ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE
MC 401

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
JISCE
Course Name: Environmental Science
Course Code: MC 401
Contact: 3:0:0

Prerequisite:
Knowledge of Basic Chemistry

Course Objectives:
1. Apply the knowledge of environmental science to design system components or
processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
2. Analyze and discuss the relevance of environmental science to use research- based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
3. Function in multi/inter-disciplinary teams with a spirit of tolerance, patience and
understanding so necessary for team work.
4. Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Course Outcome:
At the end of the course students will be able to
CO1: Describe the structure and function of environment and different types of
environmental pollution.
CO2: Identify all types of resources and learn the quality parameter to maintain proper
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balance.
CO3: Demonstrate environmental problems like global warming, acid rain, natural and
manmade disasters.
CO4: Demonstrate the controlling method of environmental pollution and apply their
knowledge for environment management.
CO5: Apply the method of synthesis of green chemistry and find green solution.

Module I: General: (7)

Natural Resources: Forest Resource, water resource, mineral resource, energy resources
(renewable, non-renewable, potentially renewable).
Ecology & Ecosystem: Elements of ecology, definition of ecosystem- components types
and function, Food chain & Food web, Structure and function of the following
ecosystem: Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem, and Aquatic
ecosystems.

Module II: Air Pollution: (7)

Sources of Pollutants: point sources, nonpoint sources and manmade sources primary &
secondary pollutant. Types of air pollutants: primary & secondary pollutant; Suspended
particulate matter, oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of Sulphur, particulate,
PAN, Smog (Photochemical smog and London smog). Effects on human health &
climate: Greenhouse effect, Global Warming, Acid rain, Ozone Layer Depletion. Air
pollution, control of air pollution (ESP, cyclone separator, bag house, catalytic
converter, scrubber (ventury)

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Module III: Water Pollution: (6)
Classification of water (Ground & surface water). Pollutants of water, their origin and
effects: Oxygen demanding wastes, pathogens, nutrients, Salts, heavy metals,
pesticides, volatile organic compounds. Surface water quality parameters: pH, DO, 5
day BOD test, BOD reaction rate constants, COD. Numerical related to BO Lake:
Eutrophication [Definition, source and effect]. Ground water: Aquifers, hydraulic
gradient, ground water flow (Definition only), ground water pollution (Arsenic &
Fluoride; sources, effects, control) , Quality of Boiler fed water: DO, hardness,
alkalinity, TDS and Chloride, Layout of waste water treatment plant (scheme only).

Module IV: Land Pollution: (2)

Types of Solid Waste: Municipal, industrial, commercial, agricultural, domestic,
hazardous solid wastes (bio-medical), E-waste , Solid waste disposal method: Open
dumping, Land filling, incineration, composting, recycling (Advantages and
disadvantages). Biomedical wastes, Hazardous wastes.

Module V: Noise Pollution: (2)

Definition of noise, effect of noise pollution on human health, Average Noise level of
some common noise sources, Definition of noise frequency, noise pressure, noise
intensity, noise threshold limit value, equivalent noise level, L10 (18 hr Index) . Noise
pollution control.

Text Books:
1. A Textbook of Environmental Studies, Shashi Chawla. Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited.
2. Environmental Studies, Dr. J P Sharma, University Science Press
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Reference Books:
1. Environmental Engineering, J K Das Mohapatra, Vikas Publication

CO-PO Mapping:

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 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BASIC CONCEPT: Environment; components; man, society, environment interrelationship;
Environmental degradation and sustainable development.
■ ENVIRONMENT:
Environment is defined as the sum of physical, chemical & biological factors which act upon an
organism or an ecological community & determine its form & nature of survival.
● COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT:
Environment consists of the following components:
i) The Atmosphere: The sphere of air
ii) The Hydrosphere: The sphere of water
iii) The Lithosphere: The sphere of soil, rocks, etc.
iv) The Biosphere: The sphere of living organisms.

Fig 1.1 Components of Environment

● MAN, SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT:

Environment is a complex and dynamic system in which all forms of life are interdependent
and interconnected. We live in the society which is influenced by both human beings and their
surroundings. The economic development of the country is measured by the improvements in
irrigation, cultivation, industrialization, transport, communication, etc. Social development is
measured by education, culture, safety, health, security and social rules and regulations.

● ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of
resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the
extinction of wildlife; and pollution.
Environmental degradation is the result of:

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 1. Overpopulation
2. Rapid urbanization
3. Rapid industrialization
4. Rapid deforestation
5. Increased radiator transportation
6. Improved agriculture techniques with use of fertilizers, insecticides, etc.
7. Nuclear explosions
8. Natural phenomena like volcanic eruptions, forest fires, earthquakes, etc.

● SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
Sustainable development is the development that
meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
There are three primary goals of sustainable
development:
1. To minimize the depletion of natural resources
when creating new developments.
2. To create development that can be maintained
and sustained without causing further harm to the
Fig 1.2 Sustainable development
environment.
3. To provide methods for retrofitting existing developments to make them into
environmentally friendly facilities and projects.

1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES: Types of resource, renewable, non-renewable, potentially

renewable; Importance of Water resource, Food resource, Land resource, Forest resource,
Energy resource; Growing energy needs and alternate source of energy (Hydro Electric, Solar,
Biomass & Bio-gas, Hydrogen as an future source of Energy).

■ RESOURCE:
A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is produced. Resources can be broadly
classified on bases upon their availability they are renewable and nonrenewable resources.
● NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES:
Non-renewable resources are those natural resources which are exhaustible and cannot be
replaced once they are used. These are available in limited amount and develop over a long
period. These include fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas), and nuclear power.
● RENEWABLE RESOURCES:
Renewable resources are those natural resources which are inexhaustible (i.e., which can
be renewed or have lifecycle). E.g. i) being a part of a cycle water come back as rain; ii)
Can renew itself like the power of the sun, wind, tide etc. (Nuclear energy, however, can
also be considered as inexhaustible source of energy if atomic minerals are used in fast
breeder reactor technology)

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 Fig 1.3 classification of natural resources

● Potentially renewable resources:

Potential sources of renewable energy are wind, solar (thermal and photovoltaic),
hydro, wave, geothermal (heat from deep under the ground) and biomass.
● Wind power:
It is the generation of electricity based on change in air flow and conversion of kinetic
energy to electricial energy.

Fig 1.4 Some Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

● Solar power:
It is the conversion of irradiance (watts per meter squared) to electrical energy, either
through the heating of a fluid which is in turn used to generate steam and turn a turbine or
through solar photovoltaic panels.
● Hydro power:

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 It is larger scale power generation based on the use of large dams or reservoirs and release
of water combined with the use of gravity to turn a turbine.
● Wave power:
It is the generation of electricity through the change in the height of the crest and through
of a wave. Alternatively, tidal power exploits change in tidal heights to generate electricity.
● Geothermal:
It involves pumping water into high temperature underground (near surface) rock
structures, the generation of steam by the water, and using that steam to turn a turbine.
● Biomass:
It is the generation of electricity through the burning of waste organic material, such as
sugar cane husk.

1.3 ECOLOGY & ECOSYSTEM: Definition, Components; Structure and function of the
following ecosystem: Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem, Aquatic
ecosystems, Mangrove ecosystem (special reference to Sundarban); Food chain [definition
& one example of each food chain], Food web. 2L

● ECOLOGY is a branch of science that deals with the inter-relationship between biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living) components of nature as well as with the relationship
among the individuals, population and community of the biotic components.
An ecosystem is the combination of an area’s abiotic and biotic factors. It can be
visualized as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among
themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.
● Components of Ecosystem:
 Biotic components: Anything living.
 Abiotic components: air , water, rainfall, temperature, soil , rocks, humidity.

Fig 1.6 Components of Ecosystem

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● Kinds of Ecosystem:
1. Natural Ecosystems:
These operate under natural conditions without any major interference by man.
These are further divided into-
i. Terrestrial: Forest, grassland, desert, etc.
ii. Aquatic: Pond
2. Artificial Ecosystems:
These are maintained artificially by humans where, by addition of energy and
planned manipulations, natural balance is disturbed regularly. For example,
croplands like wheat, rice fields, etc., where humans try to control the biotic
community as well as the physio- chemical environments, are artificial ecosystems.

Fig 1.7 Classification of Ecosystem

● The Forest Ecosystem
Forests occupy roughly 40% of the total land.The chief components of a forest ecosystem
are as follows—
1. Abiotic substances:
 Physical Components : Temperature, light, air, humidity, wind etc.
 Inorganic Components : CO2, Water, O2, N2, Inorganic salts of Ca & Mg.
 Organic Components : Carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids found in the dead organic
bodies which form a part of the soil.
2. Biotic Component:
i. Producers:
 All types of green plants
ii. Consumer:
a) Primary consumers:
 These are the herbivores that include the foliage arthropods such as ants, flies,
beetles, leaf-hoppers, bugs and spiders, etc. and
 The larger animals grazing on shoots and fruits such as elephants, nilgai, deer,
moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, fruit bats and mongooses, etc.

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 b) Secondary consumers:
 These are the carnivores like snakes, lizards and foxes feeding on
herbivores.c)Tertiary Consumers:
 The top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc, prey upon both herbivores and carnivores
of the secondary consumer level.
3. Decomposers:
 The decomposers of forest ecosystem, as in other ecosystem, are the bacteria
and fungi. These organisms obtain energy by breaking down the organic
compounds of dead organic matter & organic wastes.

Fig 1.8 Forest Ecosystem

● The Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland eco-system occupies approximately 21 % of the earth’s surface.
Abiotic Components :
The abiotic components are mainly physical components of grassland like sunlight,
heat, rainfall, inorganic salts of calcium, inorganic components such as carbon di
oxide, organic components like proteins, carbohydrates etc.
Biotic Components : Biotic components are
i) Producer
ii) Consumer
iii) Decomposer
Producer : Harbacious plants like grasses, herbs and shrubs are predominant
producers.
Consumers : They are three types
a) Primary Consumers : Herbivores such as insects, termites and grazing animals
like cattle, sheep, goat etc.
b) Secondary consumers : These are carnivores feeding on herbivores like frogs,
lizards, etc.

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 c) Tertiary consumers : These are carnivores feeding on secondary consumers like
snakes, hyaena, fox, crow, peacock, hawk, etc.
Decomposers :
Some bacteria, fungi, protozoa & other microbes present in the soil.

Fig 1.9 Grassland Ecosystem

● The desert ecosystem:

Grassland eco-system occupies approximately 17 % of the land.
 Abiotic components : These are mainly physical components of desert like
light, temperature, minerals.
 Biotic components:
 Producers: These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses and few
trees.
E.g. : Cacti, Xerophytes, mosses
 Consumers: The most common animals are reptiles, insects, some
rodents, birds and above all ship of desert camel feed on tender plants.
 Decomposers: These are very few as due to poor vegetation the amount
of dead organic matter is less. They are some fungi and bacteria.

Fig 1.10 Desert Ecosystem

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● The Pond Ecosystem:
Pond is a fresh water aquatic eco-system. It is a self sufficint and self regulating ecosystem.
Abiotic Components : These are the physical components of pond like sunlight, water
current, heat, gases like carbon di oxide oxygen etc.
Biotic components :
i) Producers ii) Consumers iii) Decomposers

Fig 1.11 Pond Ecosystem

Producers : These are either microscopic phytoplankton like algae, euglena etc. or
macroscopic plants like hydrilla, Nymphaea, etc.
Consumers :
a) Primary Consumers : The herbivores like small fish, tadpole, etc.
b) Secondary Consumers : Carnivores like crabs, frogs, etc.
c) Tertiary Consumers : Large fish, Turtles, etc.
Decomposers : These are a large number of bacteria, fungi etc.

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● The Mangrove Ecosystem:
It is totally different types of ecosystem which starts with the mangrove litter
decomposed by the
microorganism. Crabs graze
directly on litter. After
breaking down the litter by
fungi and bacteria prawn
and fish feed on
decomposed litter.
Particulate organic matter
(POM) is a direct source of
food for smaller
crustaceans. Remaining
POM is taken through
mangrove root system.

Figure 1.12 Mangrove Ecosystem

● Food chain:
A food chain shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy
are passed from creature to creature. Food chains begin with plant-life, and end with animal-
life. Some animals eat plants, some animals eat other animals. A simple food chain could start
with grass, which is eaten by rabbits.

Fig 1.13 Food Chain

● Classification of Food Chain:

In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized – grazing food chain and
detritus food chain.
1. Grazing food chain:
This type of food chain starts from the living green plants goes to grazing herbivores,
and on to carnivores. Ecosystems with such type of food chain are directly dependent
on an influx of solar radiation.
This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the movement of
this captured energy to herbivores. Most of the ecosystems in nature follow this type
of food chain. The phytoplanktons →zooplanktons →Fish sequence or the grasses
→rabbit →Fox sequences are the examples, of grazing food chain.

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 2. Detritus food chain:
This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter into mi•croorganisms and then
to organisms feeding on detritus (detrivores) and their predators. Such ecosystems are
thus less dependent on direct solar energy. These depend chiefly on the influx of
organic matter produced in another system. For example, such type of food chain
operates in the decomposing accumulated litter in a temperate forest.

● Food web:
Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains and are more realistic
representation of consumption relationships in ecosystems.

Fig 1.14 Food Web

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1.5 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE: definition, significance, flow chart of different cycles with
only elementary reaction [Hydrological cycle, Gaseous cycle and Sedimentary cycle].

■ HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
From the beginning of time when water first appeared, it has been constant in quantity &
continuously is in motion. Little has been added or lost over years. The same water molecules have
been transferred time to time from the oceans and land surface into the atmosphere by evaporation,
dropped on the land as precipitation and transferred back to the sea by rivers and groundwater.
This endless circulation is called "hydrologic cycle".

Fig 1.15 Hydrologic cycle

● EVAPORATION:
As water is heated by the sun, surface water molecules from all water resources become
sufficiently energized to break free of the attractive force binding them together, then
evaporate & rise as invisible vapour in the atmosphere.
● TRANSPIRATION:
Water vapour is also emitted from plant leaves by a process called transpiration. Every day
an actively growing plant transpires 5 to 10 times as much water as it can hold at once.
● CONDENSATION:
As water vapour rises, it cools and eventually condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust
in the air. When it condenses it becomes a liquid again or turns directly into a solid (ice,
hail or snow). These water particles then collect and form clouds.

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 ● PRECIPITATION:
Precipitation in the form of rain, snow and hail comes from clouds. Clouds move around
the world, propelled by air currents. For instance, when they rise over mountain ranges,
they cool, becoming so saturated with water that water begins to fall as rain, snow or hail,
depending on the temperature of the surrounding air.
● RUNOFF:
Excessive rain or snowmelt can produce overland flow to creeks and ditches. Runoff is
visible flow of water in rivers, creeks and lakes as the water stored in the basin drains out.
● PERCOLATION:
Some of the precipitation and snow melt moves downwards, percolates or infiltrates
through cracks, joints and pores in soil and rocks until it reaches the water table where it
becomes groundwater.
● GROUNDWATER
Subterranean water is held in cracks and pore spaces. Depending on the geology, the
groundwater can flow to support streams. It can also be tapped by wells. Some groundwater
is very old and may have been there for thousands of years.

■ GASEOUS CYCLES:

 O2 CYCLE:
Oxygen is present in large quantities in our atmosphere. Oxygen is present in 23% by
weight and 21% by
volume in the atmosphere. In
plant and animal tissues it is
about 50-70%. It is of
immense importance for
plants as well as for animals.
Plants release oxygen during
the process of photosynthesis
which is utilized by animals
during respiration. For aquatic
animals and plants dissolved
oxygen is the source of
oxygen.

Fig 1.16 O2 cycle

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 CO2 CYCLE:
All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks.
In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to some oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide.Plants
use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow. The carbon becomes
part of the plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into fossil fuels made of carbon
like coal and oil over millions of years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon
quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and
traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other greenhouse gases, Earth would be a
frozen world. But humans have burned so much fuel that there is about 30% more carbon
dioxide in the air today than there was about 150 years ago, and Earth is becoming a warmer
place. In fact, ice cores show us that there is now more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
than there has been in the last 420,000 year.

Fig 1.15 CO2 cycle

Fig 1.17 CO2 cycle

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 N2 CYCLE:
In air, nitrogen is present 75% by weight and 80% by volume. It is a very important
component present in amino acids, lipids and proteins. The nitrogen cycle is the
recycling and reusing of nitrogen in different forms to meet the demand for various
environmental activities. This happens through various processes with the help of
certain microorganisms. In the atmosphere, nitrogen is available in a diatomic form i.e.
N2. Plants and certain organisms can’t use nitrogen in this form. Therefore, N2 is
converted into nitrogen oxides like NO, NO2, NO3.

Fig 1.18 N2 cycle

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■ SEDIMENTARY CYCLES:

 SULPHUR CYCLE:
Sulphur, like nitrogen and carbon, is an essential part of all living matter because sulphur
containing amino acids are always present in almost all kinds of proteins. Plants can absorb
directly the sulphur containing amino acids, e.g., cystine, cysteine, and methionine but
these amino acids fulfill only a small proportion or requirements for sulphur. To fulfill rest
of the requirements of plants, sulphur passes through a cycle of transformation mediated
by microorganisms. It accumulates in the soil mainly as a constituent of organic
compounds and has to be converted to sulphates to become readily available to the plants.

Fig 1.19 Sulphur cycle

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 PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE:
Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and sediments and organisms. Over
time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions and other minerals. This
inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and water. Plants take up inorganic
phosphate from the soil. The plants may then be consumed by animals. Once in the plant
or animal, the phosphate is incorporated into organic molecules such as DNA. When the
plant or animal dies, it decays, and the organic phosphate is returned to the soil. Within the
soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made available to plants by bacteria that break
down organic matter to inorganic forms of phosphorus. This process is known as
mineralisation. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually oceans. Once
there, it can be incorporated into sediments over time.

Fig 1.20 Phosphorous cycle

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
i) FAQ means-
A. Forest and Agriculture organization
B. Forest and Agronomy organization
C. Food and Agriculture organization
D. None of the these
ii) Which of the following nutrient is not available in fertilizers?
A. Nitrogen
B. Phosphorus
C. Iron
D. Potassium
iii) Cereals largely fulfill which of energy requirement?
A. Proteins
B. Carbohydrates
C. Fats
D. Minerals
iv) Which one is not a source of carbohydrate?
A. Rice
B. Millets
C. Sorghum
D. Gram
v) Biotic factors is related to-
a) Living organisms
b) Non living organisms
c) Both living & non living organisms
d) None of these
vi) Energy flow of an Eco system-
a) Unidirectional
b) Cyclic
c) May be unidirectional or cyclic depending upon the condition
d) Cannot be said
vii) Biotic factor of eco system-
a) Sunlight
b) Soil
c) Wind
d) Producer & Consumer
viii) Example of first trophic level is-
a) Green plant
b) Cattle
c) Frog
d) Tiger
ix) The example of secondary consumer -
a) Plant
b) Cow
c) Tiger
d) Frog

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x) Food Web is-
a) Single food chain
b) Disintegrated food chain
c) Interconnected food chain
d) None of these

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. What is land degradation? Briefly explain how it occurs.
2. Write short notes on - (a) Pond eco system (b) Grassland eco system
3. What are the biotic & abiotic components of Forest eco system
4. Write a short note on O2 cycle and CO2 cycle
5. What is the difference between pollutant and contaminant ?
6. Prove that Nt=N0eRt ; where Nt = population at the time t, N0 = initial population ,
R=exponential growth rate constant.
7. What is doubling time and half life time of population ?
8. What is the difference between exponential growth rate and logistic growth rate.
9. What is maximum sustainable yield? Prove that the final expression of maximum
sustainable yield.
10. The human population follows a logistic growth rate until it stabilizes at 10 billion.
In the year 1970 the world population was 2 billion with growth rate of 2%.When
will the population reach 6 billion.

SOLVED NUMERICAL:
The increase in population from I million to 10 million took 200 years, for exponential
growth at constant rate find out the growth rate constant.

We know that, N = N0eRT

Where, N=Final population (10 million)
N0=Initial Population (1 million)
R =Growth rate constant
Time = 200 Years
Substituting the given data in the equation we have,

 10 = 1 x eR X 200
Therefore, R = 1.152 %

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 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL
2.1 ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere,
Tropopause and Mesopause.

■ LAYERS IN THE ATMOSPHERE:

As we said earlier, each layer of the atmosphere has distinct characteristics. There are 5 main layers
within the atmosphere, which we will discuss in turn. They are the troposphere, the stratosphere,
the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere.
● Troposphere:
The troposphere starts at the Earth's
surface and extends 8 to 14.5
kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This
part of the atmosphere is the most
dense. Almost all weather is in this
region.
● Stratosphere:
The stratosphere starts just above the
troposphere and extends to 50
kilometers (31 miles) high. The
ozone layer, which absorbs and
scatters the solar ultraviolet
radiation, is in this layer.

● Mesosphere: Atmospheric Layers

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles)
high. Meteors burn up in this layer
● Thermosphere:
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere and extends to 600 kilometers (372
miles) high. Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
● Ionosphere:
he ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules that
stretches from about 48 kilometers (30 miles) above the surface to the edge of space at
about 965 km (600 mi), overlapping into the mesosphere and thermosphere. This dynamic
region grows and shrinks based on solar conditions and divides further into the sub-regions:
D, E and F; based on what wavelength of solar radiation is absorbed. The ionosphere is a
critical link in the chain of Sun-Earth interactions. This region is what makes radio
communications possible.
● Exosphere:
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends from the top of the thermosphere up
to 10,000 km (6,200 miles).

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 The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and
the stratosphere. It is a thermodynamic gradient stratification layer, marking the end of
troposphere.
The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and
the thermosphere atmospheric regions.

2.2 GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Definition, Greenhouse gases, Global warming and its
consequence on the global climate and consequently on sea water level, agriculture and marine
ecosystem, Control of Global warming.

■ DEFINITION:
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere. Some of the
energy passes back into space. Much of it remains trapped in the atmosphere by the greenhouse
gases, causing our world to heat up.
● Greenhouse gases:
Table 2.1 Greenhouse gas

Greenhouse gas Chemical formula

Carbon Dioxide CO2
Water vapour H2O
Nitrous Oxide N2O
Tropospheric Ozone O3
Methane CH4
Chlorofluorocarbon CFC
● Global warming:
 The average global temperature has increased by almost 1º F over the past century.
 Scientists expect the average global temperature to increase an additional 2º to 6º F over
the next hundred years.
● Effects:
 Sea level rises
 Warmer weather makes glaciers melt.
 Melting glaciers add more water to the ocean.
 Warmer weather also makes water expand
When water expands in the ocean, it takes up more space and the level of the sea rises
Crops and food supply:
• Global warming may make the Earth warmer in cold places.
• People living in these areas may have the chance to grow crops in new areas.

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But global warming might bring droughts to other places where we grow crops
Climate change:
• Global warming will lead to an increase in the evaporation of water  more water vapour.
• With more water vapour, more rain fall is expected.
• But it is not evenly distributed:
 Dry areas  severe drought condition, water shortage and heat waves occurs
Wet areas  floods and avalanches (landslides
• Other problems may arise:
 Destroy food crop  rice, wheat and corn
 Affect animals  need to migrate
 Encourage growth of weed and pests  may lead to diseases like dengue fever,
cholera which are deadly.
Solution:
• There are many little things that we can do to make a difference to reduce the amount of
greenhouse gases that we put into the atmosphere.
• Many greenhouse gases come from things we do every day.
• Driving a car or using electricity is not wrong. We just have to be smart
Eg. Try carpooling
• Read – Learning about the environment is very important.
• Save Electricity – Whenever we use electricity, we help put greenhouse gases into the air.
• Turn off lights, the television and the computer.
• Bike, Bus and Walk- You can saves energy by sometimes taking the bus, riding a bike or
walking.
• Talk to Your Family and Friends – about global warming. Let them know what you’ve
learned
• Recycle – When you recycle, you send less trash to the landfill and you help save natural
resources like trees and elements such as aluminum.
• Recycle cans, bottles, plastic bags and newspapers
• Cars – cause pollution and release a lot of greenhouse gases into the air.
• Some cars are better for the environment – They travel longer on a smaller amount of fuel.
They don’t pollute as much.
• Using these cars can help reduce can help reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the
air.

2.3 AIR POLLUTANT: Definition of pollutants and contaminants, Primary and secondary
pollutants, criteria pollutant, source and biochemical effect.

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1) Concept:
A toxic substance, living or non-living, at an undesirable limit is called a pollutant. Such a
substance when present in air is called air pollution. The process of polluting the air and making it
unsafe for living is called pollution of air.
Air is precious and life cannot be sustained on this planet without it. In the troposphere it provides
oxygen for respiration, nitrogen to synthesize amino acids and proteins, carbon dioxide for
carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants, which is ultimately consumed by animals. Water
vapours are required to form clouds leading to the formation of rain and snow. Carbon dioxide
absorbs infrared radiations to keep the earth warm. Thus, troposphere controls the weather
condition.
Generally, a contaminant is an undesired material although it does not have to be harm. Pollution:
It is the presence of any substance or material that may cause a harmful effect on human, animal
and plant. If there is no harm, then it is called contaminant.

2) Sources of Pollution:
There are many sources of gases and particulate matter pollutants. They are as follows:
• Burning of coal (fossil fuels) – CO,CO2, SO2, NxOy, hydrocarbons (HC), particulate matter.
• Fertilizer plants – NH3, NxOy, HC.
• Chemical plants – Cl2
• Steel plants - CO,CO2, SO2, F2, particulate matter.
• Automobiles - CO,CO2, SO2, NxOy, hydrocarbons (HC).

3) Classification of Pollutants:
The pollutants thus emitted can be classified into two groups, namely 1) Primary pollutants and 2)
secondary pollutants.
 Primary pollutants: Substance emitted directly into atmosphere, eg., Nitrgen oxides,
Carbon oxides and Sulphur oxides which are produced by burning of fuels.
Fuels (H, C, N, S, Pb, ash) Emission (CO,CO2, SO2, NxOy, H2O,
+ air (O2 + N2) SOy, Pb, PbO, Particulates) + ash
 Secondary pollutants: Substances are not emitted directly into the atmosphere. for example
ozone, which is formed through some chemical process, ie., not obtained directly but
through secondary reactions.
N2O + hν  N2 + O2
2O + hν  NO + N
O + O2 + N2  O3 + N2
NO + O3  NO2+ O2
In presence third element, here, nitrogen the ozone formed is stable.

4) Criteria of pollutants and their effects:

25
There are six pollutants which heve the main contribution in creating air pollution. They are
primary pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
lead (Pb) and particulate matters (PM) and secondary pollutant like ground level ozone (O3).
● CO:
Source: It is colourless, odourless, poisonous gas. It present in nature due to incomplete burning
of coal, wood, petrol, automobiles, thermal power plants, jet engines.
Effects: It combine with haemoglobin, the oxygen carrier of the blood in the body, to form a stable
compound, carboxy haemoglobin. The oxygen transportation is thus, disturbed and in extreme
cases it can be fatal. It is blessing of nature that soil fungi and higher plants absorb it and destroy
it by converting it to CO2.
O2 + Hb O2Hb
(Oxy-haemoglobin)

O2Hb + CO COHb + O2
(carboxy- haemoglobin)
● Oxides of Nitrogen:
There are six oxides of nitrogen viz. NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5. However two
oxides of nitrogen, which are important air pollutants are NO & NO2.
Source: It obtained in atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels, Nitrogen based fertilizer plants,
Textile industries, Automobile exhaust, decomposition of organic wastes, etc..
Effects: At low concentration of NO as found in atmosphere, there are no adverse effect on health
and green plants also absorbs it without damage. But NO, which is oxidized subsequently, to form
NO2 accumulating in a higher concentration, has much adverse effect on health, like
i) Respiratory irritation
ii) Impairment of lung defense
iii) Headache
iv) Loss of appetite
v) Bronchitis
vi) Corrosion of teeth
viii) Leaf damage of sensitive plants
NO is also known to be responsible for ozone layer depletion in the atmosphere.
● SO2:
Source: It is colourless, poisonous gas, highly soluble in water. It has a pungent and suffocating
odour.
It obtain in atmosphere from –
i) Burning of fossil fuels
ii) Thermal power plants
iii) Fertilizer plants
iv) Steel plants
v) Oil refineries

26
vi) Smelting of sulphide ores. ect.
The main source of sulphur is fossil fuels, like, coal, that has maximum contain of sulphur,
about 1 to 6%.
Sulphur dioxide reacts with HO. radical, obtained from photo dissociation of H2O
molecules, followed by series of reactions.
SO2 + .OH HOSO2.
HOSO2. + O2 SO3 + HO2.
SO3 reacts very fast with H2O to produce H2SO4, caused acid rain.
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
Effects:
i) Higher solubility in water allows it to get absorbed in the moist passages of upper
respiratory tract, causing increase breathing rate and felling of air starvation.
ii) Suffocation
iii) Respiratory irritation
iv) Asthma and chronic bronchitis
v) Irritation of throat and eyes.
London Smog was caused for SO2

● Particulate Matter (PM):

Small solid particles and liquid droplets are collectively known as particulates. Particulates are
categorized on the basis of size and phase (liquid or solid). The most general term is aerosol, which
suspension of tiny solid particles (2 µm to 50 µm) or liquid droplets, dispersed in the atmosphere.
Examples of particulate matters –
 Dust – Solid particles dispersed in air
 Fume – Solid particles dispersed in air
 Fog – Liquid dispersed in gas medium
 Smoke – Carbon resulting for incomplete combustion
 Smog – Particulate matter originated from smoke and fog.
Effects:
i) Blocking of solar radiation causes the lowering of earth’s temperature and effect the overall
weather condition.
ii) Deposition on plant leaves affect photosynthesis
iii) Respiratory disease, neural disorders, cancer.

● Pb (Lead):
Source: Mainly it comes from the automobile emission, due to burning of gasoline containing the
anti-knock additive tetraethyl lead [Pb(C2H5)4].
Other sources are burning of gas & oil, glass manufacturing, lead-acid bacteria manufacturing,
paints [white paint containing Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2 and red paint containing Pb3O4].

27
Effects: Liver and kidney damage, Mental retardation in children, Abnormality in fertility &
pregnancy.

● Ground Level Ozone (O3):

In the troposphere, ozone is a secondary pollutant. The mechanism of formation is given as –
NO2 + hγ NO + O
The atomic oxygen thus produced reacts with O2 gas in the presence of a third body, especially
N2, which is abundant in air and form ozone.
O + O2 + N2 O3 + N2
In absence of third body, the ozone (O3) formed would not have been stable and would have
reverted back to O and O2.
Effects: It poses threat, when inhale air containing O3.

2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: Smog, Photochemical smog and London smog; acid
rain, effects and control
● Smog:
Photochemical smog is also appearing in regions of the tropics and subtropics where savanna
grasses are periodically burned. Smog's unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by
sunlight of hydrocarbons caused primarily by unburned gasoline emitted by automobiles and other
combustion sources. The products of photochemical reactions include organic particles, ozone,
aldehydes, ketones, peroxyacetyl nitrate, organic acids, and other oxidants. Ozone is a gas created
by nitrogen dioxide or nitric oxide when exposed to sunlight. Ozone causes eye
irritation, impaired lung function, and damage to trees and crops. Another form of smog is called
industrial smog.
This smog is created by burning coal and heavy oil that contain sulphur impurities in power plants,
industrial plants, etc... The smog consists mostly of a mixture of sulphur dioxide and fog.
Suspended droplets of sulphuric acid are formed from some of the sulphur dioxide, and a variety
of suspended solid particles. This smog is common during the winter in cities such as London,
Chicago, and Pittsburgh. When these cities burned large amounts of coal and heavy oil without
control of the output, large-scale problems were witnessed. In 1952 London, England, 4,000
people died as a result of this form of fog. Today coal and heavy oil are burned only in large boilers
and with reasonably good control or tall smokestacks so that industrial smog is less of a problem.
However, some countries such as China, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and some other eastern
European countries, still burn large quantities of coal without using adequate controls.

Table 2.2 Differences between Photochemical smog and Sulphorous smog

Photochemical smog Sulphorous smog

1. First observed in Los Angeles,
1. First observed in London, UK
USA.
2.Main components are SOx(SO2,SO3, etc.)
2. Main components are hydrocarbons,
SO2 + OH + M → HSO3 + M
NXOy and ozone.
HSO3 + O2 →SO3 + HO2

28
 NXOy + Reactive Organic Gas + SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
sunlight →O3 + NO2 + PAN
3. Proceeds through free radical 3. May not proceed through free radical
mechanism. mechanism.
4. This is oxidising type of smog. 4.This is reducing type of smog.
5. PAN is the main by-product. 5.Sulphur salts are the main by-products.
6. Mid-day summer is the ideal 6.Early morning of winter is the ideal condition
condition for its formation. for its formation.
7. Most adverse effect is eye irritation. 7. Most adverse effects are lung and throat
irritation.

● Acid rain:
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has
elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals
and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which
react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical via an
intermolecular reaction:

SO2 + OH· → HOSO2·

which is followed by:
HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3
In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:
This shows the process of the air pollution being released into the atmosphere and the areas that
will be affected.
NO2 + OH· → HNO3
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)

Causes of acid rain:

Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen
and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other
materials before falling to the ground.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as
volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO 2 and NOX
in the atmosphere are:

29
Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators.
Vehicles and heavy equipment.
Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem
for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Causes:
The oxides of nitrogen or NOx and sulfur dioxide or SO2 are the two main sources of acid rain.

● Sulfur Dioxide:
Sulfur dioxide, which is a colorless gas, is released as a by-product when fossil fuels that contain
sulfur are burned.
Formation:
Industrial processes like the processing of crude oil, utility factories, and iron and steel industries.
Natural means and disaster can also result in sulfur dioxide being released into the atmosphere,
such as rotting vegetation, plankton, sea spray, and volcanoes, all of which emit about 10% sulfur
dioxide.
On the whole, industrial combustion is responsible for 69.4% sulfur dioxide emissions into the
atmosphere, and vehicular transportation is responsible for about 3.7%.
Chemistry
When sulfur dioxide reacts with the atmospheric moisture, it undergoes oxidation to form sulfate
ions.
SO2 (g) + O2 (g) = SO3 (g)

The sulfate ions then combine with hydrogen atoms from the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid in
the aqueous state.
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) = H2SO4 (aq)
Sulfur dioxide affects the breathing capacity of lungs and cause permanent damage to them.
Shortness of breath, asthma, recurring cough are some of the major problems related to constant
exposure to this gas.

● Oxides of Nitrogen:
Nitrogen oxide is another major component of acid rain. Nitrogen compounds that contain oxygen
atoms, are known as oxides of nitrogen. For example, nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen monoxide are
oxides of nitrogen, and they are generically termed as NOx.
Formation:
These gases are produced in combustion processes, which involve extremely high temperatures.
For example, utility plants, automobiles and chemical industries such as in the production of
fertilizers.

30
Five percent of nitrogen oxide is emitted by natural processes like lightning, volcanic eruptions,
forest fires, and action of bacteria in the soil. Industrial processes emit 32% and vehicular
transportation is responsible for 43%.
Chemistry:
While reacting with atmospheric moisture, nitrogen oxide also undergoes oxidation reaction to
give rise to nitric or nitrous acid.
NO2 (g) + H2O (l) = HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
Nitrogen oxide, which is a dangerous gas in itself, causes damage to the respiratory organs by
attacking the membranes in them; thus increasing the chances of respiratory diseases. It also causes
smog and plays a critical role in damaging the ozone layer. The nitrogen oxide can be carried far
away from the original location of its emission.
Effects:
Plant Life:
Acid rain seeps into the earth and poisons plants and trees by dissolving toxic substances in the
soil, such as aluminum, which gets absorbed by the roots. This rain also dissolves the beneficial
minerals and nutrients in the soil which are then washed away, before the plants and trees have a
chance of using them in order to grow.
When there is frequent acid rain, it corrodes the waxy protective coating of the leaves. When this
protective coating on the leaves is lost, it results in making the plant susceptible to disease. Due to
the damaged leaves, the plant loses its ability to produce sufficient amounts of nutrition which is
need for it to stay healthy. It results in making the plant vulnerable to the cold weather, insects,
and disease, which can in turn lead to its death.
Aquatic Life:
Acid rain also affects aquatic organisms adversely. A high amount of sulfuric acid in the seawater
interferes with the ability of fish to take in nutrients, salt, and oxygen. As far as freshwater fish is
concerned, in order for them to stay alive, they need to balance the amount of minerals and salts
in their tissues. The molecules of acid result in mucus forming in their gills, which prevents them
from absorbing oxygen in adequate amounts. Plus, the acidity, which reduces the pH level, causes
the imbalance of salt in the tissues of fish. This change in the pH level also impairs some of the
fish's ability to maintain their calcium levels. It in turn affects the reproduction processes of the
fish. Lack of calcium also causes deformed bones and weakened spines in fish.

Man-made Objects:
Other than causing harm to ecosystems, acid rain also damages man-made structures and materials.
For example, acid rain dissolves sandstone, limestone, and marble. It also corrodes ceramic,
textiles, paints, and metals. Rubber and leather deteriorate if exposed to acid rain. Stone
monuments and carvings lose their shine when exposed to this contaminated rain.
Humans:
Most of all, acid rain affects human health adversely. It can harm us through atmospheric and soil
pollution. Acid rain leads to the formation of toxic compounds by reacting with naturally occurring
chemical compounds. Once these toxic compounds are formed, they can seep into the drinking
water, and also enter the food chain. This contaminated food can damage the nerves in children,

31
or result in severe brain damage, or even death. Scientists suspect that aluminum, one of the metals
affected by acid rain, is associated with Alzheimer's disease. The emissions of nitrogen oxide and
sulfur dioxide cause problems like irritation of throat, nose and the eyes, headache, asthma, and
dry cough.

2.5 DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER: CFC, destruction of ozone layer by CFC, impact of
other green house gases, effect of ozone modification.

Ozone layer depletion:

Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline of about
4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (ozone layer) since the late
1970s, and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions
during the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole. In
addition to this well-known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric ozone
depletion events, which occur near the surface in Polar Regions during spring.
The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for the
mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends is catalytic destruction of
ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere
is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds, commonly called freons, and of
bromofluorocarbon compounds known as halons. These compounds are
transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion
mechanisms strengthened as emissions of CFCs and halos increased.
CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as ozone-depleting
substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315 nm)
of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected
decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol
that bans the production of CFCs and halos as well as related ozone depleting chemicals such as
carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences
such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations
in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
The overall amount of ozone in the stratosphere is determined by a balance between
photochemical production and recombination.
Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts, the most important of which
are the hydroxyl radical (OH•), the nitric oxide radical (NO•), atomic chlorine (Cl•) and bromine
(Br•). All of these have both natural and manmade sources; at the present time, most of the OH•
and NO• in the stratosphere is of natural origin, but human activity has dramatically increased the
levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in certain stable organic compounds,
especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which may find their way to the stratosphere without being
destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br
atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g. ('h' is
Planck's constant, 'ν' is frequency of electromagnetic radiation)
CFCl3 + hν → CFCl2 + Cl
The Cl and Br atoms can then destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles.
In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule, taking an

32
oxygen atom with it (forming ClO) and leaving a normal oxygen molecule. The chlorine monoxide
(i.e., the ClO) can react with a second molecule of ozone (i.e., O3) to yield another chlorine atom
and two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas- phase reactions is:
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
ClO + O3 → Cl + 2 O2
The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone. More complicated mechanisms
have been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere as well.
A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years
(the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove
them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine
nitrate (ClONO2). On a per atom basis, bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying
ozone, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and
bromine contribute significantly to the overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have shown
that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, in the Earth's
stratosphere, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly-bound HF,
while organic molecules which contain iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they
do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities. Furthermore, a single chlorine atom is able
to react with 100,000 ozone molecules. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the
atmosphere by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) yearly demonstrates how dangerous CFCs
are to the environment.
Effects of Ozone modification:
 Skin cancer
 Eye and lung irritation
 Reduced photosynthesis
 Affects crop productivity
 Affects weather patterns through interference with oxygen

2.6 CONTROL MEASURES: Industrial, commercial and residential air quality standard, control
measure (ESP, cyclone separator, bag house, catalytic converter, scrubber (ventury), Statement
with brief reference). 1L

Control devices:
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or transportation
devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is
emitted into the atmosphere.

Particulate control:
 Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
 Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner
is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air)
using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. ESPs are highly efficient filtration
devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the device, and can easily remove
fine particulate matter such as dust and smoke from the air stream.

33
  Baghouses: Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust
filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system
(distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
 Particulate scrubbers: Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology.
The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from
other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with
the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid,
or by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

Scrubbers:
 Baffle spray scrubber
 Cyclonic spray scrubber
 Ejector venture scrubber
 Mechanically aided scrubber
 Spray tower
 Wet scrubber

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. Which one is not a greenhouse gas?
a) CO, b) CO2, c)H2O, d) N2O
2. Which one is a greenhouse gas?
a) CO, b) H2O (vapour), c)NO2, d) SO2
3. Ozone is a pollutant when present in-
a) troposphere, b) stratosphere, c) mesosphere, d) thermosphere
4. Which one is the main component of thermosphere?
a) NO, b) O2, c) O2+, d) O3
5. The hottest region of atmosphere is-
a) troposphere, b) stratosphere, c) mesosphere, d) thermosphere
6. Main component of acid rain is -
a) H2SO4, b) HCl, c) HNO3, d) H2CO3
7. During temperature inversion-
a) Temperature decreases with altitude, b) Temperature increases with altitude,
c) Temperature remains same, d) none of these.
8. Which one of the following is most dangerous plume for pollutant dispersion?
a) fumigating, b) looping, c) lofting, d) neutral
9. Montreal protocol is related to-
a) reduction of CFCs, b) reduction of
10. Full form of PAN is-
a) Permanent Account Number, b) Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate, c) Peroxy Alkyl Nitrate, d)
None of the above

34
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Mention the atmospheric regions on the basis of thermal variation.
2. Why tropospheric lapse rate is reversed to that of stratospheric lapse rate?
3. Ozone is helpful or harmful-explain
4. Define criteria pollutant with example.
5. Distinguish between primary pollutant and secondary pollutant.
6. What is the biochemical effect of Carbon Monoxide?
7. Write down the sources and harmful effects of SO2, NO2, Pb and Particulate Matter.
8. Why Ozone is called secondary pollutant? Write down its harmful effect.
9. Define stone cancer with reaction.
10. “Taj Mahal damaged by acid rain.”-Explain with reaction
11. What is acid rain, explain with reactions. Mention its effects and control.
12. Define greenhouse effect. Mention six greenhouse gases. What are the consequences of
global warming?

35
 WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL

■ WATER QUALITY INDICATORS AND SALINITY:

 Physical indicators
 Water temperature
 Specific conductance or electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity
 Total suspended solids (TSS)
 Transparency or turbidity
 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
 Odour of water
 Color of water
 Taste of water
 Chemical indicators
 pH
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
 Dissolved oxygen (DO)
 Total hardness (TH)
 Heavy metals
 Nitrate
 Orthophosphates
 Pesticides
 Surfactants
 Biological indicators
 Ephemeroptera
 Plecoptera
 Mollusca
 Trichoptera

 Dissolved Oxygen (DO):

Amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present in water body is important measure of quality
of water. The DO depends on physical, chemical and biological activity of the water body.
The DO content of water sample can be determined iodometrically by Winkler method.
 Biological oxygen demand or Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD):
The amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic wastes aerobically by microorganisms
through oxidation process is known as Biological Oxygen Demand or Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD). It is expressed mg of oxygen required per liter of waste water (mg/l).
 The aerobic decomposition of organic matter by dissolved oxygen can be represented as
follows-
Organic matters + CO2 + H2O + Stable salts of (PO4-3,
O2 microorganisms SO4-2and NO3-1 ….) + new cells
The aerobic decomposition products are non objectionable.
Thus, oxygen demanding waste water is severe pollutants and require special attention and
care. Thus, BOD test is very important and essential.
 Five-Day BOD Test:
BOD test can take several weeks for completion thus making it impractical for routine
purpose. As a result Five day BOD test is introduced.
Five day BOD test means amount of oxygen utilized by microorganism for biodegradation
in first Five days.
Precautions during experiment:
1. The stopper of the bottle must fixed properly so that the replenished DO by
biodegradation is not filled up by oxygen from air.
2. The bottle must be kept away from sunlight otherwise algae will produce oxygen
by photosynthesis.
3. The must be carried out at 200C for its standarisation.
4. As saturated value of DO at 200C is 9.0 mg/l.
The BOD of diluted solution is given as:

f = dilution fraction;
DOi = initial DO of diluted waste water and DO5 = DO after five days
Volume of waste water
f=
Total volume of waste water (Volume of
waste water + Volume of dilution solution)
A standard BOD bottle holds 300 ml, thus

Volume of waste water

f = -----------------------
300ml
In our calculation for BOD5 we have assumed that the water used for dilution has no BOD
of its own. It is only possible if we use the boiled distilled water and keep it in air tight
prior to addition. if it is not so, then we must seed the water for dilution with
microorganisms so that there is sufficient bacterial population to carry out biodegradation.
So, in such case, the actual BOD of the waste water will be = (BOD of the mixed sample
– BOD of water for dilution).
To carry out such an experiment two BOD bottles will be taken. In one, there will be seeded
dilution water and in the other the mixture of waste water and seeded dilution water (called
‘blank’) and change of DO of water be noted.

37
 (DOi – DO5) – (Bi – B5)(1 – f)
BODw =
f
Bi = initial DO in seeded dilution water
B5 = DO in the seeded dilution water after five days
DOi = initial DO of diluted waste water
DO5 = DO after five days
Calculation : The general equation for the determination of a BOD5 value is:

𝐷1−𝐷2
BOD5 (mg/L) =
𝑓
where , D1 = initial DO of the sample,
D2 = final DO of the sample after 5 days, and
f = decimal volumetric fraction of sample used.
If 100 mL of sample are diluted to 300 mL, then f = 0.33. Notice that if no dilution was
necessary, f = 1.0 and the BOD5 is determined by D1 - D2.

If more than one dilution of the sample results in residual DO of at least 1 mg/L and a DO
depletion of at least 2 mg/L, and there is no evidence of toxicity at higher sample
concentrations or the existence of an obvious anomaly, average the results that are in the
acceptable range.
 BOD Reaction rate Constants:
The reactions occur in the BOD bottle as well as in the streams are very complicated it
could be a first order, or half order, or second order reaction. It could be a mixture of these
reactions. However, the reaction will be considered here as a first order reaction, so the
equation is:
y = L (1- e -kt )
Where: y = the BOD consumed (mg/L)
L = the ultimate first stage BOD (mg/L)
k = the rate constant ( t -1 ) to the base e
t = time in days
Under this condition, k is the reaction rate co-efficient to the base 10. It can be shown that
k = K ln10 = 2.303K.

 COD :
During COD determination total organic content of the waste is oxidized by dichromate in acid
solution.
 In this test to determine the oxygen requirement of the wastewater, strong oxidizing
agent ‘potassium dichromate’ is used.

38
  Acidic environment is provided to accelerate the reactions by addition of sulphuric
acid.
 The reflux flasks (closed reflux vials), used for the test, are heated to 150o C for two
hours with silver sulphate as catalyst. When silver sulphate catalyst is used, the
recovery of most organic compounds is greater than 92 percent.
 COD test measures virtually all oxidizable organic compounds whether biodegradable
or not, except some aromatic compounds which resists dichromate oxidation.
 The COD is proportional to BOD only for readily assimilable organic matter in
dissolved form e.g. sugars.

3.2 POLLUTANTS OF WATER: Oxygen demanding wastes, pathogens, heavy metals,

pesticides; Eutrophication (definition only).

■ POLLUTANTS OF WATER, THEIR ORIGIN AND EFFECTS:

 Oxygen demanding wastes:
One of the most important measures of water quality is the amount of dissolved oxygen
(DO) present in it. The saturated value of DO in water is in the order of 8 to 15 mg/l.
Optimum DO required for healthy fish and other aquatic life in natural water is 5 to 8 mg/l.
If do drops, fish and other aquatic life is threatened and in extreme cases, killed.
The bacterial decomposition of organic wastes in the presence of dissolved oxygen (DO)
can be represented as:
bacteria
Organic matter + DO (O2) CO2 + H2O
 Pathogens :
It is an organic pollution (biological hazard) and occurs from fecal contaminations. Fecal
contaminations of water can introduce a variety ofpathogens into waterways, including
bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms. A very well known pathogenic bacteria is
Salmonella.
 Heavy Metals :
Heavy metals are referred to as metals with specific gravity greater than 4 to 5. The most
pollutant heavy metals are Hg, Pb, Cd and As.
48
Cd =[Kr]4d105S2 80
Hg = [Xe]4f145d105S2
82
Pb = [Xe]4f145d106S26p2 33
As = [Ar]3d104S24p3

 Effects of Cadmium: 1) Kidney damage 2) Disorder of liver and brain 3) Bone marrow
disorder 4) Gastric and intestinal disorder. Japan was affected by Cd poisoning in the form
of ‘Itai-Itai’ or ‘Ouch-Ouch’ disease, causes bones fragile.
 Effect of Mercury:
Kidney damage, blurred vision, mental disorder etc.

39
 Mercury as toxic metal came into lime light
after the incidence of Minamata disease in
Japan (1953-1960).
 Effect of lead:
Lever and Kidney damage; Mental retardation;
Genetic modification.
 Effect of As:
Affects liver, damage bone marrow and
cellular elements of blood, may lead to skin
cancer.
Eutrophication: Eutrophication is an
enrichment of water by nutrient salts that
causes structural changes to the ecosystem
such as: depletion of fish species, general
deterioration of water quality and other effects Fig 3.1 Mercury in Food Chain
that reduce and preclude use”.

3.3 WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM: coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation and

filtration, disinfection, hardness and alkalinity, softening
The most modern of Watercare’s wastewater treatment plants– use primary (mechanical),
secondary (biological), tertiary (filtration) and ultraviolet (radiation) methods to treat domestic and
industrial wastewater (sewage) and storm water.

Waste water generally contains:

Organic materials, Grease and oil, Inorganic materials, Nutrients, Metals, Chemicals,
Microorganisms
Pre-treatment:
Pre-treatment, which includes screening and grit removal, is carried out at the start of the treatment
process. Pre-treatment is designed to remove solid objects, along with grease and oil, which
impede efficient wastewater treatment.
i) Screening:
Screening is the first line of treatment at the entrance to the wastewater treatment plant
where six new fine screens, arranged in parallel channels, intercept solid material in the
influent wastewater.
ii) Coagulation-flocculation:
The screened waste water might contain suspended particles, including bacteria which are
too small to be screened and to settle in a reasonable time period and if the particles are
colloidal dimensions they will never settle down. Because the colloidal particle carry same
charge and repel each other. Coagulant are some chemicals which combine with those
particle, neutralize the charges and can come together into bigger size and settled down.
The usual coagulant is Alum (Al2(SO4)3.18 H2O)
Other electrolytes can be used FeCl3, FeSO4
iii) Sedimentation:

40
 After flocculation, the water is allowed to flow through a sedimentation basin or clarifier.
Sedimentation basin is concrete tank and is circular or rectangular in shape. It can hold
water for a longer time without damage. Longer time gives better efficiency.
iv) Filtration:
The filtration unit is sand filter. It consists of multiple layers of graded gravel. The gravels
at the uppermost layer are bigger in size and those at the lowest layer are finer. The pore
openings between the sand grains are smaller in size compared to that of flow particles, so
that they cannot pass out, allowing water to be filtered.
v) Disinfection:
To remove pathogenic substances, the most commonly used chemicals are either Chlorine
(Cl2), Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or may be calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2].
Chlorine reacts with water, liberates nascent oxygen, destroys enzymatic processes in the
pathogenic cell and thus kills them.
Cl2 + H2O → HOCl + H+ + Cl-
HOCl →HCl + [O]

Fig 3.2 Mercury in Food Chain

Chlorine is very effective against bacteria, but negligible against viruses and protozoa. Also
it creates toxic Trochloromethane (THM) , e.g. Chloroform (CHCl3).
But other options like using Ozone (O3) for disinfection is costly one.
Hardness and Softening:
Water which cannot form lather easily with soap is known as hard water.
Bi-carbonate (HCO3-) salt of Ca and Mg causes temporary hardness. Sulphate (SO4-2) and
Chloride (Cl- ) salt of Ca and Mg causes permanent hardness.

41
Softening:
Removal of temporary hardness can be done by simple boiling. Permanent hardness can
be removed by Lime soda process or by Ion Exchange process.
Alkalinity:
Alkalinity is the buffering capacity of the water. It causes due to presence of Carbonate,
bi-carbonate and hydroxide ion. Alkalinity is the name given to the quantitative capacity
of an aqueous solution to neutralize an acid. Measuring alkalinity is important in
determining a stream's ability to neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater. It
is one of the best measures of the sensitivity of the stream to acid inputs. There can be long-
term changes in the alkalinity of streams and rivers in response to human disturbances.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Permanent hardness of water is due to the presence of
a) Cl- b) SO4-2 c) PO4-3 d) both (a) & (b)
2. Temporary hardness of water is due to the presence of
a) Cl- b) SO4-2 c) PO4-3 d) HCO3-
3. Lakes rich in nutritive materials are known as
a) Mesotrophic b) Oligotrophic c) Eutrophic d) None of these
4. Water will be considered as fresh water if the TDS value is
a) <1500 mg/l b)>1500 mg/l c) equal to 2000 mg/l d) None of these
5. The toxicity of Ca-45 is related to
a) Bone b) Thyroid c) Blood d) None of these
6. BOD test is done in dark to
a) Prevent light to go inside the bottle b) Prevent gas to defuse
c) Prevent light to go out d) None of these
7. The unit of BOD reaction rate constant is
a) Sec-1 b) ML-1S-1 c) ML-1 d) None of these
8. Hydrological cycle is related to
a) Green house cycle b) Water cyclec) Sedimentary cycle d) None of these
9. The saturated value of DO is approximately
a) 5 mg/l b) 9 mg/l c) 20 mg/l d) 6 mg/l
10. The BOD reaction gets completed in
a) 100 hrs b) 3 days c) 5 days d) Never gets completed

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Write down the biochemical effects of Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Lead (Pb) and
Arsenic (As).
2. Hoe Hg goes in food chain and mention some of its harmful effects.
3. Define BOD. What will be the ratio of BOD5 at 20oC, to that of BOD2.5 at 35oC ?
4. Distinguish BOD and COD. Why COD is greater than BOD?
5. Describe 5-day BOD test. Derive BOD5 = C0 (1-e-kt)
6. a. Mention the purpose of i) primary, ii) secondary and iii) tertiary waste water
treatment. b. Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of chlorine as a disinfectant.
7. What do you mean by Aerobic and Anaerobic decomposition? How both type of

42
 decompositions take place during waste water treatment in “Oxidation pond”?
8. Describe the working principle of Rotating Biological Contractor. Mention the
advantage and disadvantage of Trickling Filters.
9. Write short notes on (any three)
a) Water borne and water-washed diseases b) Surface water treatment c)Secondary
treatment of water
d) Disinfection of water e) Hydrologic cycle (water cycle)
11. The dilution factor of an unseeded mixture of waste water is 0.04. The DO of the
mixture is initially 9 mg/l and after 5 days it dropd to 3 mg/l. Find the five days BOD of
the waste.
12. In 5 days that, the DO level drop by 2 mg/l of seeded dilution water. A 300 ml
BOD bottle filled with 35 ml waste water and the rest seeded dilution water,
shows a drop of 6 mg/l an the same period (5 days). What would be the BOD5 of
the waste?
13. In a five- day test, the DO level drops by 1 mg/l of seeded dilution water. A 300
ml BOD bottle filled with 21 ml waste water and the rest seeded dilution water, shows a
drop of 6 mg/l in the same period (5 days). What will be the BOD5 of the waste?
SOLVED NUMERICAL
1. The BOD5 of a sample of waste water is found to be 325 mg/l. The initial DO of
diluted waste water is 20 mg/l and the test requires a decrease is DO of at least 4
mg/l, with at least 3 mg/l of DO remaining at the end of five days. Now, find out
the range of dilution factor (P), required to produce acceptable results.
Solution:
𝐷𝑂𝑖−𝐷𝑂𝑓
We know that BOD5 = 𝑃
,
Where DOi = Initial Dissolved Oxygen
DOf = Final Dissolved Oxygen
P = Dilution factor
Given: BOD5 = 325 mg/ Lit
Case I: DOi = 20 mg/l
DOi – DOf = 4 mg/l (at least)
So, 325 = 4 / P
So, P = 4/325 = 0.0123
Case II : Remaining DO or DOf = 3 mg /l
We know DOi = 20 mg/l
So, 325 = (20-3)/ P
Or P = 0.0523
Dilution factor (P) in the range of 0.0123 and 0.0523.

2. A waste water sample of 25 ml is diluted by adding 275 ml seeded dilution water.

DOi is found to be 9 mg/l and after five days the final DOf is 3 mg/l. If seeded
dilution water has initial Bi of 10 mg/l and Bf 8 mg/l, find the BOD5 of the waste.
Solution: The modified BOD formula:

43
 (𝐷𝑂𝑖−𝐷𝑂𝑓 )− (𝐵𝑖−𝐵𝑓)(1−𝑃)
BOD5 = 𝑃
Given: Waste water sample = 25 ml., Dilution water = 275 ml, DOi = 9 mg / l
DOf = 3 mg / l, Bi = 10 mg / l, Bf = 8 mg / l
Calculation: Dilution factor P = 25/ (275 + 25)
= 0.083
(9−3)− (10−8) (1−0.083)
BOD5 = 0.083
=50.19 mg/l

44
 LAND POLLUTION
4.1 Solid Waste: Municipal, industrial, commercial, agricultural, domestic, pathogenic (bio-
medical) and hazardous solid wastes, E-waste

■ Land Pollution
Land pollution is defines as the deterioration (destruction) of the earth's land surfaces, often
directly or indirectly as a result of man's activities and their misuse of land resources. It is the
introduction of some substances into the environment that don't normally belong there, which,
in great concentrations, can have harmful effects on plants, animals, and humans.
 Solid Waste
Materials which are mainly generated through anthropogenic activities and are
discarded as useless or unwanted are called solid wastes.
Types of Solid Waste
Solid wastes are generally of the following types:
1. Municipal solid wastes (MSW):
These are generally the non-hazardous solid wastes from a city, town or village
which are collected and transported for recycling and for disposal.
2. Industrial solid wastes:
These are the wastes that are generated from the industries. They can be organic
or inorganic depending on its nature. They may be biodegradable or non-
biodegradable. They are generally discharged from chemical industries, oil
refineries, textile industries, drug industries, etc.
3. Commercial solid wastes:
These wastes are generated from commercial places like markets, shops,
godowns and departmental stores. These include discarded packing materials,
papers, ceramics, plastic, vegetable and fish remains.
4. Agricultural solid wastes:
They generally consists of roots and stems of crops, stalk, hay, animal dung and
the remains of pesticides, herbicides and insecticides.
5. Domestic solid wastes:
These wastes are generated from household preparation and sweeping. The
common ingredients are old paper, plastic, cloth, bottles, crockery wastes,
vegetable wastes, etc.
6. Bio-medical wastes:
These are generated from hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, etc. These include
disposable syringes, used surgical dressings, expired drugs, etc which can be
highly contaminated and should be treated with great care.
7. E-wastes:
E-Waste may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment,
entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets,

45
 and refrigerators. This includes used electronics which are destined for reuse,
resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal.

4.2 SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL METHOD: Open dumping, Land filling, incineration,
composting, recycling (Advantages and disadvantages).

 Methods of solid waste disposal:

There are several methods for disposal of solid wastes. These include:
1. Open-dumping: An open dumping is defined as a land disposal site at which solid
wastes are disposed of in a manner that does not protect the environment, are
susceptible to open burning, and are exposed to the elements, vectors, and
scavengers. Open dumping can include solid waste disposal facilities or practices
that pose a reasonable probability of adverse effects on health or the environment.
Advantage:
 Dumping is easy and cheap.
 Requires less capital and less labour.
Disadvantage:
 It does not protect the environment.,
 The waste materials cause foul smell.
 The wastes are susceptible to the disease spreading organisms like flies,
mosquitoes, rodents, etc.

2. Landfill: A landfill site is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the
oldest form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the most common
method of organized waste disposal and remain so in many places around the
world.Some landfills are also used for waste management purposes, such as the
temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or processing of waste material (sorting,
treatment, or recycling). A landfill is carefully designed structure built into or on top of
the ground, in which trash is separated from the area around it. Landfills contain
garbage and serve to prevent contamination between the waste and the surrounding
environment, especially groundwater.
Sanitary landfills are sites where waste is isolated from the environment until it is safe.
It is considered when it has completely degraded biologically, chemically and
physically. Sanitary landfills work by layering waste and soil in a large hole in the
ground that is lined with plastic and clay. The waste is allowed to decompose and the
linings help prevent contamination. When landfills are full, they are often capped and
transformed into parks or natural areas.
Advantage:
 Air pollution is prevented to a large extent.
 Disease spreading organisms like flies, mosquitoes, rodents, etc. cannot
come in direct contact with the wastes and hence spreading of diseases can
be minimized.

46
  A specific location for disposal that can be monitored, where waste can be
processed to remove all recyclable materials before tipping.
 Landfills have fewer costs, allowing them to compete favorably with other
disposal methods.
Disadvantage:
 Ground water pollution is the main problem.

3. Incineration: It is a waste treatment process that involves

the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration and
other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment".
Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas and heat. The ash
is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste, and may take the form of
solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of
gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In
some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power.
Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and the volume by
95–96%, depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals
from the ash for recycling. Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment
of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous
wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures.
There are three types of incineration:
 Rotary kiln.
 Open pit incinerators.
 Controlled-air incinerators.
Advantage:
 Utilization of energy generated through oxidation reaction.
 Reduction of amount of waste.
Disadvantage:
 Expensive to build, operate, and maintain
 Smoke and ash emitted by the chimneys include gases, heavy metals,
particulates,

4. Composting: Composting is a form of waste disposal where organic waste

decomposes naturally under oxygen-rich conditions. Although all waste will
eventually decompose, only certain waste items are considered compostable and
should be added to compost containers. Food waste, such as banana peels, coffee
grinds and eggshells, are great items to compost.
Advantage:
 Foul smell is eliminated.
 Flies and mosquitoes cannot breed.
 Harmful pathogens are killed.
 Maximum nutrient(N, P, K) is obtained in usable form.
 Excessive use of chemical fertilizer is reduced.

47
 Disadvantage:
 Its dirty and can be smelly too depending on the type of materials used.

5. Recycling: Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new

materials and objects. It is an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can
save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the
waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw
materials, thereby reducing: energy usage, air pollution and water pollution.
Advantage:
 Recycling minimizes pollution.
 Protects the environment.
 Conserves natural resources.
 Ensures sustainable use of resources.
 Reduces energy consumption
Disadvantage:
 Recycling sites are always unhygienic and unsafe.
 Products recycled from wastes may not be durable.
 Recycling is not widespread on a large scale.
 Recycling might not be inexpensive.

4.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL: Hazardous and Biomedical waste.
 Hazardous Waste : Hazardous Waste can be defined as “The waste or combination of
wastes which pose substantial threat to human health and environment” . The universe of
hazardous wastes is large and diverse. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, or
contained gases. They can be the by-products of manufacturing processes, discarded used
materials, or discarded unused commercial products, such as cleaning fluids (solvents) or
pesticides. The following paragraphs provide an overview of the various ways that a waste
may be identified as hazardous waste.

Characteristic Hazardous Wastes : Wastes may be hazardous if they exhibit any of the
four characteristics of a hazardous waste (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity)
These four characteristics are:
 Ignitability – Ignitable wastes can create fires under certain conditions, undergo
spontaneous combustion, or have a flash point less than 60°C (140°F). Examples
include waste oil and used solvents.
 Corrosivity – Corrosive wastes are materials, including solids, that are acids or
bases, or that produce acidic or alkaline solutions. Aqueous wastes with a pH less
than or equal to 2.0 or greater than or equal to 12.5 are corrosive. A liquid waste
may also be corrosive if it is able to corrode metal containers, such as storage tanks,
drums, and barrels. Spent battery acid is an example.
 Reactivity – Reactive wastes are unstable under normal conditions. They can cause
explosions or release toxic fumes, gases, or vapors when heated, compressed, or

48
 mixed with water. Examples include lithium-sulfur batteries and unused
explosives.
 Toxicity – Toxic wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed (e.g.,
wastes 3 containing mercury, lead, DDT, PCBs, etc.). When toxic wastes are
disposed, the toxic constituents may leach from the waste and pollute ground water.
Classification of Hazardous Waste and their effects :
The Hazardous Wastes are mainly thee types :
1. Radioactive Waste
2. Bio-medical Waste
3. Chemical waste
 Radioactive Wastes : Radioactive waste are the type of wastes that
contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is usually a by-product of nuclear power
generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology, such as research
and medicine.
Effects of Radioactive Waste :
Radiation deleterious effect on living cells. They are classified as somatic and genetic.
Somatic effect : It is the damage to organism itself. For smaller dose it take time and the
effect may manifest malignancies .
Genetic Effect : In this case organism unexposed to radiation can get affected. The
radiation might cause gene mutation and chromosome aberrations, as well as change in
number of chromosome.
 Radioactive Waste Management
Radioactive waste management includes the possession, transportation, handling, storage,
and ultimate disposal of waste. The safe management of radioactive waste is necessary to
protect public health. If handled improperly, potential exposures of humans to high-level
radioactive waste can be dangerous, even deadly. Some radioactive wastes such as certain
types of transuranic waste can cause biological effects in humans only if the radionuclides
contained in the waste are directly inhaled or ingested. Most low-level radioactive wastes
can be handled by humans without any measurable biological effects. Nevertheless, good
handling practices of all radioactive materials and waste should be the goal to provide
optimum protection to humans and the environment. There have been historic practices
associated with the use of radioactive material where workers were unaware of potential
risks.
 Biomedical Waste :
Biomedical waste is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious)
materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste
that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused
bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or
organisms that are restricted from environmental release. Discarded sharps are considered
biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being
contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when not properly contained
and disposed of. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste. Biomedical waste may be solid
or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include discarded blood, sharps,

49
 unwanted microbiological culturesand stocks, identifiable body parts (including those as a
result of amputation), other human or animal tissue, used bandages and dressings,
discarded gloves, other medical supplies that may have been in contact with blood and body
fluids, and laboratory waste that exhibits the characteristics described above. Waste sharps
include potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets and
other devices capable of penetrating skin.
Table 4.1 Organisms and diseases caused by them

Biomedical Waste disposal :

Generally it is observed that about 85 % of the biomedical waste are infectious, 10% are
not infectious and only 5% hazardous. The normal way of disposal of biomedical solid
waste is incineration. The waste containing combustible solids is burnt in the incinerators
at high temperature.
 Chemical Waste :
Chemical waste is a waste that is made from harmful chemicals (mostly produced by large
factories) . Chemical waste is a broad term and encompasses many types of materials.
Toxic Chemicals : Toxic Chemicals may be inorganic chemicals like heavy metals, Pb,
Cd, Hg etc. or organic chemicals like dioxin, pesticides, insecticides, volatile organic
compounds etc.
Hazardous Waste Management : There are four steps involved in the hazardous
management program
1. Identification of the waste. Hazardous waste should have at least one of the following
characteristics a) Reactivity b) Ignitability c) Corrositivity d)Toxicity
2. Handling of waste : Proper Handling is very much essential as far as hazardous waste
is concerned. For proper handling several methods need to be followed

50
 a) Packaging
b) Labeling,
c) Segregation
d) Storage
e) Transportation
f) Treatment
3. Minimization of hazard : Waste minimization is a process of elimination that involves
reducing the amount of waste produced in society and helps to eliminate the generation
of harmful and persistent wastes, supporting the efforts to promote a
more sustainable society.[1] Waste minimization involves redesigning products and/or
changing societal patterns, concerning consumption and production, of waste
generation, to prevent the creation of waste.
4. Administrative control : Administrative responsibilities are very important in
hazardous waste management. The responsibilities are
a. To ensure that the container of hazardous waste is properly marked.
b. To choose correct disposal method.
c. To treat the hazardous waste correctly
d. To check the right kind of vehicle used for transportation.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The process of soil formation is due to
a) Physical weathering b) Chemical weathering c) Biological weathering
d) All of these
2. The thickness of core is about
a) 500 km b) 3,500 km c) 9,000km d) 1,200km
3. Particle size is maximum for
a) Clay b) Silt c) Sand d) Gravel
4. The specific gravity of earth’s core is about
a) 30 b) 13 c) 23 d) 33
5. The primary rock in the earth’s crust is
a) Metamorphic rock b) Igneous rock c) Sedimentary rock d) None of these
6. The imaginary line where the crust meets the mantle is known as
a) Moho discontinuityb) Gutenberg discontinuity c) Conrad discontinuity
d) None of these
7. The thickness of mantle is about
a) 2800km b) 5000km c) 1000km d) 10,000km
8. Lithosphere consists of
a) Crust b) Mantle c) Core d) All of these
9. The best method of disposal of non-hazardous solid waste is
a) Open dumping b) Sanitary land filling c) Incineration d) Compositing

51
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is Lithosphere?
2. What is primary rock? In how many classes it be classified?
3. What are the advantages of landfill?
4. What are the disadvantages of incineration?
5. What are the hazardous wastes?
6. What sort of characteristics are attributed to hazardous waste?
7. What is soil? What is pedogenesis?
8. How does soil get polluted?
9. How soil pollution can be controlled?
10. What are the problems arises with landfill?

52
 NOISE POLLUTION
5.1 NOISE AND POLLUTION: Definition of noise, noise classification [Transport noise,
occupational noise, neighbourhood noise], effect of noise pollution and its control.

■ Noise Pollution:
Noise is an unwanted, irregular, unpleasant and annoying sound, ie., sound with no musical
quality. The definition however, is subjective, because one man’s sound may be another man’s
noise. Thus, noise can be defined as ‘wrong sound, in the wrong place, at the wrong time’.
However, it is always true that if the sound is loud and it prolongs for a longer period of time, it
becomes noise for all.
Noise pollution can be defined as the unwanted sound dumped into the environment,
without considering the adverse effects it may have in relation to physical and mental health,
displeasing effect, human communication, etc.
 Classification of Anthropogenic Noise:
The different types of anthropogenic noise are-
(1) transport noise (2) occupational noise (3) neighbourhood noise.
The transport noise is further sub-divided into three categories-
(a) Road traffic noise (b) Rail traffic noise (c) Aircraft noise.
 Physiological effects of Noise pollution:
1. A sound of 65(dBA) is the noise level for conversation heard at a distance of one meter.
Sound of 110(dBA) gives discomfort and 135(dBA) is paiful and 150 (dBA) might kill
a person.
2. A sound level in the range of 110-150(dBA), affects respiratory system, cause of
physical control and other physiological changes might occur.
3. Loud sounds can cause an increased secretion of various hormones of the pituitary
gland, leading to increase blood sugar level, reducing immune system capability,
effecting liver, heart, brain and kidney.
4. Noise affects mental capability, thereby reducing mind concentration. Noise causes
chronic headache and irritability, thereby reduce work efficiency. Expose in high noise
levels caused of deafness. The hearing loss starts in the frequency range of about 4000
Hz.
 Control:
a) At the source: e.g. repairing, proper maintenance of machine, using lubricant to reduce
friction
b) At the transmission path: Sound energy transmission path can be covered by insulating
material like carpet, glasswool etc.
c) At the receiver: taking personal protection by using ear plug, ear-muff, A.C. enclosure,
thick walled room

53
5.2 MEASUREMENT AND PERMISSIBLE LIMIT: Definition of noise frequency, noise
pressure, noise intensity, noise level, mathematical expression of Decibel, related problem, noise
threshold limit value, equivalent noise level, L10 (18hr Index).
 Unit:
1. Intensity: The unit of sound intensity is decibel (dB). Generally, the sound intensity
from 0 to 100 dB is considered to be pleasant, but when the intensity exceeds 120 dB,
it cause noise. Sound intensity of 130 dB is the upper limit of hearing and beyond this
is threshold of noise, causing pain to ear. The sound more than 130 dB causes noise
pollution.
Two important parameters of sound are sound pressure and intensity. Common unit
is decibel (dB), it is a ratio expressed in terms of logarithmic scale and is
mathematically given as –
𝐼 (𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)
Decibel (dB) = 10 log10
𝐼𝑜 (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)

2. Frequency(ν): The number of wave passing through a point in one second or number
of oscillations per second is called frequency.
SI unit is hertz or cycles/second.
3. Pressure: Pressure is the force/unit area. Thus the sound waves creating pressure on
the medium through which it propagates is measured in mewton/meter2.
L10 (18 hours) Index:
It is the arithmetic average hourly values of the noise level exceeded for the 10% time over
18 hours between 06:00 and 24:00 hours on any normal week day. This scale is used to
measure road noise in the UK.
 Equivalent Noise Level (Leq):
It is the weight average sound level over time of measurement and is represented as
Leq and given in dBA unit. The time of measurement is specific and measured for a short
duration usually when the noise level is most prominent. If the measurement is done for
different time duration the value will differ. If the measurement is done for a specific period
of the time started at the same time but in different place, it may not be same. Equivalent
noise accepted by International Organisation for Standarisation (ISO). Leq is used for
measurement of noise level in the industrial. traffic as well as residential areas.
 Noise Threshold Limit Values:
When daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of noise exposure of
different levels, their combined effect needs to be considered rather than the individual
effect of each. When the sum of following fractions
C1/T1 + C2/T2 + ........... + Cn/Tn
exceeds unity, then the mixed exposure is consider to exceed the threshold limit values.
Cn indicates the total duration of exposure permitted at that level and Tn indicates the total
duration of exposure permitted at that level.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1. Decibel is the unit of- a) Intensity, b) Noise level, c) Pressure, d) Frequency
2. Human hearing frequency- a) 20-20,000 Hz, b) 60-60,000 Hz, c) 80-100 dBA, d) 10-
10,000 W/m2

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Define Noise. How it can be classified?
2. Define noise pollution. What are the harmful effects of noise pollution? How it can be
controlled a) at the source, b) at the path and at the receiver
3. Define dBA. Write down its mathematical expression.
4. What do you mean by L10 and Leq? Where these are used? 100 dB is how much louder
than 90 dB (Express in terms of intensity).
5. Define noise threshold limit value. In a work area, the noise levels are read as 100 dBA
for 3 hrs a day, 85 dBA for 2 hrs a day and 80 dBA for remaining 3 hrs a day. Conclude
whether the noise level exceeds threshold limit value.

SOLVED NUMERICALS
1. In a work area, the noise levels are read as 100(dBA) for 3 hours a day, 85(dBA) for 2
hrs. a day and 80(dBA) for remaining 3 hrs. a day. (The permissible exposures are
100(dBA)=1 hr., 85(dBA)=8 hrs. and 80(dBA)=16 hrs.)
Solution:
The problem is to find out the permissible limit.
Given,
Noise levels (dBA) 100 85 80
Measured hours 3 2 3
Permissible (hrs.) 1 8 16
Hence,
3/1 + 2/8 + 3/16 = 3 + ¼ + 3/16 = 55/16 =3 7
16
This exceeds the permissible limit of 1.
2.Calculate the intensity of 100 dB sounds.
Solution:
Reference intensity is = 1X 10 -12 w/m2
We know that
dB = 10 log I/I0

where I = measured intensity, I0 = Reference intensity = 1X 10 -12 w/m2

Thus
100 = 10 log I/1X 10 -12 w/m2
I = 10-2 w/m2
Hence the intensity is I = 1X 10-2 w/m2

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