WINDOW2 CLADDING The Performance of Gaskets in Window and Cladding Systems A ‘State of the Art’ Review Dr Richard Harris Centre for Window and Cladding Technology 1996‘The Centre for Window & Cladding Technology is an industry sponsored research and education organisation based at the University of Bath, It provides training and education for those involved in the design, fabrication and installation of cladding, ccurtain walling and windows. The Centre undertakes research funded by industry and by Government and gives technical advice to its members, Membership of the Centre is open to all, ‘who have an interest in the building envelope. Sponsors British Steel ple ‘Council for Aluminium in Building Deceuninek Lid Glass & Glazing Federation Kawneer Europe (Ove Arup Partnership Pilkington Glass Ltd ‘Schiteo International ‘Taywood Engineering Lid University of Bath‘This research report was written by the Centre for Window and Cladding Technology (CWCT) as a review of current issues and technology relating tothe design and performance of gaskets in window and cladding systems, Whilst every care has been taken in the preparation ofthis report, the CWCT cannot be held responsible or liable in any respect ofthe use to which the information inthis report is put. ‘This report may only be copied or transmitted in its entirety. No part of this report, or any conclusions reached within this report, may be used for the purposes of publicity without the express written consent of the CWCT, ‘The research work was funded by the Department ofthe Environment under research contract number 395/183. ‘The simulations described inthis report have been performed using the simulation software ANSYS. revision 5.2, running under Windows NT on a Pentium PS/60 Personal Computer. ANSYS@ is a registered trademark of SAS IP. ANSYS@ is published by ANSYS, Inc. 201 Johnson Road Houston, PA 15342-1300 USA All rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any ‘means including photocopying and recording without the written permission ofthe copyright holder, application for which be addressed to the publisher. Such written permission must be obtained before ‘any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. Centre for Window and Cladding Technology April 1996 ISBN 1 874003 07 6 Published by Centre for Window and Cladding Technology University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AYTABLE OF CONTENTS 4 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Performance of gaskets in window and cladding systems, 1.2 Scope 2 GLOSSARY 2.1 Joints 2.1.1 General terms 2411.1 Joint 21.1.2 Fixed joint 2.1.1.3 Opening joint 2.1.14 Open joint 2.1.1.5 Wet-sealed joint 2.1.1.6 Dry-sealed joint 2.1.1.7 Self-sealed joint 2.1.1.8 Mounting surface 2.1.1.9 Contact surface 2.1.1.10 Rain-sereen 2.1.11 Baffle 2.1.1.12 Drip 2.2 Gaskets 2.2.1 General terms 2.2.1.1 Gasket 2.2.1.2 Weather-strip 2.2.1.3 Draught-strip 2.2.14 Glazing gasket 2.2.1.5 Picture-frame or frame gasket 2.2.1.6 Ladder gasket 2.2.2 Gasket shapes 22.2.1 Profile 2.2.22 Push-in gasket 2223 Slide-in gasket 2.2.2.4 Drive-in or wedge gasket 2.2.2.5 Channel gasket 2.2.26 Lock-strip gasket 2.227 Firetree or E-gasket 222.8 Crescent gasket 2.2.2.9 Flipper or V-gasket 222110 Tubular O- and P-gaskets 2.22.11 Sheathed gasket 2.22.12 Pile or brush gasket 2.2.13 Anti-stretch device 2.22.14 Tear-off strip 2.2.2.15 Foot, dart or arrowhead 2.22.16 Race 2.22.17 Locating groove 2.22.18 Nib 2.2.3 Gasket materials 223.1 Polymer 2.23.2 Rubber or Elastomer 2.23.3 Thermoset elastomer 2.2°344 Vuleanisation o2.2.3.5 Thermoplastic elastomer 2.2.3.6 Cellular rubbers 2.2.3.7 Closed-cell rubbers 2.23.8 Open-eell nibbers 2.2.4 Manufacturing and installation processes 2.24.1 Extrusion 2.2.4.2 Shot moulding and injection moulding 22.43 Co-extrusion 23 Closure Figure 2.1.1 Examples of glossary terms relating to joint in general '2)a vertical section (elevation) through pre-cast concrete cladding panels »b) a horizontal section (plan) through pre-cast concrete cladding panels Figure 2.1.1 Examples of glossary terms relating to joints in general ‘) horizontal section (plan) through a door jamb (inward opening) 4) a vertical section (elevation) through a door sll Figure 2.1.1 Examples of glossary terms relating to joints in general 9 10 10 10 n un n 2 ‘) ahorizontal section (plan) through a curtain walling frame (mullion with glazed-in outward- ‘opening PVC-U window) Figure 2.2.1 Examples of glossary terms relating to gaskets in general Figure 22.2 Examples of glossary terms relating to gasket shapes, 3 THE JOINT (AND THE PHYSICS OF FLUID FLOW) 3.1 The need for a gasket 3.2 Joint leakage 3.2.1 Air leakage 3.2.1.1 Discomfort 3.2.1.2 Energy efficiency 3.2.1.3 ‘Pressure moderation’ and ‘pressure equalisation’ 3.2.1.4 Relationship between airtighiness and closing foree 3.2.2 Water leakage 3.2.2.1 Gravity flow 3.2.2.2 Pressure flow 3.2.23 Kinetic flow 3.2.2.4 Surface tension effects 3.2.2.5 Pumped flow 3.2.2.6 Air-supported droplets 3.22.7 Summary of water movement through joints 3.2.2.8 The need for drainage 3.2.3 Water vapour diffusion 3.3 Examples of joint design 3.3.1 Rain-screen over-cladding 3.3.2 Scandinaviantype casement windows 3.3.3 Roof windows 3.3.4 Summary of joint design to discourage water leakage 3.4 Closure Figure 3.3.1 Joints in a rain-screen cladding system a) a vertical section (elevation) through a panel ») a horizontal section (plan) through a pane! Figure 3.3.2 Joints in a Seandinavian-type window Figure 3.3.3 Joints ina roof window 12 B 4 15Figure 3.3.4 Joint design and seal location for windows 4 THE PROPERTIES OF GASKET MATERIALS 4.1 Mechanical properties of traditional materials. 4.1.1 Traditional ‘small strain’ material behaviour 4.1.1.1 Shear 4.1.1.2 Bulk modulus 4.1.13 Strain energy 4.2 Mechanical properties of rubber materials 42.1 Large strain material behaviour 4.2.2 Three-dimensional stress-strain behaviour 4.2.2.1 Invariants 4.2.3 Strain energy models for rubber materials 4.23.1 The Gaussian model for strain energy in rubber 4.23.2 Other models for the behaviour of solid rubber 4.2.3.3 Models for the behaviour of foam rubber 4.2.4 Time-dependent behaviour of materials under strain 4.2.4.1 Demonstrating creep behaviour 4.2.4.2 Compression set and deflection recovery 4.2.43 Accelerated ageing of polymers 42.5 Current material tests for polymers 4.3 Additives and compatibility of polymers 4.4 Effect of fire on rubber 45 Closure Figure 4.1.1 Stress-strain behaviour ofa traditional engineering material in simple tension Figure 4.1.1.1 A cube of material in shear Figure 4.2.1 Relationship between hardness and Young's modulus for incompressible rubbers '2) the relationship between the Shore ‘A’, Shore ‘D' and International Rubber Degree of Hardness (.R.H.D.) hardness scales by the relationship between LR.H.D. hardness and small-srain Young's modulus Figure 4.2.2 Three-dimensional stresses in the unit cube Figure 4.2.4 Models for ereep and relaxation in materials a) the Kelvin model for creep ») the Maxwell model for relaxation Figure 4.2.4 Models for ereep and relaxation in materials ‘) the “standard linear solid’ model for combined creep and relaxation Figure 4.2.4.1 Time-dependent load-extension characteristic of rubber Figure 42.5 Comparative study of compression set of different rubbers tested at different temperatures (taken from Park Rubber Ltd (1980s)) 5 THE PROPERTIES OF GASKETS 5.1 Force-compression characteristics 5.1.1 Measuring force-compression characteristics 5.1.2 Gasket A =the tubular weather-strip 5.1.2.1 Relationship between force of compression and Young’s modulus 5.1.3 Gasket B - the E-zasket 5.1.8 Gasket C -the black erescent-wedge gasket 5.1.5 Gasket D - the white crescent-wedge gasket 5.1.6 Gasket E - the cellular rubber block5.1.7 Summary of measuring and simulating force-compression characteristics 5.2 Using gasket force-compression characteristics ‘5.2.1 Design joint force 5.2.2 Allowing for joint and gasket tolerances 5.233 Joint movement due to wind- and snow-loading 5.2.4 Effect of ageing on force-compression characteristics 5.2.4.1 Gaskets operating on principles of deflection 53 Tests and standards which relate to gasket performance 5.3.1 Design standards 5.3.2 Performance standards 5.3.3 Material property standards 5.3.4 Component property standards 5.3.5 British Standards relevant to gasket design 54 Closure Figure 5.1.1 A jig for measuring gasket force-compression characteristies Figure 5.1.2 Gasket 4 - the tubular weather-strip a) the gasket b) results ofthe material load-extension test Figure 5.1.2 Gasket A - the tubular weather-strip €€) Mooney plot ofthe material oad-extension test results 4) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics Figure 5.1.2 Gasket A - the tubular weather-strip ©) shape of the weather-strip at simulation failure Figure 5.1.3 Gasket B - the E-pasket a) the pasket b) results of the material load-extension test Figure 5.1.3 Gasket B - the E-gasket ©) Mooney plot ofthe material load-extension test results 4) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics Figure 5.1.4 Gasket C - the black erescent-wedge gasket 1) the gasket b) results of the material load-extension test Figure 5.1.4 Gasket C the black erescent-wedge gasket, ©) Mooney plot ofthe material load-extension test results 4d) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics Figure 5.1.5 Gasket D - the white erescent-wedge gasket 1) the pasket ») results ofthe material load-extension test Figure 5.1.5 Gasket D - the white crescent-wedge gasket ‘€) Mooney plot of the material load-extension test results 4) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics Figure 5.1.6 Gasket E - the cellular rubber block a) the gasket >) results of the material load-extension test Figure 5.1.6 Gasket E the cellular rubber block ©) Mooney plot ofthe material load-extension test results 4d) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics Figure 5.2.1 A typical joint with opposing gaskets retaining an infill 2) joint components prior to assembly +b) combining the force-compression characteristics of opposing gaskets, Figure 5.2.2 Effect of tolerances on a typical joint with opposing gaskets retaining an infill a) gasket and infill tolerances b) frame tolerances 64 64 65 66 a7 68 68 68 6 6 0coc fet of tolerances on a typical join wth opposing gaskets retaining an nfl ©) the combined force-compression characteristic 85 8s Figure 52.3 The foree-compresion characteristics of two opposing gaskets, showing the effects of a nominal wind-load 86 {fBure 5.2.4 The force-compression characteristics of two opposing gaskets, showing possible effects of compression set 6 INSTALLATION AND REPLACEMENT 6.1 Designing for insta tion 62 Installation guidance 6.2.1 Joining guidance 6.2.1.1 Notched comers 6.2.1.2 Pressure- or sealant-sealed corners 62.1.3 Glued comers 62.1.4 Welded corners 62.1.3 Vuleanised comers 6.2.1.6 Injection-moulded comers (62.2 Gasket and joint identification 63 Designing for replacement {63.1 Standardisation of gasket profiles 644 Gaskets and weather-tightness 6.5 Closure Figure 62 Low temperature flexibility of diferent types of rubber Figure 6.2.1 Methods of joining gaskets 7 COMMUNICATION IN JOINT AND GASKET DESIGN ice requirements 7.1.1 The joint and gasket design process 7.1.1.1 Size 7.1.1.2 Shape 7.1.1.6 Material 7.1.1.7 Installation 7.2 The role of standards 73 Summary Figure 7.1.1.6 A typical comparative chart of rubber material performance REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A SIMULATING THE FORCE-COMPRESSION CHARACTERISTICS OF GASKETS Aut Setting up the analysis 86 87 87 87 88 88 88 89 89 39 90 90 92 92 93 93 94 95‘A.2 Defining the loads and running the analysis ‘Ad Analysing the results ‘Ad Closure Figure A.1 The simulation of gasket A 4) the simulation drawing ») the finite element mesh4 INTRODUCTION Gaskets are used to limit the passage of fluids though a joint. However, there are additional functions that a gasket performs, and a more complete list might be: control the passage of Mids (ar and water) through the joint retain one component within nother transmit forces across the joint allow relative movement ofthe join surfaces accommodate variations due to manufacturing tolerances ‘Some of these properties are assessed by testing, although in an indirect manner. For example weather- tightness testing of a door or window necessarily tests the performance of the various gaskets, but ‘cannot identify the contribution of each gasket other than by noting where leakage has occurred, Also, ‘by applying a pressure difference across the component, either for weather-tightness testing or as part of ‘a wind-loading assessment, itis possible to identify whether the gaskets perform properly under typical load conditions. However, although a wind-loading test may be both preceded and followed by air- and \water-tightness tests (to check that components such as gaskets have not failed, or been caused to cease working by deformation of the mounting and contact surfaces), such tests are never carried out on ‘components that have been in service for long periods of time, and the component and gasket designer have no information about long term joint performance. ‘This research report was prepared by the Centre for Window and Cladding Technology (CWCT) as a review of current issues and technology relating tothe design and performance of gaskets in window and cladding systems. The CWCT has reviewed all aspects of gasket performance and use, and has ‘undertaken formal interviews and informal discussions with gasket producers and users, a survey of existing literature, and a simple experimental study of the mechanical behaviour of some typical ‘gaskets. This report is relevant to anyone involved in the design and specification of joints and gaskets, 14 Performance of gaskets in window and cladding systems ‘The original intention ofthe research project was to study the performance of gaskets from a ‘mater and shapes" point of view - i. what are the best materials and shapes to use for gaskets. It soon became apparent however that the design, manufacture and installation processes, both forthe gasket and the joint, are prone to the problems that occur as a lack of communication between the various parties involved in the processes - in particular the joint is often an interface between two components from different suppliers and the responsibility for the joint falls onto an unprepared third party. Improving the level of knowledge about gasket materials and shapes is therefore unlikely to have any ‘impact unless the communication process is improved. ‘This report therefore examines al issues related tothe performance, design and use of gaskets, 12 Scope In the scope of construction systems a gasket can be defined as, “a pre-formed element used to seal a joint against the passage of water or air” ‘This definition is only intended to exclude those types of joint seal which are applied tothe joint in a liquid state and allowed to cure or harden in the joint. Generally the gnsket is manufactured from one (or several in some cases) of many different kinds of synthetic rubber or plastic, and the gasket is usually formed by a process of extrusion or moulding.‘The term ‘gasket’ is actually very loose, and may be applied to any pre-formed joint-sealing element. However, some types of gasket are identified according to the function that they have. Thus, a ‘glazing ensket’ is used between a glazing frame and the glazing, the erm ‘weatherstrip applies to @ gasket intended to deter water from entering a joint, and the term ‘draught-strip’ is applied \here the primary purpose is to limit the passage of air through a joint. where the term ‘gasket’ is used it refers tal types of pre-formed seal, Where the terms ‘weather-strip’ and ‘draught-strip” are used itis generally to avoid confusion where there may be two or ‘more seals in a joint, ‘The remainder of this report is divided into 6 chapters. Chapter 2 provides a glossary of the more general terms used in this report. Chapter 3 considers the joint, and examines how the performance of | the joint can be improved before a seal is introduced. Chapter 4 looks atthe engineering properties of gasket materials in comparison with other materials, and Chapter 5 examines the performance of ‘gaskets themselves. Chapter 6 discusses issues relating to installation and replacement of gaskets, and. Chapter 7 discusses communication issues.2 GLOSSARY ‘The definitions below apply to this report, and most ae in general use. Figures are used to illustrate the definitions where appropriate: 24 Joints 244 General terms Figures 2.1.1(2) to (e) give examples ofthe following terms’ 24.11 Joint {A joint is formed by the close proximity ofthe surfaces of two adjacent components. A joint generally passes from one exposed surface ofthe building facade tothe other, although it might be defined as passing from one exposed surface to some significant cavity within the facade. 241.2 Fixed joint {A fixed joint is a permanent joint in which the eal will be broken only if one of the joint components (or the seal) needs to be replaced. 24.1.3 Opening joint {A joint is an opening joint if one or both of the components is fitted with hinges, rails or some other ‘device which allows the component to be moved easly, thereby breaking the seal on a frequent basis. 21.1.4 — Openjoint ‘An open joint is one where the joint surfaces are permanently separated by a clear gap, without any form of added sealing device. However, an open joint may be shielded in some way or shaped to ‘prevent direct passage of fluids through the joint. 2.11.5 — Wet-sealed joint ‘A wet-sealed joint is one in which the sealing function is performed by a sealant applied ina liquid state and allowed fo cure or harden in place. 2.11.6 — Dry-sealed joint ‘A dry-scaled joint is one in which the sealing function is performed by some device, generally called a ‘gasket, which is pre-formed and installed in a solid state. However, sealant tapes, in which a sealant is applied first to a removable substrate and later transferred tothe joint as a strip of material, may be considered as gaskets, because the sealant is applied to the joint in a hardened form. Similarly a sealant-impregnated foam may be considered to be a gasket.24.4.7 Self-sealed joint A self-sealed joint is one in which the contact pressure between the joint surfaces is expected to cause sufficient deformation ofthe surfaces to create a seal. The joint between a glazing bead and a glazing. frame isa typical self-sealed joint. In the absence of sufficient sealing pressure it may be necessary t0 introduce a seal (usually a wet-applied small joint sealant) -an example isthe joint berween a glazing frame and a sub-sill, 2.4.1.8 Mounting surface ‘The mounting surface is any surface of the joint onto which a sali retained, typically by means of a ‘mechanical fixing, a pustfit or an adhesive system. In some eases both surfaces ofa joint might be ‘mounting surfaces if two components are intended not tobe separated - an example isthe double- adhesive-backed security glazing tape sometimes used to fix a glazing unit into a window frame. 211.9 Contact surface ‘The contact surface is any surface of the joint with which a seal makes contact but does not adhere. 2.1.1.10 Rain-scroen ‘A rain-screen is a device used to discourage water from entering a joint by shielding the entrance to the joint. 214.41 Batlle ‘A baffle isa device used within a joint to prevent the direct passage of water through the joint. The baffled joint has gaps which allow the movement of air through the joint but intercept any drops of ‘water which enter the joint 24142 Drip AA drip is a feature, usually a step or a recess, intended to separate a flow of water from a surface. A, drip is usually used on the underside of an overhanging component to prevent water from running into an otherwise sheltered joint. 22 Gaskets 224 General terms Figure 2.2.1 illustrates the following terms: 2214 — Gasket ‘A gasket is any pre-formed seal, principally intended to seal a joint against the passage of air, water or both.2.24.2 Weather-strip ‘A weather-strip is a seal whose primary function is to prevent water fiom entering a joint. The weather- Strip is often visible on the exposed side of the joint and may be intended to act asa rain-screen, rather than eliminate all water penetration 22. 3 Draught-strip ‘A draught-strip isa seal whose primary function isto prevent the passage of air through the joint. 22. |4 Glazing gasket ‘A glazing gasket isa gasket that is used in a fixed joint between a glazing frame and the glazing. The term infill gasket may also be used, where panels other than glazing are involved Picture-frame or frame gasket {A piture-frame gasket or frame gasket is a continuous gasket with integral comers (formed either by ‘welding or injection moulding) which is used around the perimeter of sealed-in glazing or infill panels. 2.2.1.6 Ladder gasket A ladder gasket is a continuous gasket which has the appearance ofa ladder, used where several panels are to be sealed in place ina continuous run. 2.22 Gasket shapes Examples of the following terms are shown in Figure 2.22: 2221 — Profile ‘The profi the shape of the gasket, in cross-section. 2.222 — Push-in gasket ‘A push-in gasket is designed to be fitted into a groove in the mounting surface, prior to the formation of the joint. It should be possible to remove a push-in gasket by pulling it from the groove. 2223 — Slide-in gasket A stlide-in gasket is designed to slide into a groove on the mounting surface, but must be installed from the end of the groove. A slide-in gasket can usually only be removed by sliding it out from the end of the groove.2.2.24 Drive-in or wedge gasket ‘A drive-in or wedge gasket is designed tobe forced into the gap between the mounting surface and contact surface, usually as the last stage in sealing the join. A drive-in gasket can usually be removed by pulling it from the joint, although it may be manufactured with a rigid strip which makes this dificult 22.25 — Channel gasket AA channel gasket wraps around the edge ofa component, usually an infill panel or glazing unit, which then pushes into a channel in another component, A channel gasket cannot be replaced without disassembling the joint. 2.226 — Lock-strip gasket A lock-strip gasket has a removable strip which allows the gasket to be opened up for installation, the sirip being replaced to lock the gasket into place 2.227 — Firtree or E-gaskot A fir-tree or E-gasket has @ number of protruding arms which meet the contact surface at an angle and accommodate movement by deflection ofthe arms (Working as a cantilever). The profile of such a ‘gasket looks like a letter “E’, or resembles the branches ofa fir-tree. The number of contact arms is ‘riable, and the arms do not all need to point in the same direction, nor do they need to be of the same length. Double-sided fir-iree gaskets may be used to seal joints between cladding panels. 222. Crescent gasket A crescent gasket has a crescent-shaped profile. Wedge gaskets are predominately ofthis shape, although wedge gaskets may also have a fir-tree profile. Wedge gaskets are usually used for the retention of glazing or infill components. 2229 — Flipper or V-gasket A flipper gasket has a single angled contact arm, which works as a cantilever. This type of gasket is usually used for draught-stripping or weather-stripping, 22.210 Tubular O- and P-gaskets A tubular gasket works by compression ofa thin-walled tube. The tube need not have a regular shape, ‘These gaskets are generally used as weather-stripping. The tube may be filled witha flexible foam ‘material, and may have protrusions to stabilise the compression behaviour of the tube so that it does not deflect to one side. 22211 — Sheathed gasket A sheathed gasket has a core of one material, usually a foam, coated with an outer layer of some more durable material. A strip of rigid material may be included in the gasket foot to give a more positive retention in the mounting surface. This type of gasket is used for draught-stripping or weather- stripping,2.22.12 Pile or brush gasket A pile or brush gasket has a large number of durable fibres set into a rigid base. This type of gasket usually has a flexible plastic strip or strips running along the length of the gasket between the fibres to provide an air-sea. Pile gaskets are commonly used in sliding joins to provide a draught-stripping function with low sliding friction. 2.2213 Anti-stretch device ‘An ant-stretch device (either a strip of some plastic material or a non-elastic cable running through the gasket) may be incorporated in a gasket to prevent the gasket from being stretched during installation, ‘The device may be a coloured rigid strip running along a gasket which also identifies the gasket size, proteets the gasket from abrasion during installation and discourages removal of the gasket. 22.214 Toaroff strip “The tear-off strip is a part of the gasket which can be removed to change the size of joint gap into which the gasket will fit. This device is often used on wedge gaskets, and removal of the tear-off strip allows the gasket to be forced into a narrower joint. 2.22.15 — Foot, dart or arrowhead ‘The foot isa part of the gasket which is shaped to fit into a slot on the mounting surface. ‘The foot may also be called a dart or an arrowhead, which relate to its shape. 2.2216 Race ‘The race is the groove on the mounting surface into which a gasket foot is located 2.2217 Locating groove ‘The locating groove is found on the back of wedge gaskets, and is designed to fit over a nib or protrusion on the mounting surface. 2.22.18 Nib ‘The nib is protrusion on the mounting surface which presses into the groove on the back of a wedge gasket 2.23 Gasket materials Polymer science is a major diseipline in its own right, and the following definitions are very simplistic. ‘The reader should be aware that distinctions between different materials are often blurred by the infinite ‘variety of compounds, blends and alloys that are possible, and that it is rarely possible to define the behaviour ofa given material in simple terms.2.23.1 Polymer ‘A polymer is a high molecular weight compound made by joining together low molecular weight building blocks called monomers. Several different monomers may be combined to form a single polymer, and the monomers may be connected in linear chains or branched chains, and in an ordered or random pattern. Each polymer chain may contain several thousand monomer units, and different polymers may be alloyed together and/or further processed to produce a synthetic rubber. 2.23.2 Rubber or Elastomer A rubber or elastomer is a polymer material existing in a highly clastic state. Generally to be called rubber or elastomer a material should be capable of being stretched rapidly to high extensions and then snap back to its original shape and size when released (ie. it should retain elastic behaviour at very high strains, often 500% or more). Note that a polymer may only appear to be rubbery or elastomeric in a particular range of temperature or blend, and that the behaviour may not be perfectly elastic and may be time-dependent. 2.233 — Thermoset elastomer Ina thermoset elastomer the molecular siructure of the processed polymer is fixed and cannot be reprocessed even if heat and pressure are applied. Such materials cannot be recycled 2234 — Vuleanisation ‘The term vuleanisation is applied to the process by which the individual chains in a polymer mass are caused to form atomic bonds (usually called cross-links) which join the chains together. A thermoset elastomer generally contains such cross-links. A number of processes may be used to initiate ‘vuleanisation, including the application of heat, pressure or radiation, often with special chemicals added to encourage vulcanisation to occur. 2.2.3.5 Thermoplastic elastomer {Ina thermoplastic elastomer re-processing can occur with the application of sufficient heat and pressure. A thermoplastic elastomer usually has a molecular structure in which regions of flexible ‘material (Which exhibit rubber-like behaviour) are interspersed by regions of glassy material (which act as cross-links). ‘The regions of rubber-like and glass-like material may be parts ofthe same polymer chain, 223.6 Cellular rubbers Cellular rubbers have gas-filled pockets within the material which are formed during the production process. The cells may not be of uniform size and shape, and are not necessarily air-filled. 223.7 — Closed-coll rubbers A closed-cell rubber is acellular material in which the gas-filled pockets are separate from ane another. Closed-cell rubbers are generally air- and water-tight2.23.8 Open-cell rubbers ‘An open-cell rubber is acellular material in which adjacent cells open onto one-another. Such rubbers ‘are not airtight, and may absorb water unless treated with suitable water-tepellent chemicals. 2.24 Manufacturing and installation processes 2.24.1 — Extrusion Extrusion isa process by which materials are forced, at high temperature and pressure, through a die at ‘a steady rate, The result is a continuous length of material with a uniform cross-section. However, the profile of a rubber extrusion may differ from the profile of the die as a result of material expansion (die swell) inthe short interval between extrusion and cooling ofthe rubber. 2.2.4.2 Shot moulding and injection moulding ‘Shot moulding and injection moulding are names given to the process by wich an amount of molten ‘material is forced, under high pressure, into a mould. This process may be used to form complex joins between two lengihs of pre-extruded gasket. In shot moulding a measured amount of material (the shot) {s added to the injector and then forced into the mould; in injection moulding a continuous reservoir of ‘molten material is used. 2.24.3 — Co-extrusion Co-extrusion isa process by which two or more materials are extruded together. This process may be used to extrude a thermoplastic gasket directly onto a PVC-U glazing bead, to extrude two different blends of the same polymer together, to extrude two different colours of material together, or to extrude ‘ polymer material onto some other type of material 2.3 Closure ‘The list of terms given above is not intended to be exhaustive, but should include the more significant terms. Additional terms may be introduced in the remainder of this document, and they will be explained where appropriate.Figure 2.1.4 Examples of glossary terms relating to joints in general OUTSIDE JOINT (OPEN) INSIDE 4) vertical section (elevation) through pre-cast concrete cladding panels . a Jom (OPEN) INsi0e (ee ourse 4) a horizontal section (plan) through pre-cast concrete cladding panelsFigure 2.1.4 Examples of glossary terms relating to joints in general — 2m Wingo, SELF SEALED) on oP=taN6,ORY-SEALED) ¢) @horizontal section (plan) through a door jamb (inward opening) sone orate, cn sen.20) = ) a vertical section (elevation) through @ door sillFigure 2.4.4 Examples of glossary terms relating to joints in general son Feo) mse ©) a horizontal section (plan) through a curtain walling frame (mullion with glazed-in ‘outward-opening PVC-U window)Figure 2.2.4 Examples of glossary terms relating to gaskets in general CASKET weatwretp) neu casKersFigure 2.2.2 Examples of glossary terms relating to gasket shapes PUSHIN GASKETS: SLIDE,IN GASKETS. uu cox | OGASKET GASKET —_FIR-TREE GASKET (( @ FLIPPER CRESCENT — EWEDGE GASKET WeDce Sa CHANNEL GASKET P.CASKET i SHEATHED GASKET3 THE JOINT (and the physics of fluid flow) “The act of producing a building facade comprises the design and selection of a large number of dissimilar components which must then be joined together through a large variety of different interfaces to form a whole which (if it has been done properly) performs to the design specification, However, the performance of the whole is not so much a sum of the parts, but rather a product of the holes between, the parts, andthe performance of the facade is often only as good as the weakest interface. The sealed Joint is one of the most dificult interfaces to get right. 34 The need for a gasket {An important question, and yet one that isnot always asked, is: “do Ineed a gasket?” ‘Although this might seem like an unusual question ther is often an impulse to put some kindof sal into every joint, on the basis that a joint with a seal must be bette than a joint without a seal. However, the designer should also ask the questions: “will the seal improve the join performance?” “will the chosen type of seal be the most cost-effective?” 1a will happen when the seal fails?” ‘When failure of a joint seal occurs then there are three further points to consider: “which flulds can pass through the joint (air or water) and how will dhey affect the performance and durability of other components?” “pill the failure reduce the performance of the jointed system in any other way?” and “how easily can the seal be replaced?” ‘These points are very important, particularly the issue of what will happen when the seal fails - seals in ‘an exposed position may have an arduous life, and if they were required in the first place they clearly ‘must be replaced if they start to show signs of failure. ‘Types of seal which can be readily replaced are ‘obviously preferable, particularly where there are health and safety issues related to the need to gain. access to the failed seal and replace it “The optimum joint design must be one in which the number of seals is minimised and the seals are of a type that can be easily repaired or replaced. This chapter discusses joints and the physics of air and water movement through joints and identifies the ways in which joints can be designed to reduce the need for additional sealing. 3.2 Joint leakage ‘Air and water leakege through a joint in @ facade may lead to several problems, ranging from occupant discomfort in draughts, to damage to property by contact with water, or even damage to structural clements of the building envelope. ‘The diffusion of water vapour through a joint may be a significant ‘benefit in terms of reducing the risk of condensation within the facade, or may be a significant factor in ‘causing condensation within the facade, depending on where the joint is“The main issues are: 324 Air leakage {Although some air movement is required through the facade, for ventilation purposes, a modem view is thatthe air movement should be controlled. Uncontrolled air ‘leakage’ is generally the result of poor joint design, and may cause discomfort, result in poor energy efficiency, and lead to a failure of performance in pressure-moderated or pressure-equalised systems. 3.2.1.1 Discomfort “The presence of significant air movements may lead to occupier discomfort in two ways - either the ‘ecupier ofa room isin the direct line ofthe moving air and feels cold as a result (the draught generally below body temperature even without allowing for ‘wind chill’), or some other lightweight item isin the direct path ofthe air jet and moves as a result (papers blowing off a desk, curtains billowing over a window or slatted blinds vibrating). The joint and gasket designers should aim to eliminate jets of air moving through a joint | Draughts are discussed in CIRIA SP87A (1992), which gives a simple chart relating acceptable air ‘velocity (in terms of occupant comfort) to air temperature, The acceptable velocity ranges from about (0.1 mis for air at 17°C, to about 0.5 mvs for air at 30°C. For the laminar flow of air through a uniform ‘gap between two parallel plane surfaces the mean air velocity is related to the pressure different ‘across the joint by vis the mean velocity, in m/s 1 is the width of the gap between the surfaces, in m ‘tis the dynamic viscosity of the air, about 1.810 Nsim®)

Baht en fy AYA ee tronsaarn na) a pecs nan) ) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics 16Figure 5.1.4 Gasket C - the black crescent-wedge gasket a) the gasket ecient mate b) results of the material load-extension testFigure 5.1.4 Gasket C - the black crescent-wedge gasket it eit) [pir eatnraoetoneonyit Caterer d) measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics *Figure 6.1.5 a) the gasket pees ie eeotsg nce ==> beatport Gasket D - the white crescent-wedge gasket 'b) results of the material load-extension test »Figure 6.1.6 Gasket D - the white crescent-wedge gasket Moers sacs si mec tennant F a <= tes nrpt oy ‘ 6) Mooney plot of the material load-extension test results a Senaoee Pn) cao ake at ‘measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics 80q Figure 5.1.6 Gasket E - the cellular rubber block a) the gasket cient iat = ie mers == nesgepesteentonaannes b) results of the material load-extension testFigure 6.1.6 Gasket & - the cellular rubber block news E ©) Mooney plot of the material load-extension test results cman cate Caetcoonsssa on measured and predicted gasket force-compression characteristics 2Figure 5.2.4 ‘Atypical joint with opposing gaskets retaining an infill, TPH, ) joint components prior to assembly won ° a) 4) combining the force-compression characteristics of opposing gackete 83Figure 5.2.2 Effect of tolerances on a typical joint with opposing gaskets retaining an infill Tit, bee. Tet, a) gasket and infil tolerances EN area Btb (eee L 4) frame tolerancesEffect of tolerances on a typical joint with opposing gaskets retaining an infill ¢) the combined force-compression characteristic 85Figure 6.2.3 The force-compression characteristics of two opposing gaskets, showing the effects of a nominal wind-load x ss Figure 5.2.4 The force-compression characteristics of two opposing gaskets, ‘showing possible effects of compression set 866 INSTALLATION AND REPLACEMENT It does not matter how much effort is expended in designing the perfect joint and the perfect gasket if it is then installed by an untrained work-force with little appreciation of the performance requirements of ‘sealed joint. Many joints appear to be formed on the basis that ‘I can’t see a gap, soit must be tight and yet the time-dependent behaviour of most polymer materials means that a gap-less installation may soon become an open joint. ‘The need for proper seals, backed up with good drainage, is nowhere more important than in systems glazed with sealed multiple glazing units. The durability of the edge seal of multiple glazing ean be strongly reduced by the presence of standing water at the edge of the unit (Garvin 1993), Ultra-violet radiation can also have a detrimental effect on some edge sealants, and good cover of the glazing unit ‘edge detail by the gasket is recommended. However, the installation of glazing units is often carried ‘out by an unsupervised and untrained work-force -a poorly supervised and untrained worker will ‘always attempt to do the job in the least time and with the least effort. There are several steps that should be taken to improve the chance of suecessful installation of the gasket and acceptable performance of the joint 64 Designing for installation It is not acceptable to blame the installer for all sealed-oint failures. In many cases the designer could take steps to reduce the opportunity for the installer to ‘cut corners’. A case in point is the problem of stretching gaskets into place, which might provide a weather-tight joint for a short period, but which ‘would ultimately lead to gaps appearing at joins in the seal and the consequent passage of air and water. ‘The results of section 4.2.4.1 clearly illustrate how a length of rubber that has been stretched can continue to contract several days after installation. The retraction of a piece of rubber may not be reduced significantly by the presence of friction - wind-loading will continuously work the joint, helping the gasket to return to its original length. 6.2 ‘The Canadian standard CAN/CGSB-51.92 (1992) gives significant guidance for weather-strip installation. Amongst the guidance is the requirement that weather-strips are stored un-wrapped for 4 hours at room temperature, prior to use, and that all weather-strips shall have been tested. The user is to prefer weather-strips with the highest range of deflections (thereby minimising problems due to poor installation, poor construction of the joint and cumulative tolerances) and with the best durability performance, There is also a requirement to inspect weather-strips before installation and reject any ith visible defects, Replacement weather-strips should match existing strips as closely as possible, and the old seal should be fully removed. Replacement seals should not be installed until the door or ‘window has been properly realigned. Adhesive backed products should not be installed in temperatures below 4°C, where the mounting surface is below 4°C, or where there is frost on the surface. Minimum distortion ofthe weather-strip should occur during installation, andthe proper fixing method should be used. Where joints must be formed at comers these should be made air-tight withthe application of a ‘minimum amount of silicone sealant. ‘The seals should be cut over-long ifpossible. Although the ‘Canadian climate is somewhat more severe than the UK climate this guidance is infact common-sense and ought to be followed regardless of the conditions of service. ASTM C 963 (1985) and C 716 (1987) give guidance on the packaging, shipping, storage and installation of lock-strip gaskets. The need to protect the gasket prior to installation is emphasised, and significant guidance is given forthe installation process. ASTM C 716 stresses the need for a clean, ddry, warm environment during the installation process, with the gasket remaining flexible enough to instal. It is recommended that gaskets are unpacked and left in a relaxed state for 24 hours at 21°C prior to installation, to allow the gasket to recover its natural shape, although the use of immersion in hhot water is allowed when the ambient temperature is below 10°C and there isn’t a suitable warm room for recovery. It should be noted however thatthe gaaket will expand when warm and 0 must be eut 87‘over-length! ‘This specification also requires that both joint and gasket be inspected prior to instalation, and that critical dimensions are checked, ‘The use of sharp or pointed tools isto be avoided, to minimise the risk of damaging the gaskets, and ifa lubricant is used to aid installation then “the lubricant shall be nonstaining, nontoxie, noncorrosive, chemically stable, compatible with all ‘contact components, easily removable from exposed surfaces by dry wiping or with water, and acceptable to the manufacturer of the supporting frame, panel, and gasket"! BS 6262 (1982) gives general guidance on the installation ofa numberof different types of gasket system. An interesting point is made in the use of distance pieces wherever a sealant is used to fix lazing into a frame: the distance pieces provides a support forthe glazing and prevent the sealant from. being squeezed out ofthe joint. Such distance pieces should also be used wherever a pre-formed Sealant tape is used, unless the sealant tape contains some form of shim. As an example Tremco (1994) broduce the Polyshim range of sealant tapes, which contain an EPDM-based rubber cord running through the butyl sealant. This rubber cord prevents the sealant tape from being over-compressed. BS 6262 also includes a table (Table 22) which summarises extemal glazing systems suitable for different types of glass, However, although guidance is given as to the use of gaskets it is generally ofthe form ‘refer to the manufacturers/gasket designers instructions’. BS 8000:Part 7 (1990) repeats the installation guidance given in BS 6262, Low-temperature flexibility of rubber is an important factor where gaskets have to be installed on site. ‘The general relationship between temperature and flexibility is shown in Figure 6.2, as presented by Park Rubber Ltd (1980s). It is worth noting that silicone rubber has the best low-temperature flexibility, and that the EPDM and the TPR are also very good. As a general rule however itis not ‘recommended that any gasket or sealant be installed in temperatures below 5°C - even at this moderate ‘temperature the joint may have opened up due to thermal contraction of the joint components, leading to the risk of crushing the seal at higher summer-time temperatures, 6.24 Joining guidance Gaskets are often joined to form a continuous seal around the perimeter ofan infill component. There are a number of ways by which comers can be formed: 6.2.1.1 Notched corners AA notched comer is formed by cutting a V-shaped section from the hidden side of the gasket and then folding a continuous length into place, witha butt-join near the midpoint of one side ofthe frame. ‘The ‘buttjoin may be “buttered” over with a sealant, or a significant gap may be let to encourage pressure- ‘moderation. There is no guarantee with this method that the comers will not fail - the presence of a cut Could even encourage the rubber to tear, particularly under the influence of fluctuating windsloads, A similar approach isto simply fold the gasket around the comer, without cutting. Such a comer is unlikely o give a good seal - the folded shape of the gasket creates a non-flat contact face, and the ‘additional material that is pushed into the comer may hold the joint apart. 6.21.2 Pressure- or sealant-sealed corners A simpler approach isto cut the gasket and install it as a number of discrete lengths. The comer joins ‘ay be buttered over, although ifthe gaskets are compressed into place length-wise the corners might be left without further sealing, relying on compressive force to hold the cut ends together. Indeed, ‘cutting the lengths of gasket too short is the major reason for failure of such joins, although earcless selection of sealant may also be a factor. Before applying any sealant to a gasket the advice of the gasket and sealant manufacturers should be sought, because there are issues of material compatibility as highlighted in 4.3. 88‘The SFTC (1986) identify several ways in which seals ean be joined together by the two methods hove, depending on the profile ofthe seal. The basic methods are shown in Figure 6.2.1 6.2.1.3 Glued comers {A third possiblity is that joins can be sealed by the application of an adhesive. The major drawback with this method is that many gasket joins are made on-site, usually at a late stage in the construction process, and the level of surface preparation required for a good adhesive bond is unlikely to be achieved. Adhesive bonds are more reliable if factory-made, ina controlled environment, and are useful for bonding to form comers at unusual angles. The higher stress concentrations that may occur at sharp comers should be considered before adhesive bonds are specified however. Furthermore the adhesive may not remain flexible in the long term, and compatibility of the adhesive with the gasket ‘material must be checked, ‘There is a clear need for the merits of adhesive joins to be investigated. It may be easiest to form an adhesive join with a gasket which has a simple profil, but these gaskets might also be dry (pressure) Joined most successfully. Where dry-joins can be difficult, for example with some of the more complex E-gaskets (particularly those with several arms of very different lengths) it may also be difficult to make 1 satisfactory adhesive join, An alternative is to make the join as a dry-join and “butter’ over the join ‘ith a sealant immediately before assembly. There is clear scope to investigate the airtightness of different joins, and to investigate how long an adhesive join must be left to cure before assembly = it is almost certain that a labourer on a building site will nether read the instructions on the tube of adhesive ‘or allow the appropriate cure time before compressing the joined gasket into the joint. ‘An interesting and simple test might be to take a length of gasket and eut it atthe midpoint with a single ‘cut at 45° to the length ofthe gasket. ‘The ends ean then be bonded together with the relevant adhe and two tess carried out forthe first test the gasket should be compressed into a joint and then released (or compressed using a simple jig). The state of the bond afer compression can then be investigated. This test will be more realistic however if a comer sample of the gasket is tested. ‘The second test ‘would take the length of gasket (this can be performed after the fist test, or on a freshly prepared join) ‘and simply stretch the gasket by applying a load to the ends, The load at which the join fails ean be noted. Such a test could be performed on a range of joins which have been cured for differing time periods, and will show how the bond-strength varies with cure-time. With the methods of 6.2.1.2 and 6.2.1.3 itis also possible to use gasket comers which have been formed by moulding, and to join lengths of extruded gasket between the moulded comers. The join is perpendicular tothe length of the gasket, and stress concentrations in the corner can be reduced by moulding a curved corner, This approach is often used where the gaskets along the edges of the ‘opening are of different types or thickness and could not be joined together otherwise. 6.2.14 Welded comers ‘A welded comer can be formed if the rubber isa thermoplastic. The gasket is cut with a hot knife and the molten ends then pressed together. 621.5 Vulcanised corners Vuleanised comers are formed using a special ‘glue’ that is able to link itself into the chemical structure ‘of the rubber - after application ofthe glue the cut ends ofthe gasket are placed into a special mould, where they are heated to cure the joint. This type of joining can be carried out on-site as the heating units are portable, 896.2.1.6 Injection-moulded corners ‘To form an injection-moulded corner the cut ends of two lengths of gasket are placed into a special ‘mould and more rubber is injected into the mould under high pressure and high temperature. The injected rubber (which is generally a thermoset) vulcanises and bonds tothe eut ends. The join is continuous, and again the comer may be shaped to reduce stress concentrations. The injected rubber may be ofa different grade, The choice of comer-joining method is often dictated by cost, the need to make joins on-site, and the short time period in which the gaskets must be supplied and fitted. There is also a concern that gaskets. Which are formed into frames in the factory may not fit ifthe construction tolerances are not carefully controlled. However, a gasket should not be used unless the designer is either prepared to insist on tolerances being achieved or to allow for the worst effects of tolerances, and it isnot acceptable to sacrifice performance by refusing to supervise and control the construction process. Ifthe joint designer feels thatthe joint size eannot be controlled then alternative methods of sealing should be found. It is reasonable to argue that only factory-assombled systems, or systems which are designed to accommodate tolerances should make use of gaskets. Systems such as tick-system curtain walling are usually provided with adjustable brackets which allow poor construction tolerances on the frame of the building to be compensated for, and full-frame gaskets can be (and are) specified for such systems. In terms of the effect ofthe installed gasket on water leakage Cronshaw (1974) reports tests in which the weather-tghiness of a number of gasketted windows was tested, and in all eases the joint did not leak at the gasket/glass seal line but did leak where there were gaps in the gasket around the perimeter of the joint. Ruggiero and Myers (1992) report typical failures in joins fitted with gaskets as being related to gaps ‘opening atthe comers of gaskets. The effects of non-uniform compression (angular tolerances, variable tightening of fixing serews) ar also identified as leading to water penetration Kudder and Lies (1992) highlight the fact tat the joint designer should consider potential joins between seals, where gaskets may need to be joined together or sealed-between. Very often the installer is left 0 solve problems of poor detailing and may simply leave a gap in the joint. The need to design the joint to allow water to drain away i also repeated. ASTM C 964 (1988) isa guide to lock-strip glazing, and identifies several issues of design which can affect the seal performance, with regard to wind-loading and leakage, The need to avoid protrusions of the contact surface is stated, as is the need to achieve a continuous and uniform pressure along all of the sealing surfaces. It is recommended that moulded comers are curved, because a curved sealing lip gives a more even contact than a square comer lip. Where comers are made by adhesive bonding, or ‘cut ends simply butted together and filled with sealant, it is stated thatthe installation technique, and location and type of adhesive and sealant, should be as recommended by the manufacturer. The need for proper drainage is again stated, indicating that seal failure may still occur even if carefully installed. ‘The effect of tolerances is also discussed, as are different types of loading. 622 Gasket and joint identification is always desirable to be able to identify @ gasket through some form of permanent marking and, for frame gaskets, to identify the joint into which the gasket isto be fitted. Best practice in terms of gasket identification within the construction industry currently marks the gasket with an identification number during the manufacture process. This allows the gasket to be traced by the production company and the ‘material identified, assuming that their records are properly maintained. For identifying the particular joint into which a frame gasket must be fitted best practice is currently to label each frame gasket (with ‘a removable label) with an identification code which relates to a master drawing of a building elevation. 90Both of these labelling methods are adequate, and immeasurably preferable to the production of unlabelled gaskets. However, even if' gasket carries an identification number it may not be possible to trace the original supplier of the gaskets, or the manufacturing records may be lost. A better form of labelling is one that is universal and based on the properties ofthe material. A typical such procedure is that given in SAE 1200 (1988), ‘SAE 1200 defines a ‘line call-out’ specification for rubber used in automotive applications. An example ofa line eall-out is SAE 1200M2BCS07A 14034 ‘The various terms mean Basie requirements: ‘SAE 1200 line call-out to SAE 1200 M based on SI units 2 rade number 2 B type of material (defines temperature for heat ageing test), im this case 100°C c class of material (defines volume swell of material), in this case 120% 5 durometer hardness, inthis case 5045 07 ‘minimum tensile strength, inthis case 7 MPa Suffix requirements: A heat resistance required, 1 tested to ASTM D 573 for 70 hours, 4 at 100°C EO fluid resistance required, 3 tested to ASTM D471 in No, 3 oil for 70 hours, 4 at 100°C The grade number defines the standards that must be used to determine the following properties - required tests differ for different grades. ‘There are additional suffixes that may be added to the line call-out, including some to define the particular type of material to be used, and there are extensive tables of tests and acceptable properties. ‘The call-out is intended for specification. However, itis equally possible to define a simple line eall- out to list the measured properties ofa particular gasket material, and this alternative should be considered. The number of tests defined in BS 4255:Part 1 (1986) is not great, and a simple coding system could be readily established, Indeed, a simple system exists in the Japanese standard JIS A. 5756 (1989), which creates an identification ofthe following type GLCRI [4] in which the terms mean GI glazing gasket CR —_chloroprene system J ‘mounted on glazing bead [4] dimension (ia mm between glazing bead and glass surfaces 1Tis system identifies the basic type and dimension of the gasket, the join type and the class of rubber. ‘There are also classifications for solid and hollow gaskets (inthe ease of air-scas). Canadian standard CAN/CSGB-51.91 (1992) gives guidelines forthe labelling of weather-stripping, including statements as tothe lation (exposed or non-exposed), mode of operation (compressive, bending, wiping, sliding), installation type (gap-controlled, stable, adjustable, blade) and restraining method (clamped, retrained, unrestrained). The properties ofthe seal are also tobe stated, as determined from the standard tests in CANICSGB-51,90, 63 Designing for replacement It is nonsensical that if a window ‘fails’ due to significant water penetration then itis easier to replace the whole window than its forthe ordinary home-owner to buy a new set of seals and fit them. ‘Traditional timber windows on the other hand, with single glazing retained using putty, are still in service after more than 100 years. These windows were simple to maintain, and the home-owner could replace defective parts with litte effort. Today's windows are far more complex, incorporating many advanced features, and yet the window designer rarely appears to consider that some parts will have to be replaced by the home owner. The home owner may not be able to identify the original souree of the ‘easkets, may find the original window installer to be less than helpful, and is unlikely to find similar ‘gaskets in the local DIY super-store ~ at leat if there were standards for the basic performance features of gaskets (particularly mounting details) this would not be a problem, as replacement gaskets could be obtained from a number of sources. It is worth considering whether the window designer would be hhappy to find that his new car has spark plugs of a unique design, from an unidentified source, with a non-standard fixing, and not available in his local motor-spares retail outlets! Perera, Turner and Seivyer (1994) make the significant statement that ‘Designers should anticipate the need for gasket replacement at some stage ofthe building's life by opting for designs which allow easy access, removal and replacement of gaskets and any associated flashings'. Draught-strips are included in this statement, and are perhaps more likely to be replaced. Clearly the long-term air-tghtness ofthe building envelope is important, and the design of the gasket is going to be significant in terms of the ease with which it can be replaced in future years. A typical example is a timber door in which the ‘eather-stripping pushes into a ker inthe door frame. The seal material may become rigid during its life, and prevent the door from opening or closing properly. However, finding a replacement seal suitable for the same slot inthe frame may be difficult, and the householder is more likely to purchase a roll of self-adhesive draught-strip from the local DIY superstore. Fitting such a product is only going to be possible however ifthe door frame has a suitable platform onto which the draught-strip can be fixed, ‘and the door designer may consider this possibilty and make suitable provision 6.3.4 Standardisation of gasket profiles ‘The use of standard gasket profiles would greatly simplify the design of joints. The ability to choose a suitable gasket off-the-shelf would simplify the design of many systems, and indeed some gasket producers, most commonly those producing wedge gaskets, do offer a range of gaskets. Some ‘manufactures also recommend shapes for the mounting foot-and-race or groove-and-nib. However, there is still a tendency for some systems producers to want a unique design of gasket for each product, ‘with the result that there are literally thousands of different gasket designs currently available. ‘Some systems suppliers do act sensibly inthe production of gaskets - itis not unusual for the design of ‘a new window or curtain walling system to start by discarding the previous system but retaining the gaskets if they have worked satisfactorily before, However, there are problems where, for example, the hardware on a window has been changed and the new hardware interferes with the operation of seals - in this case the gaskets are unlikely to be re-designedThe advantages of common gasket designs are several-fold ‘+ standard dies can be used for extrusion and moulding, thereby reducing production lead-time and startup costs * itis only necessary to select a suitable material, reducing the number of design decisions which need to be taken - materials could also be standardised, subject to compatibility requirements ‘costs could be reduced, because the gaskets would be available from a number of suppliers the risk of failure could be reduced, because the standard gaskets would be selected from the best currently available ‘+ it would be easier to select a gasket to meet a specified level of performance replacement gaskets may be made available forthe home owner or building owner to make suitable repairs as part of ongoing maintenance Even if gasket profiles are not standardised there is much to be sad for the standardisation of mounting details, This would also improve the chances of finding a suitable replacement gasket for systems that have begun to leak, and would reduce the number of variables thatthe joint designer has to contend with 64 Gaskets and weather-tightness ‘A-commonly reported problem with many window and curtain walling systems is that fabrication ‘companies buy te framing profiles but do not buy the gaskets and weather-stripping from the same supplier. Subsequent failures are then unfairly blamed on the systems company, whose name is ‘associated with the window or curtain walling frame. Cleerly this problem could be avoided if the frame and gasket were packaged together, but also the fabricator and customer both need to be made aware that ‘any weather-tightness rating of the product does not apply ifthe gaskets have been substituted ‘the cost saving for a substitution gasket is actually very small compared to the potential costs of hhaving to repair damage due to water penetration ifthe gasket fails ‘= itis the responsibility ofthe fabricator to show that a ‘hybrid’ system meets the required performance specification Itmay be advantageous for the system supplier to insist onthe fabricator using the proper gasket for the {job, although the competitive nature of the market may discourage this - the fabricator might opt to buy frames from a supplier who is not being so ‘unreasonable’. However, it can be argued that it isthe {fabricator who is being unreasonable in assuming that he knows more about the performance of the Joint than the system supplier and is educated enough to re-select the joint seal. 6.5 Closure ‘The installer is usually blamed if there are problems with the weather-tightness of the finished product. However, in many cases the installer is allowed to change the system that is being installed, use ‘ancillary products such as adhesives and sealants without checking their suitability, and is not provided with any guidance to do the job properly. Furthermore, the joint or seal may not have been sensibly designed and may produce problems thatthe installer has to fix on site in @ very limited time-span, Standardisation of joints, gaskets and gasket materials would clearly reduce the problems, but is unlikely to happen without the eonsensus ofthe industry. 3Figure 6.2 Low temperature flexibility of different types of rubber (from Park Rubber Ltd (1980s) z 5 § 5 & e z 3 i le 8 fe g 3 8 POM ‘TEMPERATURE © su. 8 & s i (eam smnoon TenorsuoD) ‘952444118 ONISYauON 94Figure 6.2.1 Methods of joining gaskets (from SFTC (1986)) A 8 i Close bute joint | itu I | to achieve | contiuous ani on inade ot FY contin (rae Cut corners | removed Staple Continuous Hatoveiag on outage of comer Fig. 12 Comer Details Continuous around corners Fig. 17 Corner Details Potent tapit Sot ie Sominves Sruch shou be Close butting | smal noteh ie Feauleed ot te tnd of ths Seal Fig. 18 Butting at Corner 957 COMMUNICATION IN JOINT AND GASKET DESIGN -ant finding of this research project has been that there are many shortcomings inthe design process which arise as a result ofa lack of communication between the individuals responsible for the ‘design and production of the joint and those responsible for the design and production of the seal. It has become apparent that a typical way of working is forthe joint designer to progress the design to the point where manufacture ofthe joint components is underway before the gasket producer has even been approached. In one case, which ithas been suggested is quite typical, the gasket producer had been sent ‘box of frame sections for a new window system and asked to provide a new gasket! The gasket producer simply did not have the option to change the design of the frame, as this would have required the frame manufacturer to produce new extrusion dies forthe product. A better method of working isto involve the gasket producer in the design ofthe product at the earliest possible stage, and a number of companies have reported that by doing this they feel much more in control of the performance oftheir products, and are happier thatthe gasket producer is doing the best job. 7A Performance requirements ‘An important finding ofthis research project is that many gasket producers do not actually know what performance is required of window, curtain walling or cladding systems, and yet they are expected to design a component that has a significant effect on performance. Weather-tightness must be the commonest aspect of performance that is measured for any window or cladding system, and yet itis the ‘most likely to be compromised by the lack of communication in the gasket and joint design processes. In part the lack of communication is caused by the lack of written guidance defining the significant performance criteria of gaskets and cladding systems. If simple checklist existed of gasket-related performance factors then this might encourage the joint designer to communicate more with the gasket producer. Indeed, it should be possible to define a range of standard gasket profiles, available in a choice of materials, which give a known performance. Clearly the duty of a joint and a joint gasket is complex, and there are many factors that need to be taken into consideration. The wide range of products that use gaskets is also a factor; typical products, include: fixed windows ‘easement windows vertical sliding windows horizontal sliding windows vertical axis tit windows horizontal axis tlt windows roof windows and sky-lights louvres ‘lazed-in ventilators conservatories curtain walling patent glazing and sloped gl cladding systems ‘easement doors bi-directional doors rotating doors double doors sliding doors split doors internal doors access hatches ig systems 7Some of the qualities that may be required ofa gasket, and which could be communicated, are high temperature operation low temperature operation low temperature flexibility (for installation on cold days) UY stability impact resistance abrasion resistance resistance to set resistance to deflection high stiffness low stiffness ‘The gasket might also need to be: + strongly retained + easy to remove easy to deflect © hard to stretch © easy to join Furthermore the gasket may be used in a jin that i + permanent (glazing gasket) + working (window weather-strip) + exposed sheltered low duty ‘medium duty heavy duty ‘The joint designer can do worse than decide from the above lists what performance issues are significant - the gasket designer should then be consulted at an early stage in the overall design process and allowed to make recommendations as to the joint width and mounting details. When the gnsket is produced and the final product is tested the gasket producer should be kept informed as tothe performance of the various seals, and should be allowed to make suggestions as to possible improvements in the design. Only by a process of communication and feedback ean the de component or system be properly understood. of any TAA ‘The joint and gasket design process The design process for a joint and its associated gasket(s) could be broken down into 7 key steps: © shape © type fixing joining material installation ‘These points are elaborated upon in the following sections: 98TIAA Size “The first issue isto determine the mean size of the joint, making due allowance for movements (structural, thermal and moisture related) and tolerances (manufacture and installation). The range of ‘movements may preclude the use of a gasket, or may need the joint to be designed so that a gasket is used in a wiping mode (rather than a compressive mode). Alternatively the range of tolerances may ‘mean that a number of gaskets have to be made available and instructions given to the installer to ‘measure the joint and select the right gasket on-site. ‘The joint size may also be influenced by issues such as aesthetics ~ a small joint is less visible and does not disturb the appearance of a surface 74. .2 Shape “The shape of the joint is important - it has already been discussed how a joint can be designed to ‘minimise water penetration by suitable shaping of the joint. It is also necessary to consider how the joint will perform if water does get in, and this requires drainage channels to be included in the joint. ‘The interaction between horizontal and vertical joints in a cladding system may also be important. 74.43 Type ‘The next stage i to determine the type of seal that is required, and this may be influenced by the materials from which the joint surfaces are made, and by the ease with which a given type of seal ean be installed and replaced. It may be decided that a wet-applied sealant is appropriate, or thatthe joint can be left open, with a simple baffle to intercept water. Ofcourse, ifa gasket is to be used it may be possible to buy gaskets ofa standard design. Some gasket ‘manufacturers produce ranges of basic gasket profiles, and some manufacturers also provide recommended details forthe frames, in terms of the shape of support nibs and gasket races, together ‘with clear installation guidance, This will make the design process easier and levels of performance ‘may be guaranteed. Carruthers and Bedding (1981) include a chart which allows the best type of weather-strip to be identified for a particular joint size. Such a chart is invaluable to the door and window designer for selecting the type of weather strip according tothe joint BRE Digest 319 (1987) also looks at weather-stripping and provides a chart of which types of weather- stripping are suitable for which types of window or door (steel or timber, casement, sliding or pivot) ‘The benefits of draught-proofing are also shown in the form of charts comparing air leakage before and after draught-stripping, 7.444 Fixing Ifa gasket is to be used then the designers must consider how itis to be fixed, and ths will also have an {impact on how it can be replaced. It may be appropriate to design the joint so that several types of seal could be applied - for example a door frame could be provided with a slot for inserting the initial weather-strip and a flat surface for subsequent application of adhesive-backed draught-strips by the building owner. 9974.4.5 Joining Joins in the gasket must be considered and the method of joining established, Many seals perform ‘adequately but leak at improperly formed joins. Note that the gasket shape may influence the choice of Joining method. 7.4.4.6 Material ‘The material does not need to be selected until the end of the design process, At this point the location ‘and duty of the seal should have been determined and the gasket producer will know whether the gasket is exposed or sheltered, and the range of environmental conditions to which it will be subjected. ‘The selection of gasket material is one decision that the joint designer often takes without consultation, ‘and on the basis of little more than prior experience (there is a difference between having a lot of ‘experience and having experience of doing the job properly!) and hearsay. The selection of material ‘may even be based on a chart similar to that of Figure 7.1.1.6, which isa simple comparative study of different materials, I should be noted thatthe values in this chart are representative of the materials at the time of preparation, and eannot take account of changes in technology, new additives which give better performance, or the fact that terms such as ‘EPDM’ refer to a class of materials based on the basic EPDM polymer but with a wide range of attainable properties. Furthermore such charts are not necessarily produced just to apply tothe cladding joint designer - they may be intended to be of equal use to the automotive, aerospace, hydraulic and textile industries, 7.4.1.7 Installation The final stage isto examine how the gasket will be installed, Installation guidance should be Straightforward to prepare ifthe joint and gasket have been properly designed. In this final stage the designers should aim to identify possible problems which could occur on-site and which the installer ‘would be expected to work around. It might be possible to anticipate the need for a sealant to butter over joints, and suitable sealants could be identified - the preparation of a lst of approved sealants, would discourage the installer from changing the process. ‘The steps outlined above are quite simple to follow, and communication between the various parties inyolved will increase the likelihood of a successful design. However, it should be remembered that this process need not be performed for every joint, because itis often possible to use a design of joint and gasket that has been used before! This Variation on the design process is followed by a number of ‘companies, often door and window producers - put simply ifa joint and gasket works then keep on using it! I is always sensible to start the design of @ new prodiict around those parts of the previous. product that performed well and can be retained. It may only be that a gasket or joint needs to be redesigned if some performance rating ofthe product needs to be increased, usually the weather- tightness, BRE Digest 137 (1977) also identifies issues which have to be considered when designing a joint. A checklists provided in which several items are listed which would require communication between the joint designer and the gasket designer. ‘As a final note in this section Trueman (1993) notes that fitting ofa seal is very important, and thatthe fit of the gasket into the joint is important. However, the author also states that his company produces ‘more than 3000 different designs! Selecting the right seal for the job can only be made more difficult if there is such a proliferation of ch 100