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A Novel Optimised Inter-Locking Connection For Steel Modular Building

Systems To Enable Re-Use

Conference Paper · November 2021

DOI: 10.31224/osf.io/gzuvd

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A NOVEL OPTIMISED INTER-LOCKING CONNECTION FOR STEEL
MODULAR BUILDING SYSTEMS TO ENABLE REUSE

Corfar Dan-Adriana, Konstantinos Daniel Tsavdaridisb

a,b
School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of
Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

Abstract. A new inter-module connection was developed, adopting structural topology optimi-
sation (STO) and the inter-locking method of joining. The structural performance of the con-
nection was assessed through a series of monotonic and cyclic FE analyses. Results revealed
that the structural behaviour of the new connection was comparable to that of other inter-mod-
ule joints in the literature, while managing to tackle their limitations by introducing both an
easy-to-install and easy-to-disassemble configuration with promising opportunities for reuse,
demonstrating that inter-locking joints can be worthy competitors for traditional means of at-
tachment in the future of modular construction.

1. Introduction
Modular Building Systems (MBS) are a Modern Method of Construction (MMC) which
adopts principles of Offsite Manufacturing (OSM) and Offsite Construction (OSC), delivering
ready-to-install, fully finished structural modules; MBS enables reduced manufacturing costs
due to standardisation and mass production, speed of onsite construction guaranteed by straight-
forward assembly sequences, and superior end-products delivered by better quality control and
improved accuracy of production lines [1].
Due to its innate opportunities, this building technology has become increasingly popular in
the high-rise construction sector too, where corner-supported systems made of hot-rolled steel
are very popular due to superior rigidity and integrity as well as planning freedom due to open-
sided design (unobstructed walls between corner columns) [2].

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In the structural anatomy of steel MBS, there are three types of connections (Fig. 1): inter-
module, intra-module, and module-to-foundation connections. The former one is the tying sys-
tem which ensures the structural integrity of the ensemble of modules, being the main influen-
tial factor for the overall stability and robustness of modular buildings. It provides connectivity
in all three-dimensional directions by horizontally tying adjacent modules in two plan directions
and vertically attaching stacked modules in order to allow for the transfer of in-plane forces.

Fig. 1: Types of joints in MBS [3, p.6].

In the expansion of steel MBS in the high-rise construction sector, Srisangeerthanan et al.
[3] linked the technical issues of MBS to poor performance of inter-module connections and
proposed a comprehensive list of essential characteristics; among these, ease of assembly and
ease of disassembly were deemed as most challenging in existing designs.
So far, existing inter-module connections have been influenced by conventional design
methods, relying on bolts [4-8], welds [9], grout [10], or post-tensioning [11-12]. These meth-
ods often require laborious on-site tasks, hindering the demountability of MBS. Among these,
one connection developed by Sharafi et al. [13] secures the continuity of steel MBS by inter-
locking strips with tongues and grooves, yet adhesives are indispensable for achieving effective
uplift resistance.
Ferdous et al. [14] deemed the lack of reliable transfer paths through inter-module connec-
tions as detrimental in preventing the achievement of fully modular high-rise MBS. Moreover,
the absence of design codes for steel modular construction leads to over-conservative designs
which raise uncertainty about expected structural behaviour of modular buildings.
Consequently, topology optimisation (TO) can be a useful tool in the development process
of structural connections, leading to promising designs. Structural topology optimisation (STO)
has been employed for over two decades in industries like aerospace, automotive or manufac-
turing, while only in the last decade its utility has started to make a difference in the Architec-
ture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry [15].
Numerous studies focused on the adoption of TO in early stages of structural projects as a
design tool – reporting promising results for both structural systems [16, 17] and framing ele-
ments [18-20]. However, because of the one-off nature of construction projects, TO’s biggest
impact was made when applied for mass-produced components [21], like connection parts. In
this regard, limited but valuable research was conducted about the design of metallic nodes for
a variety of structures by employing STO [22, 23].
Therefore, this study developed a fastener-free, demountable inter-module connection by
conducting an STO exploration of optimum material layouts and investigated its mechanical
characteristics through nonlinear FEA.

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2. The proposed inter-locking connection

Based on a critical review of the literature of inter-module connections, two main ideas
shaped the strategy of the new system: reliable structural behaviour through a TO-generated
bearing component between modules and enhanced dismantling and reuse opportunities
through “plug-in and slide” inter-locking joints. The development process was divided into
three phases (Fig. 2) and the proposed connection system was illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2: Workflow of development process

Fig. 3: Exploded view of proposed connection

The constitutive parts of the connection are shaped in accordance with their expected role in
the load transfer mechanism. The inter-connector is expected to resist forces (axial, shearing,
flexure, torsion) in all directions, being the paramount component of the joint. The L-shaped
cover plates are designed to clasp the corners of modules, enhancing the strength of the con-
nection regions. Grooves matching the cross-sections of posts are introduced to improve the
shear resistance and to provide a straightforward load path for gravitational loads. The T-shaped
plates ensure uplift resistance through the combined response of flanges in bending and webs
in tension. The plugs are made of rubber to take advantage of material properties such as adhe-
sion to metals, adequate tensile strength/compressive set, and long part lifespans [24-26]. Due
to rubber’s innate resilience, energy dissipation of the joint would be improved, while the plugs
also act as seals, protecting the interlocking surface from moisture and harmful agents. The
webs of the keys transfer horizontal shear forces, while the rubber plugs prevent the keys from
sliding out. The symmetry of the system allows adaptability to external and internal configura-
tions, while the fastener-free design enables straightforward assembly tasks without the need
for special tooling and facilitates dismantling and reuse. Although the vertical gap between

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modules increases the building’s height, it also provides better access for securing the joint, is
able to accommodate building services, and the air barrier provides additional fire resistance
and improves the acoustic performance of the modular structure [27].

3. Topology optimisation of inter-connector part

3.1 Methodology

During conceptual design of the inter-connector part, a 3D optimisation study was performed
to investigate possible material layouts for the design space in Fig. 4a to determine an efficient
configuration. In this study, the TO and morphogenesis focused exclusively on the column-like
part of the connection to facilitate the interpretation of results, yet future studies may consider
the connecting plates too for completeness. In the post-processing stage, several steps were
implemented based on the Sectional Optimisation Method (SOM) developed by Tsavdaridis et
al. [20], namely: studying various cross-sections of the optimised component imposed to a num-
ber of different loading and boundary conditions, plotting the overlaid X-rays to reveal internal
configurations (dark areas require higher material concentration), and using engineering intui-
tion to manually re-shape the newly found designs into a functional configuration.

3.2 Optimisation study and modelling data

The optimisation study was done using Abaqus/CAE’s optimisation module TOSCA Struc-
ture [28]. Further post-processing of “noisy” topologies was done using Meshmixer [29].
General (sensitivity-based) topology optimisation is the default algorithm in TOSCA Struc-
ture and was preferred in the present study for its versatility in defining the task and for provid-
ing an overall robust solution. The optimisation goal was to generate the stiffest possible topol-
ogies within a specified design domain, under pre-determined sets of loading scenarios. As
compliance (a measure of strain energy) is the inverse of stiffness, the objective function was
set to minimise the compliance (maximise global stiffness); hence strain energy was chosen as
the objective’s design response while the volume of the design space was set as the design
response. This approach delivered adequate solutions in previous studies [30-33].
Symmetry about all three axes was enforced to account for reverse loading directions, sim-
ulating all forces which occur in this joint configuration. The main load types can be seen in
Fig. 4b/e. To ensure manufacturability member thicknesses were restricted to 10-15 mm.
A linear elastic steel material model was defined, with a density equal to 7850 kg/m^3,
Young’s Modulus: E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio: υ = 0.3, as specified in Eurocode 3 [34].

150 mm x 150 mm x 100 mm

design
(a)domain
Design space (b) Compression (c) Shear

(d) Flexure (e) Torsion

Fig. 4: Abaqus model and application of main load types

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3.3 Optimisation results

The following results were extracted from each trial using the default 0.3 iso-surface thresh-
old, as it produced the clearest outputs. Effects of each load case was revealed by cutting rep-
resentative sections at 25 mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm of the design space’s height (Fig. 5).

a) Compression/Tension b) Shear c) Flexure

d) Torsion e) All loads (20% volume) f) All loads (30% volume)

Fig. 5: Material density plots (0 – void; 1 – solid)

In addition to the density plots, the transparent X-ray views in Fig. 6 complete the narrative
of TO insights regarding the internal layouts. As anticipated, a great variety of “liquid lattice”
structures with irregular struts connecting the upper and lower plates were formed.

a) b) Shear c) Flexure d) Torsion e) All loads f) All loads

Compression (20% volume) (30% volume)
Fig. 6: X-ray views of optimised designs

Stress paths of compressive, tensile, and torsional loads depicted the most regular material
distributions with highly symmetric layouts (Fig. 5a/d), while shear and flexural loads gener-
ated less conventional configurations (Fig. 5b/c).
The outcome for the combined loading TO tasks (Fig. 5e/f) showed that when the final vol-
ume was more restrictive, material was mostly placed in the outer limits of the design space,
highlighting these regions as critical in providing resistance to the studied actions.

3.4 Morphogenesis process

In this section, optimisation results from combined loading using 20% volume constraint
were post-processed to produce two variations of the same morphology: one suitable for 3D
printing (Fig. 8c) and another intended for subtractive manufacturing (Fig. 8d/e).

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a) b) c) d) e)
Fig. 7: Morphogenesis process: a) unrefined topology, b) post-processed design, c) 3d-printed mor-
phology, d) layout with curved walls, e) layout with straight walls

The morphology intended for 3D printing (Fig. 7b/c) was obtained by removing redundant
structures and applying symmetry about both axes, while the outer profile of the conventional
configuration was shaped into an 8 mm thick Square Hollow Section (SHS) with filleted cor-
ners, while the four struts were merged into a Circular Hollow Section (CHS) section. Tsav-
daridis et al. [20] suggested that between profiles with straight and curved features, the former
exhibited improved cross-sectional properties. Consequently, a layout with orthogonal walls
was proposed in Fig. 7e.
While this TO investigation supported the adoption of complex 3D printable configurations,
it also demonstrated that a classical SHS profile was already a highly efficient use of available
space to resist the 10 load cases considered and could be ultimately regarded as a proof of
concept for the purpose of this study. As a result, the design in Fig. 7e was further adopted in
FEA studies presented in the next section.

4. Numerical study of proposed inter-locking connection

4.1 Development of FE meso-scale model

The software used in this study is Abaqus/CAE, employing the standard solver recom-
mended for the nonlinear static stress analyses [35]. All FE modelling was done following the
methodology from Khan and Yan [36], applying all three types of nonlinearities (geometric,
material and boundary). The assembly modelled with 3D solid parts can be seen in Fig. 8a.

a) b)
Fig. 8: a) FEA meso-scale model assembly, b) FEMA/SAC loading history

All structural steel members were modelled with bi-linear material behaviour with kinematic
hardening, using Young’s Modulus: E = 210 GPa and Poisson’s ratio: υ = 0.3 for elasticity,
while plasticity was introduced using the standard yield strength 𝑓𝑦 = 355 N⁄mm2 and ulti-
mate tensile strength 𝑓𝑢 = 490 N⁄mm2 for S355 grade.

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As moderate compressive and shear strains were expected for the rubber parts, the Neo-
Hookean form of hyperelasticity was adopted for its good accuracy [37], with a conventional
Poisson’s ratio of υ = 0.4995 for almost incompressible filled elastomers [38].
To capture the effect of gravitational actions, a compression load of 160 kN (10% of the
design resistance of the SHS cross-section) was applied and kept constant, while a lateral dis-
placement of 100 mm was applied at the top of the upper column to study both monotonic and
cyclic behaviours, investigating the working mechanism, failure modes, deformation capacity,
and hysteretic response of the joint. For the cyclic testing, amplitude data (Fig. 8b) was defined
according to FEMA 350 [39], using the FEMA/SAC protocol [40-42].

4.2 Validation of FE modelling techniques

The FEA procedures used herein were validated by comparisons with experimental and nu-
merical results published in the literature. For the validation of static monotonic and quasi-static
cyclic loading of an inter-module connection assembly, a numerical model based on the exper-
imental setup used in Chen et al. [43] was developed (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Inter-module connection assembly: experimental setup vs. FE model

The lateral load-displacement curves of FEA models for specimens S1 and QS1 were com-
pared with results from their experimental counterparts (Fig. 10). The FEA results are in satis-
factory agreement with the monotonic response of the experimental results, with errors less than
10% throughout the curve. The hysteresis curves of the FEA specimen do not exhibit the same
amount of strain hardening and load capacity as the experimental model in the reverse loading
condition, yet the stiffness and overall shape of the curve match the experimental results. The
presence of minor deviations can be justified given the numerical modelling simplifications and
idealisation of material properties and experimental setup.

Fig. 10: Comparison of load-displacement curves: experimental vs. FEA

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5. Mechanical behaviour of optimised inter-module connection

The static behaviour of the connection was assessed by studying the load-displacement re-
lationship and the von Mises stresses relative to the formation of plastic hinges in the members
of the modular units. Since the lateral loading was displacement-controlled, the reaction force
was tracked at the tip of the upper column to plot the monotonic curve (Fig. 11a).
The whole modular ensemble displayed linear elastic behaviour until the yield displacement
reached approximately 30 mm (∆y) and a corresponding 64.98 kN (Py) yield load (point A).
After this point, a slight decrease in the tangent stiffness occurred, signalling the start of the
elastoplastic behaviour, followed by a second, more severe tangent stiffness change between
points B and C. As the lateral displacement reached 57.55 mm and the lateral force reached
90.38 kN, local inward and outward buckling of the lower post’s outer wall (compression
flange) occurred, causing a small drop in the lateral load capacity while a swift stress redistri-
bution took place (Fig. 12c). Between point C and D, steady hardening of the steel material was
exhibited until the ultimate load capacity of 95.05 kN (Pu) was reached at the end of the 100
mm (∆u) ultimate displacement.

a) b)
Fig. 11: Lateral load-displacement responses: a) monotonic, b) hysteretic

After the initial yielding near the weld at point A (Fig. 12a), the plastic region propagated
towards the upper beam-column joint (Fig. 12b), corresponding to the post-elastic stiffness
change between points B-C, while the lower modular unit displayed increasingly higher stresses
combined with local buckling in the compression flange of the column (Fig. 12c).

a) b) c)
Fig. 12: Evolution of von Mises stress under static monotonic lateral load

In Fig. 13, it was depicted that as the applied lateral displacement increased, the stress was
moved to the wider and weaker regions of the holes. While the stress steadily intensified in
these areas, it stabilised at around 370 MPa (Fig. 13a) after reaching point C on the load-dis-
placement curve, as a result of stress redistribution.

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a) b) c)
Fig. 13: Influence of slotted holes on yielding sequence of modular unit

As the edges of the slotted holes came into contact with the T-stub keys, gaps opened be-
tween the inter-connector grooves and the walls of the SHS post (Fig. 14a), while the “L”-
plates of the inter-connector exhibited out-of-plane bending against the compressed rubber
stoppers. The contour plots in Fig. 14b showed that the hyperelastic material model responded
appropriately as the rubber plugs were being compressed against the slotted holes in the beams,
resisting displacement in the direction of the lateral load.

a) b)
Fig. 14: Cross-section view: a) Mises contours, b) logarithmic strain (LE)

As a result of the cyclic loading procedure, the hysteretic curve (Fig. 11b) identified char-
acteristics of the seismic performance of the proposed connection. The overall response of the
interlocking joint was comparable to that of conventional inter-modular connections.
During the low-frequency cycles the specimen exhibited linear elastic response, being in
good agreement with the static results, as yielding near the beam-column weld (Fig. 15a) was
registered at the end of the second cycle of +∆y. First signs of local damage were seen at the
end of the first cycle of -2∆y (-66 mm), when the compressed inner flange of the lower SHS
column buckled (Fig. 15b), followed by a second local failure of the outer SHS flange, as the
lateral displacement reached the first cycle of +2.67∆y (+88 mm) and the lateral load of 66.35
kN. An ultimate load capacity Pu of 98.1 kN was measured right before the completion of the
first +4∆y (+132 mm) cycle. The simulation stopped at a lateral displacement of +∆f equal to
+109 mm and a failure load Pf equal to 90.8 kN, failing to complete the second cycle of +4∆y
(+132 mm) due to cumulative plastic deformation which withstood by the lower SHS column,
which displayed clear signs of cross-sectional failure and strength degradation (Fig. 15c).

a) b) c)
Fig. 15: Damage progression and failure modes under cyclic loading

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The wide and round shape of the hysteresis loop (Fig. 16a) generally indicated promising
energy dissipation capabilities, supporting the efficiency of the proposed connection. The en-
velope curve reflected the joint’s load-bearing capacity, as the curve flattened rapidly in the
post-yielding stage of the positive loading direction, while the negative cycles showed distinc-
tive signs of strength degradation highlighted by the descending stage of the curve.

a) b)
Fig. 16: a) Envelope curve, b) Comparison of cyclic response with existing inter-module connection

Furthermore, essential seismic characteristics were obtained from the hysteresis loop and
listed in Table 1. The ductility ratio μ (∆u/∆y) showcased the capability of the connection to
deform plastically without losing its strength and was calculated according to Chen et al. [43],
where ∆u was the displacement at ultimate load capacity and ∆y was the yielding displacement.
The equivalent damping coefficient he was calculated using the areas enclosed by the hysteresis
curve [44] to measure the energy dissipation of the connection.

Table 1: Mechanical factors related to seismic performance

Loading ∆y ∆u Pmax /
Py (kN) Pu (kN) Pmax (kN) μ he
direction (mm) (mm) Py
(+) 31.35 130.07 66.35 95.84 98.1 1.478 4.15
0.413
(-) 31.45 130.41 61.93 60.5 78.27 1.264 4.14

The displacement ductility factors were almost identical in both the positive and negative
cycles and their values were slightly higher than those from literature [43], revealing superior
plastic deformation ability (Fig. 16b). Similarly, the equivalent damping coefficient was also
comparable to that of Chen et al.’s [43] unstiffened specimens, exhibiting satisfactory energy
absorption.

6. Concluding remarks
The main conclusions are herein synopsised:
1. The TO exploration was insightful in the development of a safe and efficient inter-con-
nector, supporting its use in the conceptual design of future inter-module connections.
2. The mechanical behaviour of the proposed connection demonstrated that fastener-free
inter-locking joints provide comparable seismic performance to conventional designs.
3. None of the connection’s components showed signs of premature failure, demonstrating
a robust structural response which supports its opportunities for reuse.
4. The stress concentrations around slotted holes suggest the need for further strengthening
these regions, while the buckling of the SHS columns calls for additional stiffeners.

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