily in blues and browns.
4. Zoos are popular with all children. They are able to see examples of wildlife from
all continents. In wildlife preserves in Africa, the animals wander about freely
without fear of being captured. Perhaps the favorite spot in a zoo is the elephant
cage. 5There the elephants entertain the children by spraying themselves with
their trunks and doing various tricks. The children are especially delighted when
an elephant takes peanuts from them with its trunk.
5. Editorials differ from other kinds of news stories. 2In most regular news stories,
it is assumed that no personal opinions are being represented. 3Newspaper
writers are supposed to present the facts of each story in a straight- forward,
unbiased fashion. 4Statics reveal that over million newspapers are sold every day

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 112 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

in this county. 5The purpose of the editorial page, of course, is to allow the
editors to give their personal opinions. 6Here is where they tell readers what
they think about an issue—who is at fault, who has done a good job, or how a
situation could be improved.7It is no wonder, then, that Thomas Jefferson once
remarked that he could more easily accept newspapers without government than
government without newspapers.
6. In order to find a suitable apartment, you must follow a very systematic
approach. First, you must decide which neighborhood would be most convenient
for you. Then you must determine how much rent your budget will allow. 4Utility
bills for houses average between $100and$150 per month. 5Your next step is to
check the classified ads in the newspapers. If you do not plan to buy furniture,
you should check under “Apartments for rent—furnished.” Otherwise, check
under “Apartments for rent—unfurnished.” 8In either case, however, be sure to
check these ads regularly, since new listings appear each day. 9After you have
telephoned the apartments, which seem likely choices, you must begin your long
journey to inspect each one of them.
Wrap up Discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s assignment
 What are the major types of paragraphs?
 What is the basis for classifying paragraphs into different types?
Sessions: 19 and 20
Topic: TYPES OF PARAGRAPH
Session learning objectives
At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 List the major types of paragraphs
 Disguise the differences among the major types of paragraph
 Write a narrative paragraph
Reading assignment for discussion
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 113 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 What are the major types of paragraphs?

 What is the basis for classifying paragraphs into different types?
Lecture synopsis 1
Although you may come across many types of paragraphs in different books on writing
skills development, the most commonly talked about have to do with description,
exposition/explanation, narration and persuasion. Before you start writing any
paragraph, don’t forget to go through the various stages we have discussed: pre-
writing, writing the rough draft and revising. Below is a simplified way of writing your
paragraphs.
 Select a topic
 Write a general statement(topic sentence) about the topic
 Jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentence
 Develop the details into supporting sentences
 Read the whole paragraph to yourself sentence by sentence, and make whatever
changes you feel will improve your writing.
Lecture synopsis 2
NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH
Narration involves reporting of a series of happenings in the form of actions, incidents
or episodes with a clear beginning, middle and ending. It, in other words, is a story that
may be based on fact, on imagination, or a combination of both. An organized narrative
paragraph has
a) Motivation (where a collector a character and a situation or a combination of all
these is introduced)
b) The action taken to solve the conflict
c) The conclusion
Good narratives, like any types of paragraph, have a clear beginning, middle and
ending. The details in narrative paragraphs are arranged in chronological order to show
the time sequence in which they took place.
Example:
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 114 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

My fourteenth summer was the worst one off my life. It began with a family vacation to
a park in the south. My cousin Mesa is not afraid of anything. While the rest of us hiked
the wooden trails, he explored the cliffs and ravines above the river. As I watched, he
scrambled down a steep cliffs. When he reached the bottom, he yell led at me to follow.
I said no, but he kept calling me chicken. So I started down. I slipped and slid on
leaves, and soon I was crashing downhill, out of control. Suddenly I tripped over a tree
root and fell. That is how I got to spend a month in traction in the hospital and the rest
of the summer in a body cast. What a lousy summer vacation.
The transitions (logical connectors) above-suddenly, soon, when, and so on-all show
a time order or a chronological order of arranging details. Additional linking devices//
transitions that are used in chronological order include.
 Immediately next afterwards
 After when  throughout the day
 Before after a while on Monday
 As soon as meanwhile during
 Firstly by evening  in December
 Secondly until  last night,,
 Finally  early at last etc.
As narrative writing is about the past, you should make good use of the various
narrative tenses: simple past, past continuous, and past perfect.
EXERCISE 1: Guided Paragraph Writing:
Chronological Information Transfer
Directions: Working alone, in pairs, or in small groups, study the following time line.
Then, on a separate sheet of paper, recopy the paragraph, filling in all the blanks. Some
blanks will require only one word; others will require more than one. Pay special
attention to verbs in parentheses ( ) –they must be put in the proper form. Before you
begin, familiarize yourself with the meaning of the following terms:
To culminate cum laude
The Army term
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 115 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

The Navy the Marine Corps

An overwhelming majority an incumbent
1940: Graduated cum laude from Harvard; published Why England Slept

1945: Awarded Navy and U.S. Marine Corps

(1940)
Medal for heroism in combat
1946: Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts by
an overwhelming majority (two-year term)

1948-51: Served second and third terms as a member of Congress;

won second and third elections by an even greater majority than
(1950) the first

1952: Defeated incumbent Henry Cabot lodge for a seat in the U.S. Senate

John F. Kennedy’s early career (give) him a clear indication of his later political success,
which would culminate in his eventual election to the presidency of the United States.
As an undergraduate at Harvard University, he (achieve) _______ considerable
academic distinction and (graduate)_________ cum laude in ______, the same year
that his first book, why England slept, (publish) _______. Soon after that, he joined the
military and (become)______. Well known for his bravery: In________, ______.
__________year later, he (add) ________politics to his already impressive list of
achievements when he (elect) _____ to Congress by an overwhelming majority or the
people of ________, his home State. His popularity (continue, grow)_______, and by
the time he was thirty-three, he (won)________a total of three elections to Congress,
the last two by an even greater majority than the first. His tenure in the House of
Representatives (follow, soon) ______ by the start of an equally impressive career in

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 116 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

the Senate, when he (defeat) _________ incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge in _______ for
the position of Senator from Massachusetts ___-- a success which Kennedy was to
repeat_______ years later, when the voters (reelect) ________him by the largest
majority in that state’s history. The final triumph (occur) _______in ________, when he
narrowly (defeat) _______ Richard Nixon, (become)________the first Roman Catholic
president of the United States.
EXERCISE 2
a) Use the notes below to write a narrative paragraph on “My Scary Dream”.
Expand the notes into a full paragraph.
 I am my friends going to a theater by bus
 A car came directly to the bus
 We all covered our eyes
 The bus and the car collided
 Three people died
 None of us were dead
 Two of my friends were injured
 They were taken to the hospital
 After treatment we all came home
 We then decided not to go together
b) Write a narrative paragraph on the following topics:
1. My Unforgettable Dream
2. An Accident that happened to you
3. The happiest Day in My Life
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s assignment
 What is the purpose of a descriptive paragraph?

Sessions: 21 and 22
Topic: Descriptive Paragraph
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 117 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Session learning objective

At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 Write descriptive paragraph(s)

Reading assignment for discussion

 What is the purpose of a descriptive paragraph?

Lecture synopsis
DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
Description is an attempt to create a good mental picture using words of an object or
subjective phenomenon such as a person, a scene, a sensation or an emotion.
Description uses words that appeal to the five senses.
A. Describing a person
In describing a person, the writer’s purpose is to capture the essence of a person by
going beyond physical characteristics. The writer of the following description, for
example, has selected words and details that reveal much about the inner reality of the
woman being described. She was a big, awkward woman, with big bones and hard,
rubbery flesh. Her short arms ended in ham hands, and her neck was a squat roll off fat
that protruded behind her head as a big bump. Her skin was rough and puffy, with
plump, mole-like freckles down her cheeks. Her eyes glowered from under the
mountain off her brow and were circled with expensive naive shadow. They were
nervous and quick when she was flustered and darted about at nothing in particular
while she was dressing hair or talking to people. With phrases such as “rubbery flesh,”
“ham hands” and “squat roll,” the writer creates an overall impression of ugliness. She
notes the woman’s “expensive naïve shadow,” which hints at vanity. She uses words
such as glowered, nervous, quick, and darted to imply suspicion and insecurity. The
writer makes the woman come alive for the reader. She paints a picture of an
interesting, complex human being. Below is a list of words that can be used to describe
the physical appearance, and the inner, or emotional qualities of a person. (Please refer
to the previous chapter for more words).

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 118 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Physical Appearance Internal Qualities

Flat nose -aloof
Straight nose -sociable
Eagle eyes -trustworthy
Round lips -selfish
Dimples -snobbish
Pointed chin -arrogant
Bearded -eccentric
Eye-glassed -generous
Tall cooperative
Short helpful
Of medium height kind
Dandified naive
Pot-bellied disruptive
Shapely legs restless
Afro hair far-sighted
lonely
Kinky hair offensive
Curly hair innocent
Muscular lovely
Thin shameless
Heavy cool
Brown eyes thoughtful
Boob dependable, etc.
Gorgeous
Beautiful

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 119 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Attractive
Pretty
Handsome
Round lips
Thin lips
Round face, etc.
Long face
Round and smiling face

EXERCISE 1
Think of someone you know very well and describe him//her. Include both his//her
physical appearance and behavior. Use your own words and some of those listed above
and elsewhere in this course book. Fill this table and use the information to write the
descriptive paragraph.
Height
Physique(heavy; thin;; muscular)
Anything unique on his//her face

General look (pretty; good looking; awkward, etc.)

Hair style
Dressing style
Behavior

B. Appealing to Senses
Descriptive paragraphs can appeal to any of the five senses either individually or in
combination. Below is a list of words// expressions that appeal to the senses. Use them
to describe the items under them.
Hearing Touch words Taste Smell
Crash cool oily sweet
Bump cold buttery fragrant

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 120 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Boom icy salty aromatic

Smash warm bitter perfumed
Bang steamy bitter sweet flowery
Explode sticky sweet odorous
Roar wet sugary pungent
Shout slippery ripe fishy
Scream oily sour spicy
Yell waxy tasteless acidic
Whistle fleshy sour gaseous
Bark rubbery vinegary rotten
Clap elastic fruity spoiled
Noisy feathery spicy stench
Deafening silky peppery stale, etc.
Earsplitting sandy gingery
Shatter rough hot
EXERCISE 2
1. Write sentences to describe each of the following sensations.
Example
A lemon tastes sour.
A crowded bus is suffocated.
a) Burger
b) ’Mitmita’
c) A landing jet
d) A stale garbage can
e) Air freshener
2. Write a descriptive paragraph in which you combine the various senses( for
example, if you go to a cafeteria, you will smell food, hear noises, see people
eating, drinking, and talking and so on..) So think of a similar situation in which

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 121 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

almost all the senses can be combined, and write a paragraph of not more than
150 words.
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s assignment
 What is the purpose of explanatory or expository paragraph?
 How is it different from descriptive paragraph?
Sessions 23, 24 and 25
Topic: explanatory or expository paragraph
Session learning objective
At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 Write different types of explanatory paragraphs
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is the purpose of explanatory or expository paragraph?
 How is it different from descriptive paragraph?
Lecture synopsis 1
EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH
Most of the writing you do in academic stetting is expository. That is why you are often
required to define concepts, explain processes, or reason out to substantiate your view
point. It is the purpose of this unit therefore to help you develop the skills/ techniques
for doing so Exposition is a type of writing which explains an idea, object or
phenomenon. Its purpose is to explain, to give directions, or to inform. The explanation
is usually done by using a combination of all or some of the following methods of
developing ideas: cause and effect, classification, illustration, definition and comparison
and contrast. Sometime, people find difficult the distinction between description and
exposition. In description, our main purpose is to create a mental image through words.
In exposition, however, our purpose is to provide factual information. Therefore,
expository writing is informative. Descriptive writing tries to evoke impression. It

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 122 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

therefore aims at appealing to the emotional side of human beings while exposition
appeals to the intellectual side.

As far as the expository/explanatory composition is concerned, you may ask yourself.

 What special knowledge or interests do I have that I could explain to others?
 What opinions do I have about school or home life or about people’s lives in
general?
 What concepts do I define to make them understandable to my audience?
 What steps do I have to use to explain how something words or how something
is done or made?
 What reasons do I have to use to explain why something is or why something
works the way it does?
An attempt to answer any of the questions above, will lead you to the generation of
ideas or topics for expository composition.
There are many types of explanatory paragraph. Here are a few of them:
a) Process paragraphs
b) Definition paragraphs
c) Paragraphs that reason out
d) Comparison and contrast paragraphs
e) Paragraphs that classify
Lecture synopsis 2
PROCESS PARAGRAPHS
This type of explanatory paragraph is used to tell how something is done or how
something works. Look at the example bellow:
Even if you do not know how to cook, you’ll never starve to death if you know how to
prepare scrambled eggs. You begin by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan
over low heat. While the butter is melting, break three eggs into a bowl. Add 1
Teaspoon of salt, 1 teaspoon of paprika, and 3 tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the
bowl and mix them for about a minute. Pour the mixture into the frying pan. As the
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 123 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

eggs begin to thicken in the pan, break them into shreds with a fork, or stir them with a
spoon until they become solid. When they are cooked, serve them with lightly buttered
toast.
A paragraph that explains a process, or that gives directions uses a chronological order
to present details. In the above paragraph, the underlined expressions signal
chronological order. If we want to give a more visual representation of process
development, our diagram might look something like this:

Process: Topic sentence

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

EXERCISE 1
Read this process paragraph and answer the questions after it.
In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science
awards he endowed are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish Academy of
Sciences (physics and chemistry) and the Caroline Medical institute (Physiology and
medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past laureates, university
professors, and other experts from all over the world.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 124 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

The second step is the review of recommendations received and the selections of
preliminary candidates by special committees within the two Swedish institutions. The
committee members are specifically instructed that those3 chosen “shall have conferred
the greatest benefit on mankind,” and that on consideration be given to the candidates’
nationalities. Next, after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices of their
awards are sent to the new Noble laureates about one month prior to the award
ceremony.
A. Now Ask Yourself
1. What are the key words in the topic sentences? (Is there anything in the topic
sentence which suggests that the paragraph will be explaining a process?)
2. Can you find any enumerative listing signals?
3. Have any enumerators been used (that is, words like steps or stages)?
Direction: Show the organization of the paragraph above by filling in the list
that follows: You do not have to write complete sentences.
How Nobel Science Laureates ____________________________________
1. Two Thousand Requests for ___________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
a. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. The Final Selection
a. ___________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
B. Unscrambling a Process Paragraph
Directions: The following two groups of sentences constitute paragraphs on the
processes known as the scientific method and culture shock. However, the sentences
have been given a disordered sequence; that is, they have been scrambled. Place them
in their correct order and then recopy the reconstructed paragraphs, double-spaced,

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 125 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

onto a separate sheet of paper. Circle all repeated words ad draw lines to connect
them. Underline all pronoun forms and draw arrows to the words they represent.
The Scientific Method
1. Following this method, the researcher first observes some aspens of nature and
then poses a specific question about what has been observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed and conducted to test each
contingency.
3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data are collected,
4. After through experimentation, the researcher validates, modifies, or rejects the
original hypothesis,
5. Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology, what we now
knows the scientific method provides guidelines for the systematic acquisition of
knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is proposed to explain them.
Culture Shock
1. The visitor has usually learned the language and is thus able to laugh at himself
or herself.
2. Having passed through these stages of culture shock, the visitor may even
eventually return home with regret t having lost his or her adopted home.
3. The process of reacting and adjusting to a new society, sometimes-termed
culture shock, has four distinct stages.
4. A hostile attitude is typical of the second stage, which develops at the point
5. When the individual has to cope seriously with the day-to-day problems of
housing, shopping, transportation, and so forth.
6. Final adjustment to a new culture occurs when the visitor is able to function
without anxiety and to accept what he or she finds for what it is-another way of
doing things.
7. During these initial encounters, every aspect of the new society seems
fascinating.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 126 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

8. The first period, or honeymoon stage, may last as long as several months.
9. The visitor develops a sense of humor about his or her problems on entering the
third stage.
10.The visitor usually begins his or her sty in hotel and meets sympathetic and
gracious nationals.
11.The visitor soon finds that most people in the new society are indifferent to these
problems, and so seeks out fellow countrymen to support him or her in criticism
of the host country.
C. Use the following topics to write process paragraphs..
a.. How to make friends
b.. How to prepare for exams
c. How to make coffee
Lecture synopsis 3
DEFINITION PARAGRAPHS
Clear definitions help a person to understand new words, things and ideas. A paragraph
of definition begins by offering a one sentence definition of the word being defined.
This definition first putts the words in general class (in which others can also be
included). Then it states the principal feature through which this word can be identified
from other words belonging to this same group. The remaining sentences (developers)
build on the main idea in the second part of the definition. Look at how the topic
sentence//basic definition is developed into a well-organized paragraph.
Corruption is the practice of getting things done through illegal means.
Although there are several ways in which this could be done, studies carried out here
and there reveal that people tend to involve themselves in bribe i.e. they give money to
others to get things done. In addition, the tendency to favor one’s relative or friend to
get benefits such as job opportunities is an integral part of corrupt practices widespread
in most developing nations. Mention must also be made off sexual offsets or requests
made to have sexual intercourse by people to satisfy their personal benefits off winning
something. In conclusion, it must be stressed that although the meaning of

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 127 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

corruption may go far and beyond these connotations, it actually involves

satisfying one’s needs through ways and means otherwise
regarded as unacceptable..
EXERCISE 1
Write similar definitions for these words:
a. University
b. Mother
c. Computer
d. Teacher
e. House

Lecture synopsis 4
PARAGRAPHS THAT REASON OUT
Whenever you try to explain why something is, or why something should be, you are
composing an explanatory paragraph that gives reasons. You say that something
happens because something else occurred first, or that an action or idea is right
because certain facts or reasons logically support it.
The following paragraph explains why the young are induced to doing drugs.
Here are many factors that encourage the young to do drugs. Too often, drugs
are provided to them cheaply and// or freely. This is usually done by their intimate
friends who may have the financial capability to do so. These young people are told to
have a go for the drugs as fun. Once they start that, they find it difficult to do things
without them. Second, the lack of parental love and affection may force young people
to seek alternative ways off easing their tension or pressure. They therefore resort to
doing things they consider an escape from the current problem they are facing. Part
and parcel off this mechanism could be using drugs. Also, the lack ff recreational places
and facilities may somehow encourage them to look for easily accessible alternatives
such as drugs. Conversely, some recreational facilities are places where drugs are

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 128 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

rampantly used. As the young are keen to trying new things, they may end up victims
off drug abuse. Awareness raising lessons and open discussions should be used
to deal with this issue.
EXERCISE 1
Develop the following topic sentences into paragraphs that reason out.
a. There are four major reasons why people get married.
b. I have three major reasons why I have chosen to study (supply your field of
study
Lecture synopsis 5
COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGRAPHS
In comparison, we focus on the similarities between things compared. Look at the
model paragraph given under METHODS OF ORGANIZATION.

EXERCISE 1
Write a paragraph describing the similarities between the physical appearance and
behavior of two people you know very well. Use the following table to generate ideas
for comparison.
Point of comparison X Y

CONTRAST
Elsewhere we have said that paragraphs of contrast try to look at how people or things
are different.
EXERCISE 2
a) Use the information in the following chart to contrast two types of sleep. Supply
the topic and concluding sentences.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 129 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

TOPIC SENTENCE

Brain waves-shower, less regular

Blood supply
Temperature
ORTHODOX SLEEP Breathing, heart rate
Muscle tension
Body and face movements
Rapid eye movements
Brain waves
Blood supply
Temperature
PARADOXICAL SLEEP Breathing
Muscle tension
Body and face movements
Rapid eye movement

CONCLUSION

a) Write a paragraph contrasting a radio and a television.

 First, draw two columns in which you list the features of each of the items.
 Decide on the number of points you are going to use for the contrast
 Write a topic sentence (e.g. There are three basic differences between…)
 Use the points you have listed to contrast the two items(start with the most
important difference and go to the east important one)
 Draw your own conclusion
Lecture synopsis 6
PARAGARPHS OF CLASSIFICATION ((ENUMERATION))
In this type of paragraph development, a writer starts with a general class, and then
proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts. If we wanted

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 130 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)

GENERAL CLASS
College ofMember
Business, or Member
Economics, or Sciences;
and Social Member or
Department ofMember or Supportive
Common and Member or
Courses
part part part part part
to show a diagram of the enumerative process, our diagram might look something like
this:

Model Paragraph
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First,
there are books on all subjects, booth in English and in many other languages. These
books are organized according to subject, title, and author in a central file called the
card catalog. Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a
period of two to four weeks. Second, there are references, which include encyclopedias,
dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth, and which generally must be used in
the library itself. Third, there are periodicals, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets__
which are filed alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve
space. Like reference words, periodicals usually cannot be removed from the library.
1. Now Ask Yourself
1) What are the key words in the topic sentence of the model paragraph?
2) What types of supportive information does the author use (examples, details,
anecdotes, facts and statistics)
3) How many kinds or types of library materials are discussed?
2. Write two different paragraphs of classification using these topics. Make sure that
you supply definitions where a word or words need to be defined in the paragraphs.
 Types of Love
 Types of Students
Wrap up discussion

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 131 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 feedback on the above exercises

Next session’s reading assignment
 What is the purpose of writing persuasive paragraph?
Sessions 26 and 27
Topic: Persuasive Paragraph
Session learning objective
At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 Write persuasive paragraph
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is the purpose of writing persuasive paragraph?
Lecture synopsis
PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH
It so happens that you will be required to reason out in order to convince your friends,
colleagues, etc. of a certain viewpoint. You therefore need to develop the skills of
arguing for or against a certain viewpoint. This section will provide you with a variety of
exercises geared to achieving that end. Essentially, a persuasive paragraph attempts to
use facts, statistics, and examples and so on to convince readers of a certain point of
view. These should be arranged logically, for example, from least two most important
or vice versa, so that the reader is able to see how ideas are smoothly related. Very
often, writers of this type of paragraph use should or ought to in their topic sentence to
show their stand about a topic they would like to argue for or against.
Structure of a Persuasive Paragraph
Structure I
 Topic sentence (opinion)
 Supporting sentences (Facts and Examples)
 Concluding sentence (Final Appeal)
Example
Despite the general shortage of government money, the benefits of the space shuttle
are so great that the program should be expanded. First, each shuttlecraft can be
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 132 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

reused many times to carry satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can perform
a wide range of services that help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land
and sea and forecast crop production around the globe. They can also relay power and
communication beams. Second, the shuttle can carry materials for important
construction projects in space, such as a space station. Most important, the shuttle
allows science and industry a convenient laboratory for testing new ideas in technology
and medicine. Although the development costs are high, money on the space shuttle is
well spent.
EXERCISE 1
Write persuasive paragraphs (using Structure I) on these topics:
a. Legalizing Abortion
b. Wearing Mini Skirts in Schools
Structure II
1. State the opposing point of view.
2. State evidence to support it.
3. State your own point of view.
4. State evidence to support it.
5. Draw conclusions.
Example
The paragraph in Structure I can be presented as follows using Structure II.
Some people argue that the benefits of the space shuttle are so great that the program
should be expanded. They say that each shuttlecraft can be reused many times to carry
satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can perform a wide range of services
that help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land and sea and forecast crop
production around the globe. However, any own view is that the money used for that
purpose should rather be spent on life-saving activities. For example, many people are
dying of starvation, and mal-nutrition. Also, AIDS, AIDS is haunting the lives of people
in thousands, even in millions. Needless to say, millions are still dying of malaria, TB

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 133 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

and other contagious diseases. Therefore, is it really human to spend much money on
something too remote from us where there are more urgent things to take care of?

This structure helps you to present the different sides of an argument. By so doing, you
can properly refute what other people say about the topic of discussion. In using this
structure, you should give more emphasis to your own point of view. Otherwise, if you
focus more on what other people say, you will end up saying nothing or little as far as
your view point is concerned.
EXERCISE 2
Write persuasive paragraphs (Using Structure II) on the following topics:
a. The Cost of Wedding Ceremonies in Addis Ababa
b. Who Should Rule a Country?
Wrap up discussion
 Feedback on the above exercises
Next session’s reading assignment
 What is an essay?
 How is it different from a single paragraph?
 What is the structure of a well-written essay?
Sessions: 28, 29 and 30
Topic: Essay writing
Session learning objectives
At the end of these sessions, students should be able to
 Define what an essay is
 Describe the structure of an essay
 Prepare a detailed outline as first step to writing effective essays
 Write different kinds of essays
Reading assignment for discussion
 What is an essay?
 How is it different from a single paragraph?
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 134 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

 What is the structure of a well-written essay?

Lecture synopsis
WHAT IS AN ESSAY?
The definition of an essay is only slightly different from that of a paragraph. We have
said that a paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea.
Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea. All the other
sentences are related to this topic sentence. They further explain or support the main
idea.
An essay (also called a composition) is a group of paragraphs dealing with a single topic
or idea. Usually, one paragraph called the introductory paragraph, states the main idea
of the whole essay. All the other paragraphs are related to the introductory paragraph.
They further explain or support the main idea. The conclusion offers summary or marks
the end of discussion.
ESSAY STRUCTURE
An essay has three main parts: the introductory paragraph, the body, and the
concluding paragraph. The introductory paragraph is similar to the topic sentence of a
paragraph. It presents the main idea of the composition. Usually one sentence in the
introductory paragraph contains the main idea of the composition. This sentence is
called the thesis sentence/statement. The body or middle paragraphs support the main
idea/thesis sentence. The conclusion or final paragraph may perform one or more of
the following tasks: it may summarize the information that has been presented in the
preceding paragraphs. It may also make a final comment on the information that has
been given. The three parts work together to develop a single topic or idea.

EXAMPLE ESSAYS
Read and study these five example essays. Work with a partner or alone to answer the
questions before and after the essays. These questions will help you understand the
content and the organization of the essays.
EXERCISE 1 Studying an Example Essay

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 135 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Essay 1
This essay is about typical household chores and what the writer thinks about them.
1. How much time do you spend cleaning your house or apartment each week?
2. What is your least favorite household chore? Why?
Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores
Everyone knows how the story of Cinderella ends, but did you ever really think about
how she spent her days before she met the prince? Her daily routine was not
glamorous. She did everything from sweeping the floor to cooking the meals. If
someone had asked Cinderella, “Are there any household chores that you particularly
hate?” she probably would have answered: “Why, none, of course, housework is my
duty! In the real world, however, most people have definite dislikes for certain
household chores. The top three of these tasks include ironing clothes, washing dishes,
and cleaning the bathroom.

One of the most hated chores for many people is ironing clothes because it is not a task
that can be completed quickly or thoughtlessly. Each piece of clothing must be handled
individually. So ironing a basket of laundry can take hours! After ironing a piece of
clothing meticulously, which entails something out the fabric, following the seams, and
getting the creases just right, you need to place it on a hanger as soon as possible. If
you do not follow these directions carefully, it might become wrinkled and you have to
start over. Perhaps that is why ironing is not a favorite chore. It requires extreme
attention to details from beginning to end.

Another household chore that many people dislike is washing dishes. Of course, some
people claim that this chore is no longer a problem because we have dishwashers now!
However, no one would argue that dishes, silverware, and especially pots and pans
washed in a dishwasher come out as clean as they do when washed by hand. For this
reason, many of us continue to wash our dishes by hand, but we are not necessarily
happy doing it. Washing dishes is a dirty job that requires not only the elbow grease to

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 136 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

scrape food off the dishes but also the patience to rinse and dry them. In addition,
unlike, ironing clothes, washing is a chore that usually must be done every day. I don’t
know how Cinderella felt about this particular chore, but I believe that most people hate
it as much as I do.

Though ironing clothes and washing dishes are not the most pleasant household
chores, perhaps the most dreaded is cleaning the bathroom. This involves tackling three
main areas: the bathtub, sink, and toilet. Because the bathroom is full of germs, a quick
wiping of the surfaces is not enough. As a result, you must use strong bathroom
cleansers to clean and disinfect this room. The task of cleaning the bathroom is so
unpleasant that some people wear rubber gloves when they attempt it. The only
positive point about cleaning the bathroom is that it does not have to be done on a
daily basis.

Maintaining a house involves doing a wide variety of unpleasant chores. Cinderella

knew this, and so do we. Many of us do not have the luxury of hiring an outside person
to do housework, so we must carry out our responsibilities. If we can take pride in the
results of our hard work, maybe we can get through the unpleasantness of these typical
household chores.
Odious: very unpleasant
Silverware eating: eating utensils; forks, knives, and spoons
Household: referring to the house elbow grease: physical strength, usually using the
hands
Chore: a specific task or job tacking: undertaking, beginning
Meticulously: thoroughly and carefully disinfect: purify; eliminate germs
3. According to the author of this essay, what are the three least popular household
chores?
WRITER’S NOTE: The Hook

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 137 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

The opening sentence of any essay is called the hook. In writing, it is used to “catch”
readers and get their interest so that they will want to read the essay. (See subsequent
pages for more information about hooks.)
4. Write the hook in this essay. _____________________ __________________
5. Do you think this hook is effective? Does it grab your attention? Why, or why
not?
6. How many paragraphs does this essay have? _____ Which paragraph is the
introduction? _____The conclusion? ____Which paragraphs the body? ________
7. In a few words, what is the general topic of this essay?
________________________
8. Can you find a sentence in paragraph 1 that tells readers what to expect in
paragraphs 2, 3 and 4?
Write that sentence here._________________________________________.
WRITER’S NOTE: The Thesis Statement
In “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores,” the last sentence in paragraph I is
the thesis statement. (The top three of these tasks include ironing clothes washing
dishes, and cleaning the bathroom). It states the main idea of the essay and tells what
the organization of the information will be.
9. What is the topic of paragraph 2? Can you find one sentence that introduces this
topic? Write it here.
10.Every good paragraph has a topic sentence. The topic sentence tells the reader
the main topic of the paragraph. Sometimes it also gives the reader a hint about
the writer’s purpose.
Write the topic sentences of paragraphs 3 and 4.

Paragraph3:
Paragraph4:
WRITER’S NOTE: Supporting Sentences

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 138 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

The supporting sentences in an essay are in the body. (See subsequent pages for
information about the body.) Supporting sentences always relate to the topic sentence
of the paragraph in which they occur. Common supporting sentences give examples,
reasons, facts, or more specific information. Without supporting sentences, an essay
would be nothing more than a general outline.
11.Supporting sentences: In paragraph 2, the writer shows that people do not like
to iron clothes. Write two of the supporting sentences here:
12.Porting sentences: in paragraph 4, the writer suggests that cleaning the
bathroom is not a simple or fast chore. Write the sentence in which the writer
makes this point.
13.Look at the last paragraph. Find the sentence that restates the thesis. Write that
sentence here.
WRITER’S NOTE: The Conclusion
It is important for an essay to have a good conclusion. Notice that the writer mentions
Cinderella again in the last paragraph of “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores.”
The introduction and the conclusion often share some ideas and words.
EXERCISE 2 Studying an Example Essay
Essay 2
In this narrative essay, the narrator experiences a humorous language problem in
Japan.
1. What are some words that cause problems for you in English? Why are they
difficult?
2. Describe a situation in which you could not express yourself effectively in English.
What did you do?
How do you say……?
What would happen if you woke up one day and suddenly found yourself in a world
where you could not communicate with anyone? I am a teacher of English as a
Second Language (ESL). In June 1988, I accepted a job in a rural of Japan called
Niigata and found myself faced with this language problem. One event in particular

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 139 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

stands out as an example of my inability to express my ideas to the people around

me due to my lack of vocabulary.

I had been in Japan only a few days, and I was feeling restless. I wanted to make
some fresh bread. So I set out for the store with the simple intention of buying
some flour. I had taken some Japanese language classes before I arrived in Japan.
Although I knew my Japanese skills were limited, my lack of knowledge did not stop
me from going to the store to buy flour. I thought that I would locate the section
where the grains were displayed and find the bag that had a picture of either bread
or flour on it.

The small town where I lived had one tiny store. I wandered around the store a few
times, but I did not see a bag of anything that appeared to be flour. In the United
States, flour usually comes in a paper bag with pictures of biscuits or bread on it, so
this is what I was looking for. I finally found a few clear plastic bags that had bread
crumbs inside, so I thought that flour might be located nearby. No matter how many
bags I examined, I could not find any flour.

I desperately wanted to ask one of the three elderly women clerks where the flour
was, but could not do this simple task. I knew how to ask where something was, but
I did not know the word for “flour.” I tried to think of how to say “flour” using
different words such as “white powder” or “the ingredient that you use to make
bread, “but I did not know “powder” and I did not know “ingredient.” Just then, I
saw one of my students leaving the store. I rushed outside to his car and explained
that I needed to know a word in Japanese. “How do you say ‘flour’?” I asked. He
told me the word was Hanna.

I rushed back into the store, which was about to close for the evening. I found one
of the elderly clerks and asked in my best Japanese, “sumimasen Hanna wa doko

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 140 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

desuka?” or “Excuse me. Where is the Hanna?” The petite old woman said
something in Japanese and raced to the far right side of the store. “Finally,” I
thought, “I’m going to get my flour and go home to make bread,” However, my
hopes ended rather quickly when I followed the clerk to the produce section. I saw
green onions, tomatoes, and even pumpkins, but I could not understand why flour
would be there. The woman then pointed to the beautiful yellow chrysanthemums
next to the green onions.

At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made sense. I had been in the country long
enough to know that people in Japan eat chrysanthemums in salads. I was standing
in front of the f-l-o-w-e-r display, not the f-l-o-u-r display. It had never occurred to
me that grocery stores, especially small ones, might sell flowers.

I did not buy any chrysanthemums that night. I was not able to find the flour either.
My lack of knowledge about Japanese cuisine and my very limited knowledge of
Japanese caused me to go home empty- handed that night. However, I learned the
often-underestimated value of simple vocabulary in speaking a second language. For
me, this event in a small store in rural Japan really opened my eyes to my lack of
vocabulary skills.
Set out for: to start going to a place
In particular: especially
Stand out: to be different from the other
Pumpkin: a large, round, orange fruit
Chrysanthemum: a type of flower
Crumbs: tiny pieces of food
3. In a few sentences, tell what happened in this story. Use your own words.
4. A good hook in an essay something involves the reader in what follows. Write
the hook for this essay.
5. How does this hook try to involve the reader? Do you think that this hook is
successful? Why, or why not?
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 141 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

6. How many paragraphs are in this essay? __________________In which

paragraph doses the writer reveals what the problem is with the question he
asked in Japans?
7. Supporting sentences: Why does the writer include the information in paragraph
6? (Hint: What supporting information does the writer give to explain the
language miscommunication?)
_____________________________________________________________
8. This essay tells a story. It is an organized sequence of events. This kind of essay
is called a narrative essay.
Here is a list of the main events in the essay. Read the list and number the items from
1 to 12 to indicate the order of the events
________ The clerk took the writer to the produce section.
________ The writer asked the student for a Japanese translation.
________ The clerk pointed to the flowers.
________ The writer arrived in Japan.
________ The writer wanted to make some bread.
________ The writer spoke to an elderly clerk.
________The writer realized that the student had not understood the question
correctly.
________ The writer want home without the flour.
________The writer looked all over the store for the flour.
________ The writer saw one of his students.
________ The writer studied Japanese.
________ The writer went to the store.

EXERCISE 3 Studying an Example Essay

Essay 3

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 142 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Which do you like better, the city or the countryside? Read this comparison essay about
some differences between these two types of places
1. Describe the place where you grew up.
2. What were the best and worst things about living there?
Differences in Urban and Rural Life
Imagine life in Toronto. Now imagine life in a neighboring rural Canadian town.
Finally, picture life in Rome, Italy. Which of these last two places is more different
from Toronto? Many people might mistakenly choose Rome because it is in a
different country. In fact, city dwellers all over the world tend to have similar
lifestyles, so the biggest differences are between Toronto and its smaller neighbor.
Urban people and rural people, regardless of their country, live quite differently.
Perhaps some of the most notable differences in the lives of these two groups
include degree of friendliness, pace of life and variety of activities.

One major difference between growing up in the city and in the country is the
degree of friendliness. In large cities, we often hear of people living in huge
apartment buildings with hundreds of strangers. These urban apartment dwellers
tend to be wary of unknown faces and rarely get to know their neighbors well. The
situation in a small town is often just the opposite. Small-town people generally
grow up together, attend the same schools and churches, and share the same
friends. As a result, rural people are much more likely to treat their neighbors like
family and invite them into their homes.

Another difference is the pace of life. In the city, life moves very quickly. The streets
reflect this hectic pace and are rarely empty, even late at night. City dwellers appear
to be racing to get somewhere important. Life for them tends to be a series of
deadlines. In the country, life is much slower. Even during peak hours, traffic jams
occur less often. Stores close in the early evening. And the streets don’t come alive

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 143 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

until the next morning. The people here seem more relaxed and move in a more
leisurely way. The pace of life in these two areas couldn’t be more different.

A third difference lies in the way people are able to spend their free time. Although
life in the city has its drawbacks, city dwellers have much wider choice of activities
that they can participate in. For example, they can go to museums, eat in exotic
restaurants, attend concerts, and shop in hundreds of stores. The activities available
to people in rural areas, however, are much more limited. It is rare to find museums
or exotic restaurants there. Concert tours almost never include stops in country
towns. Finally, people who enjoy shopping might be disappointed in the small
number of stores.

Life in urban areas and life in rural areas vary in terms of human interaction, pace of
life and daily activities. Other important differences exist, too, but none of these
makes one place better than the other. The places are simply different. Only people
who have experienced living in both the city and the country can truly appreciate
the unique characteristics of each.
Urban: of the city Pace: speed; rate
Dwellers: those who live in a wary: cautious, suspicious
Regardless of: in spite of deadline: the time limit for doing something
Notable: important; worthy on notice peak: the highest; the top (amount)
1. What is topic of this essay?
The writer’s purpose is to compare and contrast life in two locations. This kind of essay
is called a Comparison essay (Unit 3)
2. What is the thesis statement? ___________________________________________
3. In each paragraph, which location is always discussed first, rural or urban?
_____________________________________________________
4. Which paragraph talks about activities in each area? __________________________
Which place offers more options for activities? _______________________________

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 144 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

5. Supporting sentences: Some of the supporting sentences in “Differences in Urban

and Rural Life” contrast the pace of life in the two areas. Write those sentences in the
chart under the correct heading.
Include the paragraph number.
________________________________________________________________
Pace of Life (paragraph ____________)
________________________________________________________________
A. urban
1._____________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________________
3._____________________________________________________________________
4._____________________________________________________________________
B. Rural
1._____________________________________________________________________
2._____________________________________________________________________
3._____________________________________________________________________
4._____________________________________________________________________
EXERCISE 4 Studying an Example Essay
Essay 4
This cause-effect essay tells about the connection between cancer and an unhealthy
lifestyle.
1. Do you think people are healthier now than in the past? Why, or why not?
2. What three changes could you make in your lifestyle to become healthier? Be
specific.
Cancer Risks
Lung cancer kills more people in one year than all criminal and accidental deaths
combined. These statistics are shocking. But the good news is that people are
now well —informed about the risks connected to lung cancer. They know that
their risk of contracting this terrible disease decreases if they either stop smoking

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 145 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

or don’t smoke at all. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about other types
of cancer. Many people are not aware that their everyday behavior can lead to
the development of these different forms of cancer. By eating better, exercising
regularly and staying out of the sun, people can reduce their risks

Instead of foods that are good for them people often eat hamburgers, cheese,
French fries, and pizza. These common foods contain large amounts of saturated
fat, which is the worst kind of fat. Even if light and fat-free products are
constantly being introduced to the consumer market, many people still buy food
that contains fat because it often tastes better. However, eating fatty foods can
increase a person’s chances for some kinds of cancer. People do not eat as many
fresh vegetables and fresh fruit as they used to. Instead, they now eat a lot
more processed foods that do not contain natural fiber. Lack of fiber in a
person’s diet can increase the chance of colon cancer. In the past, people with
less information about nutrition actually had better diets than people do today.
They also had fewer cases of cancer.

Many people today are overweight, and being overweight has been connected to
some kinds of cancer. This is the generation that started the couch potato boom,
and today’s couch potatoes are bigger than ever. Health experts warn that being
overweight is a risk not only for heart disease but also for certain kinds of
cancer. The best way to attain a healthy weight again is to cut back on the
amount of food and to exercise regularly. It is not possible to do only one of
these and lose weight permanently. The improved diet must be in conjunction
with regular exercise. In the past, people di more physical activity than people
do today. For example, people used to walk to work: now almost no one does.
In addition, people had jobs that required more physical labor. Now many people
have desk jobs in front of computers.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 146 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
TEFL)
College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Finally, health officials are gravely concerned by the astounding rise in the cases
of skin cancer. Many societies value a tanned complexion, so on weekends
people tend to flock to the beach or swimming pools and lie in the sun. Many of
these people don’t use a safe sunscreen, and the result is that they often get
sunburned. Sunburn damages the skin, and repeated damage may lead to skin
cancer later in life. Once the damage is done, it cannot be undone. Thus,
prevention is important. In the past, people did not lie in direct sunlight for long
periods, and skin cancer was not as prevalent as it is now. People have started
to listen to doctors’ warnings about this situation, and more and more people are
using proper sunscreens. Unfortunately, millions of people already have this
potential cancer problem in their skin and may develop cancer later.

Cancer has been around since the earliest days of human existence, but only
recently has the public been made aware of some of the risk factors involved.
Anti-smoking campaigns can be seen everywhere: on billboards, television, radio,
and newsprint. If the same amount of attention were given to proper diets,
exercise, and sunscreens, perhaps the number of overall cancer cases would be
reduced.
Astounding: amazing; surprising
Fiber: a plant material that is good for the
In conjunction with: at the same time as
Digestive system together with together colon: an organ in the digestive system
Diet: a special plan for losing weight; what a person eats
Attain: to achieve prevalent: common
Cut back on: to reduce the amount (of something)
Flock to: to go to a place in large numbers (as birds do)
1. What is the writer’s main message in this essay?
2. In a few words, what is the general topic of “Cancer Risks”?

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 147 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

3. The writer presents several causes for the rise in the number of cancer cases.
This kind of organization is called a cause-effect essay. In this kind of essay, the
writer shows that one thing happened (effect) because something else happened
first (cause).
4. What is the thesis statement of the essay?
5. The thesis statement should tell the reader how the paper will be organized.
What do you know about the organization of the essay from the thesis
statement?
6. Supporting sentences: in paragraph 2, the writer states that many people eat
unhealthy food. What supporting information explains why this food is not is not
healthy?
7. Supporting sentences: The writer also explains why people enjoy eating
unhealthy food. Write the reason here.
EXERCISE 5: Studying an Example Essay
Essay 5
The following argumentative essay explains that choosing a college is an important
decision. It may help you decide.
1. What do you know about community colleges? How are they different from
universities?
2. What are some things that students consider when they are choosing a college?

The Advantages of Community Colleges

A high school diploma is not the end of many people’s education these days. High
school students who want to continue their education generally choose one of two
routes after graduation. Some students opt to attend a community college and then
transfer to a university, while others go directly to a university. Making this difficult
choice requires a great deal of careful thought. However, if the choice is based on three
specific factors; namely, cost, location, and quality of education, students will quickly
see the advantages that attending a community college offers.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 148 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

Attending a community college is much cheaper than attending a university. For

example, tuition at a local community college attended might cost less than $53,000 for
two years. The same classes taken at a nearby university would cost almost $
55,000.When the bill is calculated or what is included is taken into account, it is more
expensive to study at a university.

Attending a community college can be more convenient because of its location. Going
to a university often requires recent high school graduates to live far from home, and
many of them of are reluctant to do so. These students are only seventeen or eighteen
years old and may have very little experience at being away from home. It would be
difficult for these young people to suddenly find themselves far away from their
families. In addition, very few parents are prepared to send their teenagers to distant
universities because almost every area has a community college. Students who opt to
go to a community college can continue to be near their families for two more years.

Finally, there are educational benefits to attending a community college. University life
is very different from one in community colleges, which typically have fewer students
and extracurricular activities, may be a better environment for serious study. In
addition, the library facilities at a community college, though not as large as those at a
university, are more than sufficient for the kind of work that is required in first-or
second-year courses. Class size is also an issue to consider.

Introductory courses at a university often have fifty to sixty or even one hundred
students. In such large classes, student-teacher interaction usually is minimal and
learning can be more difficult for some students. Finally, the teaching at community
colleges is often better than the teaching at a university, professors at community
colleges have the same credentials as those at universities, and community college

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 149 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

professors spend most of their time teaching instead of conducting research, as

university professors have to do.

The decision to enter a university directly or to attend a community college for the first
two years after high school can be difficult. However, based on the three important
factors discussed in this essay-cost, location, and quality of education-it is clear that
attending a community college is the smarter thing to do.
Opt: to choose (do something) reluctant: hesitant
Namely: such as; for example minimal: the least possible
Tuition: money paid for classes credentials: qualifications
3. What two things are being compared in this essay?
_______________________________________________
Which one does the writer think is better?
________________________________________________
In essays like this one, the writer is comparing or contrasting two or more things.
However, unlike “Differences in Urban and Rural Life” (Essay 3, page 14), in “The
Advantages of Community College,” the writer compares community colleges and
universities with the intention of persuading the reader to agree that community
colleges are better or new high school graduates. This kind of essay is called an
argumentative essay (Unit 5). Some books call this persuasive essay.

4. What is the organization of this essay? Fill in the blanks of this simple outline with
the words that are missing.
Topic: The Advantages of Community Colleges
Paragraph I; introduction
Thesis statement: ____________________________________________
Paragraph 2 topic: ____________________________________________
A. Community College cost: $____________________________________
B. ________________: $____________________________________
C. Other higher university costs
Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 150 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

1. Parking
2.________________________________________________________________
3._______________________________________________________________
4. Health clinic services
5. _______________________________________________________________
Paragraph 3 topic:___________________________________________________
A. Students’ reasons
B. ______________________________________________________________
Paragraph 4 topic: __________________________________________
A. Quiet campus
B. ______________________________________________________
C. Class size
D. Quality of teaching
Paragraph 5: Conclusion
5. The writer discusses three factors-cost, location, and quality of education—in the
decision about what kind college to attend. Can you think of two other factors
that the writer could have used?
6. Before you read this essay, did you know much about this topic? What was your
opinion before you read this essay? (Check all possible answers.)
______ I thought that attending a university directly after high school was best.
______I thought that attending a community college after high school was best.
______ I thought that a university offered a better education than a community college.
______I thought that a community college offered a better education than a university.
______I thought that a university was cheaper than a community college.
_____ I thought that a community college was cheaper than a university.
______I did not know much about university education in the United States.
______I did not know much about community college education in the United States.

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 151 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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7. Did your opinion about community colleges change after you read “The Advantages
of Community Colleges”? In other words, did the write persuade you your mind about
community colleges in the United States? __________
8. Which part of the essay was the most persuasive for you?
9. If your answer to question 7 is “Yes,” tell why your opinion changed. If your answer
to question 7 is “no,” can you think of some fact or information that the writer could
have used to make the essay more persuasive?

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction is the first part of an essay, usually the first paragraph. The
introduction does not have to be written first; however, some writers design and write
this part last or at another point in their writing process. From the basic outline that
follows, you can see how the introduction fits into the essay. I. introduction (usually
one paragraph)
II. Body (one to four paragraphs)
III. Conclusion (usually one paragraph)
There are many ways to write an introduction. Some writers begin with a question.
Other writers give background information about the topic. The kind of introduction you
choose depends on how you want to present the topic and the kind of essay you decide
to write.
What is the introduction?
The introduction for most essays is one paragraph. This introductory paragraph usually
consists of three parts.
1. The hook
Introduction = 2. Connecting information
3. The thesis statement (or writing plan).
Now look at each of these parts to see what they are and how they work in
the introduction.
The Hook

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The hook is the opening statements. Just as a fisherman uses a hook to catch a fish, so
a writer uses a hook to catch readers’ attention. If a hook does its job well, readers will
want to read the rest of the essay after they have read the hook. Writing a good hook
is not easy. It requires a great deal of thought and practice.
There are many different ways to write a hook.
1. One common way write a hook is to ask a question. If readers want to know the
answer to the question, they are “hooked” and will read the essay. For example,
a writer might begin an essay with this sentence:
How many people out there on the roads are driving uninsured vehicles?
Most readers won’t know the answer to this question, but they’ll probably be
hooked and want to find out more about the topic.
2. Another way to write a hook is to begin an essay with an interesting observation.
Here is an example.
Asian economists are out sleeping well these days.
This observation makes readers want to know why economists are not sleeping well. To
find out, they read on. Here’s another example of an observation hook full of interesting
details that leads readers to the subject of international trade:
3. Writers often begin an essay with a unique scenario to catch readers’ attention:
Traveling at more than one hundred miles an hour, he feels as though he is not
moving. He is engulfed in complete silence. For a moment, it is as if he has
entered another dimension.
Are you hooked; do you want to read the rest of the essay? This essay is about
the exciting sport of sky diving.
4. Sometimes writers use a famous quote as a hook, as in this example:
“To be or not to be; that is the question.”
Many readers may think that this hook will lead into a discussion of Shakespeare or the
story of Hamlet. In fact, this hook begins an essay on the topic of suicide.
WRITER’S NOTE: Hook versus Main idea

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 153 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

In English writing, the main idea, or thesis, of an essay is in the introduction, but it’s
not often the first sentence. (The hook is usually the first sentence.) If you begin essay
with a sentence stating the main idea, such as:
This essay will talk about the most embarrassing day of my life.
Or
There are three ways to curb teen pregnancy.
Your readers may not be interested in reading the rest of your essay. These sentences
do not grab your readers’ attention. Be sure to write a hook and put it first.

Connecting Information After the hook, the writer usually writes three to five sentences
that help connect the reader and the topic. These sentences can be background
information about the topic or they can be examples. The following sentences from
Essay 1 give examples of how Cinderella probably spent her days before she met the
prince: Her daily routine was not glamorous. She did everything from sweeping the
floors to cooking the meals. If someone had asked Cinderella, “Are there any household
chores that you particularly hate” she probably would have answered. “Why, none, of
course. Housework is my duty!” From these sentences, the reader has a good idea of
what the topic might be: Unpleasant household chores.
WRITER’S NOTE: What does the Reader know?
A good writer does not jump into a topic too quickly. First, a good writer tries to
imagine what the reader already knows about the topic. Then the writer can focus on
bridging the gap between what the reader knows and what he or she needs to know
about the topic.
The Thesis Statement
The thesis statement, or writing plan, is usually the last part of the introduction. It can
be one or two sentences long. In the thesis statement, the writer tells the reader what
to expect in the essay. Basically, there are two kinds of thesis statements, direct and
indirect.
Direct thesis Statement

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Some writers want to give a specific outline of the paper in their thesis statement. For
example:
The main problems facing South American countries are a lack of job
opportunities for citizens, increasing demand for better health care, and limited
university programs for poor students.
From this statement, the reader knows that the body of the essay has three main parts.
One part will discuss job opportunities, another part will talk about health care needs,
and the last part will talk about university programs for poor students. This kind of
thesis statements is called a direct thesis statement.
Indirect Thesis Statement
Other writers are not as direct on the same topic as the previous example; these writers
might use this thesis statement:
The important problems facing African countries today require immediate
attention.
From this statement, the reader expects to find a discussion of problems in Africa. The
reader does not know exactly what to expect, but that is not a problem. This kind of
thesis statement is called an indirect thesis statement.
Both direct and indirect thesis statements are acceptable. It is up to the writer to decide
which approach to take.
Practice with Hooks and Thesis Statements
The following activities will give you practice writing hooks. You will also compare your
hooks with those your classmates wrote. This will help you improve you understanding
of how hooks work I essay introductions. Be prepared to explain why you think your
hook will attract readers’ attention and make them want to read the essay. You will also
practice writing and identifying thesis statements.
EXERCISE 6. Practice with Hooks
1. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then write three
possible hooks on the lines.
Essay 6

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 155 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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College of Business, Economics, and Social Sciences; Department of Common and Supportive Courses

In this argumentative essay, the writer argues that mandatory retirement should be
abolished.
Hook1: __________________________________________
Hook2: __________________________________________
Hook 3:__________________________________________
Traditionally, people retire from their jobs when they reach the age of sixty-five.
In some jobs, this is not an option but a requirement. I object to mandatory
retirement for capable workers because it violates personal choice, discriminates
against senior citizens, and wastes valuable skills as well as money.

First of all, I believe that mandatory retirement violates individual’s personal

choice of continuing to work or retiring. The older working person should be
given the right to choose his or her retirement age. A person’s right to life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (as written in the Declaration of
Independence) is a very special thing. Forced retirement takes away people’s
livelihood, deprives them of their freedom to choose their line of work, and
prevents them from pursuing happiness.

A second mandatory retirement is surely a form of age discrimination. A young

person might wonder why an older worker should be kept on the payroll when
the company could hire someone who is younger and more creative. However, a
younger person will not necessarily be a better or more creative worker. Age
does not indicate the equality of a person’s work. Many well-known artists,
politicians, and writers developed their best works after the age of sixty. The
common belief that a person’s mind slows down after a certain age is nothing
but a misconception.

In addition to the previous two points, there is the issue of quality of work. Older
employees have knowledge and experience that can truly be beneficial.

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Unfortunately, many employers disregard this fact. Captain Al Haynes, age fifty-
eight, was able to land a DC- 10 that was out of control so that 186 of the 296
people aboard survived when it crashed. McDonald-Douglas, the maker of the
DC- 10 simulated the same problem forty five times and not one time did they
have a successful landing. Safety experts agree that the high survival rate
among the passengers on the night was due to Captain Haynes’ aviation skills. It
is doubtful that a less experienced pilot could have accomplished this feat.
However, a year later, Captain Haynes had to retire because he had reached the
age of sixty, the mandatory retirement age for pilot in the United States. They
often focus on obvious differences such as school uniforms or extracurricular
activities.

Many people especially fresh college graduates do not agree that retirement
should be an option. They are worried that if older workers are allowed to
continue in their jobs, there will not be enough openings for younger people.
However, is there really a danger that older people will take away job
opportunities from younger people? This is unlikely because younger workers
and older workers rarely compete for the same jobs. In fact, older workers rarely
seek entry-level positions. This type of faulty logic was used in the 1 960s to
oppose the passage of the civil rights laws that now protect women and
minorities from employment discrimination. More importantly, the U.S
Department of Labor is concerned that labor shortages might occur when “baby
boomers” retire after the year 2000. Therefore, employers should start looking
for ways to attract experienced workers, not retire them.

In conclusion, the age of retirement should be decided by an individual’s

economic need, health status, and work preference. Our lives are our own, and
we should be allowed to live our lives to the fullest potential. Without a doubt,

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 157 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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mandatory retirement goes against fulfilling this potential and should not be a
part of modern society.

In pairs or small groups, share the three hooks that you wrote with your
classmates. Are any of them similar? Explain why you think your hooks will grab
readers’ attention.
EXERCISE 7: Thesis Statements
Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Mandatory Retirement Has to
Go”
1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?
______________________________________________________________________
2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?__________________________________
Give the reason for your answer ____________________________________________
3. Rewrite the thesis statements as an indirect thesis statement.
___________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 8 More Practice with Hooks

1. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then write
three possible hooks on the lines.
Essay 7
This comparison/contrast essay gives facts about education in South Korea and North
America.
Differences in education in South Korea and North America
Hook 1:
Hook 2:
Hook 3:
The school systems of South Korea, Canada, and the United States are about the
same in two areas: the age when students start school and the number of years
they go to school. However, in the field of education, there are several notable

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differences between South Korea on the one hand and Canada and the United
States on the other.

First, the number of hours of study and formal training that Korean students go
through in order to enter a university is much greater than that of either
Canadians or Americans. People say that it is easy to graduate from a Korean
university. But the really hard part is getting into the university in the first place.
Because it’s so difficult to get into a university in South Korea, most students not
only attend their regular classes but also attend special “cram” schools for a few
hours in the morning or afternoon. As a result, high school students in South
Korea have fifty-five to sixty hours of instruction each week. This is in stark
contrast to the situation in Canada and United States where secondary school
students attend school less than thirty-five hours a week. In these North
American countries, the most difficult years begin at age eighteen and don’t let
up until age twenty-two.

A second difference lies in society’s attitude toward university education. In

South Korea, competition to gain admittance to a prestigious university is
intense. This competition results in an incredible amount of studying dedication
and self-sacrifice as students do almost nothing but study for examinations.
Parents feel this pressure as well and start training their children at a very young
age for the eventual university exams. Thus, students feel pressure from their
parents, their peers and society in general. North American students may feel a
comparable amount of pressure if they want to enter a school such as Harvard or
Yale, but the average Canadian or American student does not have to deal with
the societal pressure common in South Korea.

Finally, opportunities for university scholarships are very different in these

countries. In Canada and the United States there are academic scholarships,

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 159 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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athletic scholarships and scholarships for minority students. This allows for all
types of students to take advantage of higher education at little or no cost. In
South Korea, however, the most prevalent type of scholarship is the academic
type. Sports skills, ethnic background, and other nonacademic matters do not
play a role in the awarding of university scholarships.

When people talk about educational differences between South Korea and
Canada and the United States, they often focus on obvious differences such as
school uniforms or extracurricular activities. However, these superficial
differences are not nearly as important as the differences in the hours of study,
society’s attitude toward education and scholarships. Despite these differences,
the educational systems in all three countries continue to produce thousands of
successful college graduates each year.

In pairs or small groups, share the three hooks that you wrote with your classmates.
Are any of them similar? Explain why you think your hooks will attract readers’
attention.
EXERCISE 9: Thesis Statements
Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Differences in Education in
South Korea and
North America.”
1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?
2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?
Give a reason for your answer ________________________________________
3. Rewrite the thesis statement as a direct thesis statement.
WRITING THE BODY AND OUTLINING
The body of an essay is the main part and usually consists of three or four paragraphs
between the introduction and the conclusion. The body follows a plan of organization
that the writer usually determines before he or she starts writing. This organization

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varies depending on the kind of essay you are writing. You can write the organizational
plan of your essay in an outline. There are different levels of outlining. A general outline
includes the main points, while a specific or detailed outline includes notes on even the
smallest pieces of information. It is much easier to write an essay from a specific outline
than from a general outline. However, most writers start with a general outline first and
then add details.
A.USING AN OUTLINE
The best essays have well-planned outlines that are carefully prepared before the writer
starts writing. Here is a general outline and a specific outline for the essay “Differences
in Education in South Korea and North America,” Read and compare the two outlines.
a) General Outline
I. Introduction
A. Hook: pose a question
B. Connecting information
C. Thesis: Differences in education between South Korea and the US/Canada
II. Body
A. Difference #1: Number of hours
B. Difference # 2: societal attitude toward education
C. Difference # 3: scholarship opportunities
III. Conclusion
Restate thesis statement
b) Specific Outline
I. Introduction
A. Hook: Is education in South Korea really different from education in Canada or
the U.S.?
B. Connecting information: We often hear of education differences between
South Korea and Canada/US, but the school systems are not so different on the
surface.
1. Children start school at the same age.

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2. Students attend school the same number of years.

C. Thesis statement: There are several notable differences in educational systems
between South Korea on the one hand and Canada and the United States on the
other.
II. Body
A. Difference # 1. Number of hours
1. Hard to enter a Korean university but easy to graduate/exit
2. Korean students attend cram schools
3. Canada/U.S. =35 hrs/wk; Korea=55-60 hrs/wk
B. Difference # 2: societal attitude toward education
1. Competition to enter a prestigious university
a. Studying
b. Dedication
c. Self-sacrifice
2. Pressure
a. from parents
b. from peers
c. from society in general
3. North Americans don’t have this pressure (except the few who enter Harvard/Yale).
C. Difference # 3: scholarship opportunities
1. Canada/U.S.
a. academic scholarships
b. sports scholarships
c. scholarship for minorities
2. Korea
a. Only academic scholarships
b. No role for sports/ethnicity
III. Conclusion: Despite these differences the educational systems in all three
countries continue to produce thousands of successful college graduates each year.

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2. In pairs or small groups. Share the three hooks that you wrote with your
classmates. Are any of them similar? Explain why you think your hooks will
attract readers’ attention.
EXERCISE 9: Thesis Statement Questions
Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Differences in Education in
South Korea and North America.”
1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?
2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement? Give the reason for your answer:
3. Rewrite the thesis statement as a direct thesis statement.
EXERCISE 10: PRACTICE WITH OUTLINING AN ESSAY
Here is a general outline for essay 2, “How Do You Say?” Read the essay again and
complete this outline.
Title: “How Do You Say…?”
I. Introduction (paragraph 1)
A. Hook: Ask a general question
B. Connection information:_________________________________________________
C. Thesis statement: ______________________________________________________
II. Body
A. Paragraph 2 topic sentence: _____________________________________________
B. Paragraph 3 topic sentence: _____________________________________________
C. Paragraph 4 topic sentence: _____________________________________________
D. Paragraph 5 topic sentence: _____________________________________________
E. Paragraph 6 topic sentence: At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made sense.
III. Conclusion (paragraph 7)
A. End of action
B. Restatement of thesis Specific outline
EXERCISE 11: Making Specific Outlines

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Here is a specific outline for Essay 1, “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores”.
Read the Essay again and complete this outline. You may use complete sentences if you
wish, but be sure to include all of the specific information.
Title: “Cinderella and Her Odious Household chores”
I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)
A. Hook:
B. Connecting information: ______________________________________________
C. Thesis statement: ___________________________________________________
II. Body
A. Paragraph 2
1. Topic sentence (chore #1): _____________________________________________
2. Supporting ideas
a. Attention to detail
(1) Smoothing out the fabric
(2)Following the seams
(3)
(4)
b. Problem:
B. Paragraph 3
1. Topic sentence: (chore#2) ______________________________________________
2. Supporting ideas
a. Why we can’t depend on dishwashers
b. Negative aspects of this chore
(1) Elbow grease
(2) ______________________________________________________________
(3) ______________________________________________________
c. Paragraph 4
1. Topic sentence (chore #3) _______________________________________________
2. Supporting ideas

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a. Tasks
(1) _____________________
(2) Cleaning the sink
Cleaning the toilet: Negative aspects
(1) Bathroom is full of germs
(2) ____________
Cleaning the toilet: Positive aspects:
_____________
III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5)
A. Maintaining a house includes chores.
B. Take pride in doing a good job and getting through the three odious chores.
OUTLINE LENGTH If your outline is too long, combine some of the ideas or eliminate
ideas that don’t add interest to the essay.
WRITING THE CONCLUSION
Some people think that writing the conclusion is the hardest part of writing an essay.
For others, writing the conclusion is easy. When you write a conclusion, follow these
guidelines:
1. Let the reader know that this is the conclusion. You can mark the conclusion with
some kind of transition or connector that this is the final paragraph of the essay.
Here are some examples:
In conclusion,
From the information given,
To summarize
Sometimes the first sentence of the conclusion restates the thesis or main idea of the
essay.
This essay has presented three of the numerous problems the new parents face today.
2. Do not introduce new information in the conclusion. The conclusion should help
the reader to reconsider the main ideas that you have given in the essay. Any

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new information in the concluding paragraph will sound like a continuation of the
body of the essay.
3. Many writers find the conclusion difficult to write. It requires a great deal of
thought and creativity, as writing a good hook or thesis statement does. The
kind of essay you are writing may determine the way you and the essay;
however, two ideas can be helpful for any essay.
a. The final sentence or sentences of an essay often give a suggestion, an opinion, or a
prediction about the topic of the essay.
Suggestion: The facts strongly support the existence of a greenhouse warming effect
on our atmosphere. It is vital, therefore, that we heed the warnings and do our best to
keep this problem for getting worse.
Opinion: Certainly there are advantages and disadvantage to both plans presented
here. However, because the second plan has more mass appeal than the former one, it
would be a much better choice for the citizens of our country.
 Prediction: This essay has presented strong arguments in favor of government
control of television. Without this control, there will continue to be a decline in
the moral values of American society.
b. Sometimes the final sentence or sentences simply say that the issue has been
discussed in the essay with so many strong, persuasive facts that the answer
to the issue is now clear.
 Once aware of this information, any reader would have to agree that animal
testing is cruel and unethical and should be abolished.
 After careful consideration of all the facts, readers will surely agree that the use
of corporal punishment in our schools should be prohibited immediately.

WRITING DIFFERENT KINDS OF ESSAYS

Like paragraphs there are many types of essays: narrative(which tells a story),
description( which tries to give a mental image of a person, an object or an idea),
exposition(which explains an idea, gives directions on how something is done, defines a

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word or concept, and so on) and argumentation(which uses evidence or reasons to

convince a reader). The types of essays are not different from that of a paragraph.
Look at the chapter on types of paragraphs for more information on how these types
are written. Also, look at the various essays presented and discussed in this chapter to
see how each type is written. The following exercises require you to write essays and
this gives you the opportunity to write different kinds of essays. Look at the section on
how introductory, body and concluding paragraphs are written and use that to outline
and write essays on the following topics.
EXERCISE 12: OUTLINING
1. Use the following topics to work out general and specific outlines of six or more
paragraphs
A. The Side-effects of Cross-Sex(Having sexual intercourse with someone
who is not your wife or husband or boy/girlfriend
B. Our Campus(Think of the physical appearance of your campus, both from
within and outside)
C. Why People Chew ‘Chat’
D. The Differences between Learning in Private Colleges and Learning in
Public Universities
E. Who Should Rule a Country?
2. Use the outlines below to write well-organized essays.
Topic: Watching Violent Movies
I. Introduction
Hook: Many young people are becoming addicted to violent movies which are usually
the production of Hollywood.
Definition: Violent movies are those types of movies in which there are a lot of
actions, offensive use of language, criminal acts, killing, etc, among others.
Thesis statement: Watching violent movies has a lot of side-effects.
II. Body
Body Paragraph 1

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Topic sentence: Violent movies encourage criminal acts.

A. Bullying and rape
B. Robbery
C. In extreme cases, killing people
Body Paragraph 2
Topic sentence: Young people who often watch violent movies tend to be perverts.
A. Disrespect for their seniors
B. Use of abusive words/language
C. Unwillingness to engage in productive activities
Body Paragraph 3
Topic sentence: Viewers of violent movies have psychological problems.
A. Thinking patterns(unusual thinking patterns compared to other members of their
community
B. Face problems communicating with members of their community
C. Find it difficult to adjust to socially approved behavior patters
IV. Conclusion
Watching violent movies is said to encourage criminal acts, pervert behavior and
psychological problems.

Respective families and community members should find ways of discussing its
problems with their children.

The young should find alternative/ harmless ways of enjoying themselves.

They should use their time properly doing things that will benefit them in their future
life.
Topic: Major Causes of Students’ Disciplinary Problems
Use this topic to complete the blank essay outline and write an essay of five
paragraphs.
I. Introduction
Hook: ________________________________________________________

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 168 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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Connecting information:
A. ___________________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________________
Thesis statement: _____________________________________________________
II. Body paragraph 1
Topic sentence: ___________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
Body paragraph 2
Topic sentence: _______________________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
Topic: Major Causes of Students’ Disciplinary Problems
Use this topic to complete the blank essay outline and write an essay of five
paragraphs.
I. Introduction
Hook: ________________________________________________________
Connecting information:
A. ___________________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________________
Thesis statement: _______________________________________________________
II. Body paragraph 1
Topic sentence: ___________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________

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B. ________________________________________________________
C. ________________________________________________________
Body paragraph 2
Topic sentence: _______________________________________________________
Supporting sentences:
A. ________________________________________________________
B. ________________________________________________________
C. ___________________ _____________________________________

Course Title: Basic Writing Skills 170 Prepared by: Alamirew Kassahun, (PhD
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