UNIT - I ALGEBRA

Chapter 1.1: MATRIX AND DETERMINANTS

Introduction:
Matrix and its applications are very important part of Mathematics. Also it is one of
the most powerful tools of Mathematics.
Matrix notation and operation are used in electronic spread sheet programmes for
personal computer, business budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysing the results
of an experiment etc. Also many physical operations such as magnification, rotation and
reflection through a plane can be represented mathematically by matrices. Also matrix used
in Cryptography.
Matrix:
Matrix is represented a rectangular array of members (or) elements arranged in rows
and columns.
The numbers (or) Letters which are entries in the matrix are called element of the
matrix.
For example:
Raju has 10 notebooks and 15 pens Mani has 5 notebooks and 2 pens. Malar has 9
note books and 5 pens.
We can write the above information into matrix
Note Books Pens
Raju 10 15
Mani [ ]
5 2
Malar 9 5
One more example:
Let we have 3 linear eqn with 3 unknowns a, b, c.
a+b+c =3
2a – b + c =2
3a + 2b – 2c =3
Let us write down the co-efficients of a, b, c in the above eqn in the order which they
occur and enclose them within a bracket.
Then we get

<1>
 1 1 1
A = [2 −1 1 ]
3 2 −2
Here A is Matrix
The horizontal expression is called Row of the matrix.
i.e. [ 1 1 1] Ist Row
The vertical expression is called column of the matrix.
1
i.e. [2] Ist column
3
Order of the matrix:
If a matrix having m rows and n column then the matrix will be m x n (can read m by n)
Example:
1 2
A = [3 4]
5 6
Here A has 3 rows and 2 column. So order of matrix is 3 x 2.
Problems:
Find the order of the following matrix.
1 3 −1
(i) A = [5 0 2 ]
7 5 8
2 1
(ii) B = [ ]
3 4
(iii) C = [7 0 2]
1
(iv) D = [ 2 ]
-4
Type of Matrix:
1. Row matrix : A matrix is said to be a row matrix. If it has only one row and any number
of columns.
Eg. A = [1 2 3] is a row matrix of order 1 x 3.
2. Column Matrix:
A matrix is said to be a column matrix. If it has only one column and any number of
rows.
4
Eg. B = [ 3 ] is a column matrix of order 3 x 1.
9

<2>
3. Null (or) Zero Matrix:
In a Matrix if all the elements are zero, then that matrix is called Null (or) Zero
matrix. It is denoted by O.
0 0
Eg. O = [ ] is zero matrix of order 2 x 2.
0 0
4. Square Matrix:
In a matrix, if number of rows equal to the number of columns then the matrix is
called a square matrix.
1 2 3
(i) A = [4 5 6]
7 8 9
Here, number of rows = number of columns = 3 then A is a square matrix of order
3 x 3.
5. Triangular Matrix:
(a) Upper Triangular Matrix:
In a square matrix if all the elements below the leading diagonal are zero is called
upper triangular matrix.
1 2 3

Eg. A = 0 5 6

[0 Leading diagonal
0 9]

(b) Lower Triangular Matrix:

In a square matrix if all the element above the leading diagonal is zero, then it is
called Lower Triangular Matrix.
1 0 0

Eg. B = 4 5 0

[7 Leading diagonal
8 9]
6. Transpose of Matrix
In a square matrix of A then the transpose of matrix A is a matrix obtained from A by
changing the Rows into columns and columns into Rows respectively.
2 0 3
Eg. If A = [ 1 5 6]
2 −1 9
2 1 2
Then AT = [0 5 −1 ]
3 6 9

<3>
Note:
(i) If a matrix A is of order m x n then the order of AT is n x m.
(ii) (AT)T = A.
7. Symmetric Matrix:
Let A be any square matrix. If A = AT then that matrix A is called symmetric matrix.
For Example:
a h g a h g
If A = [ h b f ] then AT = [h b f]
g + c g + c
 A = AT
 A is symmetric.
8. Skew Symmetric Matrix:
Let A be any square matrix. If A = -AT then that matrix A is called skew symmetric
matrix.
For Example:
a h g a h g
If A = [ −h b f] T
then A = [−h b +]
−g −f c −g −f c
Here A = AT
 A is skew symmetric.
9. Diagonal Matrix:
In a square matrix, if all the elements except, the elements of leading Diagonal (or) main
diagonal are zero then that matrix is called Diagonal matrix.
a 0 0

Eg. A = 0 b 0

[0 Leading diagonal
0 c]
10. Scalar Matrix:
In a square matrix. If all the elements of the leading diagonal are equal and other
elements are zero, then that matrix is called scalar matrix.
a 0 0

Eg. A = 0 a 0

[0 0 a]

<4>
11. Unit Matrix:
In a square matrix, if all the elements of the leading diagonal are 1 and other elements are
zero, then that matrix is called Unit Matrix.
If is denoted by I.
1 0 0

Eg. I3 = 0 1 0 is a unit matrix of order 3.

[0 0 1]
1 0
I2 = [ ] is a unit matrix of order 2.
0 1
12. Singular Matrix’s Non-singular matrix
If a matrix A is said to be a singular then | A | = 0. Otherwise it is non-singular matrix.
(ie) | A |  0.
Example: 1
2 3
Show that the matrix [ ] is non-singular.
4 5
Solution:
2 3
Let A = [ ]
4 5
2 3
|A| = [ ]
4 5
= 10 – 12
|A| = -2 0
 A is non singular.
Example: 2
1 −2
P.T. the matrix [ ] is a singular matrix.
−2 4
Solution:
1 −2
Let B = [ ]
−2 4
1 −2
|B| = [ ]
−2 4
= 4–4
|B| = Xerox copy incomplete
.

<5>
Operations on Matrices:
i) Addition and subtraction of matrices
ii) Multiplication of matrix by a scalar
iii) Multiplication of matrices
i) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices:
Two Matrices can be added (or) subtracted if they have the same order. We can add (or)
subtract two matrices by the corresponding element by element.
For Example:
1 2 7 1 3 1
If A = [ 0 4 5 ], B = [2 4 0]
3 1 6 1 7 5
Find A + B
Solution:
1 2 7 1 3 1
A+B = [0 4 5] + [2 4 0]
3 1 6 1 7 5
1+1 2+3 7+1
= [0+2 4+4 5+0]
3+1 1+7 6+5
2 5 8
A+B = [2 8 5 ]
4 8 11
Example: 2
1 3 5 7 3 4
If A = [ 2 0 7] and B = [1 −1 5]
1 5 2 0 2 4
Find A - B
Solution:
1 3 5 7 3 4
A-B = [2 0 7] - [1 −1 5 ]
1 5 2 0 2 4
1−7 3−3 5−4
 [ 2−1 0 − (−1) 7 − 1 ]
1− 0 5−2 2−4
−6 0 1
A-B  [ 1 1 6 ]
1 3 −2
ii) Matrix Multiplication by a scalar:
We can multiply the matrix by any non-zero scalar [(value) number] obtain we get the
matrix whose all the elements are multiplied by that same scalar.

<6>
 4 3 2 −3 1 0
If A = [ 5 1 0] & B = [ 2 7 1]
7 2 8 4 3 5
Then find 2A and 7B
Solution:
4 3 2
2A = 2 [5 1 0]
7 2 8
2x4 2x3 2x2
 [2x5 2x1 2x0]
2x7 2x2 2x8
8 6 4
2A  [ 10 2 0 ]
14 4 16

−3 1 0
7B = 7 [ 2 7 1]
4 3 5
7x3 7x1 7x0
 [7x2 7x7 7x1]
7x4 7x3 7x5
−21 7 0
7B = [ 14 49 7 ]
28 21 35
Example: 2
1 2 −5 7
If A = [ ], b = [ ] then find 4A - 2B
3 5 0 4
Solution:
1 2
4A = 4 [ ]
3 5
4 8
4A  [ ] ------- (1)
12 20
−5 7
2B = 2 [ ]
0 4
−10 14
2B = [ ] ------- (2)
0 8
4 8 −10 14
4A - 2B = [ ] - [ ]
12 20 0 8
14 6
4A - 2B  [ ]
12 12
iii) Multiplication of Matrices:
Two Matrices can be multiplied if they have the same order.

<7>
Let we have A, B, C are three matrices of same order.
a1 b1 p1 q1 x1 y1
i.e A = [ ], B = [p q2 ], C = [x y2 ]
a2 a2 2 2

a1 b1 p1 q1
then, AB = [ ] [ ]
a2 b2 p2 q2
a1 p1 + b1 p2 a1 q1 + b1 q2
AB  [ ]
a2 p1 + b2 p2 a2 q1 + b1 q2
p1 q1 x1 y1
BC = [ ] [ ]
p2 q2 x2 y2
p1 x1 + q1 x2 p1 y1 + q1 y2
AB  [ ]
p2 x1 + q2 x2 p2 y1 + q1 y2
Example: 1
1 −1 3 4
If A = [ ], B = [ ] then find AB
1 2 5 0
Solution:
1 −1 3 4
AB = [ ] [ ]
1 2 5 0
(1 x 3) + (−1 x 5) (1 x 4) + (−1 x 0)
 [ ]
(1 x 3) + (2 x 5) (1 x 4) + (2 x 0)
3−5 4+0
 [ ]
3 + 10 4+0
−2 4
AB  [ ]
13 4
Example: 2
2 1 2 0
If A = [ ], B = [ ] verify AB = BA
1 3 1 3
Solution:
2 1 2 0
AB = [ ] [ ]
1 3 1 3
4+1 0+3
= [ ] [ ]
2+3 0+9
5 3
AB = [ ]
5 9

<8>
 2 0 2 1
BA = [ ] [ ]
1 3 1 3
4+0 2+0
 [ ]
2+3 1+9
4 2
BA = [ ]
5 10
AB  BA
Example: 3
1 2 3 8 3 −1 −4 2 0
If A = [ 0 5 4], B = [2 −4 4 ] and C = [ 0 3 4]
7 2 4 5 3 1 5 1 1
then find A (B + C)
Solution:
8 3 −1 −4 2 0 4 5 −1
B+C = [2 −4 4 ] +[ 0 3 4 ] B + C = [ 2 −1 8 ]
5 3 1 5 1 1 10 4 2
1 2 3 4 5 −1
A (B + C) = [ 0 5 4] +[ 2 −1 8 ]
7 2 4 10 4 2
4 + 4 + 30 5 − 2 + 12 −1 + 16 + 6
 [ 0 + 10 + 40 0 − 5 + 16 0 + 40 + 8 ]
28 + 4 + 40 35 − 2 + 16 -74 + 16 + 8
38 15 21
A (B + C) = [ 50 11 48 ]
72 49 17
Exercise
7 −2
4 3
(1) If A = [1 0 5], B = [ 3 4 ] & B = [ ]
−1 1
1 0
then verify (AB) C = A (BC)
1 0 2 6 −7 2
(2) If A = [ ], B = [ ], C = [ ]
0 1 0 3 4 −1
verify that A (B + C) = AB + BC
Properties of Matrices:
i) Closure Property:
Let A, B are two Matrices of same order, then we get
A + B also a matrix of same order.
ii) Commutative Property in Matrix Addition:
A+B = B+A

<9>
iii) a) Associative Property in Matrix Addition:
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
b) Associative Property in Matrix Multiplication:
A (BC) = (AB) C
iv) a) Identity Property in Matrix Addition:
A+O = O+A=A
There, A and O are the matrix of same order.
O is a additive Identity Matrix.
A be a any matrix.
b) Identity Property in Matrix Multiplication:
AI = IA = A
Here, I is a multiplicative identity
A be a any matrix
v) Inverse Property:
A + (-A) = O = (-A) + A
Here – A is the additive inverse of A.
vi) Distributive Property:
a) Matrix multiplication is left distributive over addition
A (B + C) = AB + AC
b) Matrix multiplication is right distributive over addition
(A + B) C = AC + BC
c) Scalar multiplication is distributive over addition
(a + b) A = aA + bA
A (A + B) = aA + aB
Here, a, b are any scalar
A, B are any matrices of same order.

Worked Examples
3 4 3 3
1) If A = [ ] and B = [ ]
8 −3 1 0
Then verify that i) A+B=B+A
ii) A + (- A = (-A) + A = O

< 10 >
 Solution:
3 4 3 3
i) A = [ ], B = [ ]
8 −3 1 0
3 4 3 3
A+B = [ ] + [ ]
8 −3 1 0
6 7
[ ] ----- (1)
9 −3
3 3 3 4
B+A = [ ] + [ ]
1 0 8 −3
6 7
[ ] ----- (2)
9 −3
A+B=B+A

3 4 −3 −4
ii) A = [ ], -A = [ ]
8 −3 −8 3
3 4 −3 −4
A + (-A) = [ ] + [ ]
8 −3 −8 3
0 0
[ ] = 0 ----- (1)
0 0
−3 −4 3 4
-A + A = [ ] + [ ]
−8 3 8 −3
0 0
[ ] = 0 ----- (2)
0 0
 (1) = (2)
A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0

4 3 1 2 3 1 8 3 1
2) If A = [ 2 2 0 ] , B = [ −1 −1 2 ], C = [ 0 5 4]
1 3 5 4 1 5 1 2 3
Then verify that A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Solution:
4 3 1 2 3 1 8 3 1
A=[2 2 0 ] , B = [ −1 −1 2 ], C = [ 0 5 4]
1 3 5 4 1 5 1 2 3
L.H.S.
2 3 1 8 3 1
B + C = [ −1 −1 2], B=[0 5 4]
4 1 5 1 2 3
10 6 2
B + C = [ −1 4 6]
5 3 8

< 11 >
 4 3 1 10 6 2
A + (B + C) = [ 2 2 0 ] + [ −1 4 6]
1 3 5 5 3 8
14 9 3
A + (B + C)  [ 1 6 6 ] ----- (1)
6 6 13
R.H.S.
4 3 1 2 3 1
A+B=[2 2 0 ] , B = [ −1 −1 2]
1 3 5 4 1 5
6 6 2
= [1 1 2 ]
5 4 10
6 6 2 8 3 1
(A + B) + C = [ 1 1 2 ] + [0 5 4]
5 4 10 1 2 3
14 9 3
(A + B) + C) = [ 1 6 6 ] ----- (2)
6 6 13
(1) = (2)
 A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Hence proved.
Exercise Problems
1) Verify the property A (B + C) = AB + AC of the following matrices A, B and C.
3 1 4 7
2 0 −3
A = [ ], B = [−1 0], C = [2 1 ]
1 4 5
4 2 1 −1
2) Check the Associative property of matrix multiplication to the following matrices
A, B, C.
5 0 0 2
A = [ ], B = [ ]
4 −2 5 3
3 4
3 7
3) If A = [2 3 -1] B = [ 1 0 ] and C = [ ]
0 −1
5 −1
Show that (AB) C = 4 (BC)
1 2 4 0 2 0
4) Let A = [ ] . B = [ ] . C = [ ]
1 3 1 5 1 2
Show that (A – B) C = AC – BC
1 2 1 −2
5) Show that the matrices A = [ ] B=[ ] Satisfy commutative property AB
3 1 −3 1
+ BA.

< 12 >
Reducing a Matrix into Triangular and Echelon Form:
Using the row elementary operations. We can transform a given non zero matrix to a
simplified form called a Row-echelon Form.
In a Row – echeton form, we may have rows all of whose entries are zero, such rows
are called zero rows.
Simply said,
If a matrix is in row-echelon form, then all the entries below the leading diagonal [ie.,
a11, a22, a33 …………] are zeros.
As similar way to propose for the triangular form.
There is two type of triangular form.
i.e. Upper Triangular Form:
If a matrix is said to be a Upper Triangular Form then the elements which below the
leading diagonal are zero.
a h g

Eg. A = 0 b f

[0 0 c]

i.e. Lower Triangular Matrix:

If a matrix is said to be a Lower Triangular Form then the elements which above the
leading diagonal are zero.
a 0 0

Eg. B = h b 0

[g f c]
Worked Problem
3 −1 2
1) Reduce the Matrix [ −6 2 4 ] to a row-echelon form.
−3 1 2
Solution:
3 −1 2
Given, [ −6 2 4]
−3 1 2
R2  R2 + 2R, R3  R3 + R1
3 −1 2
 [0 0 0]
0 0 4

< 13 >
 R3  2R3 – R2
3 −1 2
 [0 0 0]
0 0 4
This is the form of Row – echelon form.
0 3 1 6
2) Reduce the Form of Row-echelon form to the matrix [ -1 0 2 5]
4 2 0 0
Solution:
0 3 1 6
Given, [ -1 0 2 5]
4 2 0 0
R2  R2
−1 0 2 5
 [ 0 3 1 6]
4 2 0 0
R3  R3 – 4R1
−1 0 2 5
 [ 0 3 1 6 ]
0 2 8 20
R3  R3 – 4R1
−1 0 2 5
 [ 0 3 1 6 ]
0 0 22 48
This is Required Form of Row-echelon
2 3 3
3) Reduce the matrix [ 1 −2 1 ] into a Triangular Form.
3 −1 −2
Solution:
2 3 3
Given, [ 1 −2 1 ]
3 −1 −2
R1  R2
1 −2 1
 [2 3 3 ]
3 −1 −2
R2  R2 – 2R1, R3  R3 – 3R1
1 −2 1
 [0 7 1 ]
0 5 −5

< 14 >
 R3  7R3 – 5R2
1 −2 1
 [0 7 1 ]
0 0 −40
This is Required Form of Triangular.
4 3 6 25
4) Reduce the matrix [ 1 5 7 13 ] into a Triangular Form.
2 9 1 1
Solution:
4 3 6 25
Given, [1 5 7 13 ]
2 9 1 1
R1  R2
1 5 7 13
 [4 3 6 25 ]
2 9 1 1
R2  R2 – 4R1, R3  R3 – 2R2

1 5 7 13
 [0 -17 −22 −27 ]
0 -1 -13 -25
R2  R2  (-1), R3  R3  (-1)
1 5 7 13
 [0 +17 +22 +27 ]
0 1 13 25
R3  17R2 – R2
1 5 7 13
 [0 17 22 27 ]
0 0 199 398

This is the Required Triangular Form.

Exercise
(1) Reduce the following Matrix into Row-echelon Form.
−2 2 −3
a) [ 2 1 −6 ]
−1 −2 0
1 2 3
b) [ −1 2 1]
1 1 1

< 15 >
(2) Reduce the following Matrix into Triangular Form.
2 2 1
c) [ 1 3 1]
1 2 2
3 3 −1 11
d) [ 2 -1 2 9 ]
4 3 2 25
Transpose of a matrix and its properties:
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging rows and columns of A and is
denoted by AT.
More precisely, if A = [aij]mxn,
Then AT = [bij]mxn, where bij = aji
Show that (i, j)th entry of AT is aji.
For instance,
1 −8
A = [1 √2 4 ] implies AT = [
√2 0 ]
−8 0 0.2 4 0.2
We state a few basic results on transpose whose proofs are straight forward.
For any two matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(i) (AT)T =A
(ii) (KA)T = KAT (Where K is any scalar)
(iii) (A + B)T = AT + BT
(iv) Last line cut in Xerox copy
Examples
4 6 2 0 1 −1
1. If A = [ 0 1 5 ] and B = [ 3 −1 4 ]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
Verify i) (AB)T = BTAT ii) (A+B)T = AT + BT
iii) (A-B)T = AT – BT iv) (3A)T = 3AT
Solution:
4 6 2 0 1 −1
i) AB = [ 0 1 5] [ 3 −1 4 ]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
16 2 22
= [ −2 9 9 ]
7 1 14

< 16 >
 16 −2 7
(AB)T = [ 2 9 1 ] ----- (1)
22 9 14
0 3 −1 4 0 0
B = [ 1
T
−1 2 ], A = [6
T
1 3]
−1 4 1 2 5 2
0 3 −1 4 0 0
BTAT = [ 1 −1 2 ] , AT = [ 6 1 3]
−1 4 1 2 5 2
16 −2 7
= [ 2 9 1 ] ----- (2)
22 9 14
From (1) and (2),
(AB)T = BTAT

4 6 2 0 1 −1
ii) A+B = [0 1 5] + [ 3 −1 4 ]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
4 7 1
= [ 3 0 9]
−1 5 3
4 3 −1
(AB)T = [ 7 0 5 ] ----- (3)
1 9 3
4 0 0 0 3 −1
T
A +B T
= [6 1 3], + [ 1 −1 2 ]
2 5 2 −1 4 1
4 3 −1
= [7 0 5 ] ----- (4)
1 9 3
From (3) and (4),
(AB)T = AT + BT

4 6 2 0 1 −1
iii) A-B = [0 1 5 ] + [ 3 −1 4 ]
0 3 2 −1 2 1
4 5 3
= [ −3 2 1]
1 1 1
4 −3 1
(A-B)T = [5 2 1] ----- (5)
3 1 1

< 17 >
 4 0 0 0 3 −1
AT - BT = [6 1 3] - [ 1 −1 2 ]
2 5 2 −1 4 1
4 −3 1
= [5 2 1] ----- (6)
3 1 1
From (5) and (6),
(A - B)T = AT + BT
12 18 6
iv) 5A = [ 0 3 15 ]
0 9 6
12 0 0 4 0 0
(3A)T = [ 18 3 9] = 3 [6 1 3]
6 15 6 2 5 2
= 3(AT)
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
2. If A = [ 21 6 −6 ] and B = [ 2 0 3 ]
4 −33 19 17 15 4
Verify i) (A + B)1 = A1 + B1
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
A + B = [ 21 6 −6 ] + [ 2 0 3 ]
4 −33 19 17 15 4
3 −32 0
= [ 23 6 −3 ]
21 −18 23
3 23 21
(A + B)T = [ −32 6 −18 ]
0 −3 23
2 21 4 1 2 17
A T
= [ −3 6 −33 ] , B = [ −29
T
0 15 ]
8 −6 19 −8 3 4
2 21 4 1 2 17
A1 + B1 = [ −3 6 −33 ] , BT = [ −29 0 15 ]
8 −6 19 −8 3 4
3 23 21
= [ −32 6 −18 ]
0 −3 23
So we can observe that (A + B)1 = A1 + B1.
ii)
2 −3 8 1 −29 −8
AB = [ 21 6 −6 ] + [ 2 0 3 ]
4 −33 19 17 15 4

< 18 >
 132 62 7
= [ −69 −699 −174 ]
261 169 −55
132 −69 261
(AB) T
= [ 62 −699 169 ]
7 −174 −55
1 2 17 2 21 4
BT AT = [ −29 0 15 ] [ −3 6 −33 ]
−8 3 4 8 −6 19
132 −69 261
= [ 62 −699 169 ]
7 −174 −55
(AB)T = BT AT.
9 8 4 2
3. If A = [ ] and B = [ ]
2 −3 1 0
Show that i) (AB)T = BTAT ii) (AB)T = AT + BT
Solution:
9 8 4 2
AB = [ ] [ ]
2 −3 1 0
44 18
= [ ]
5 4
44 5
(AB)T = [ ]
18 4
9 2 4 1
AT = [ ], BT = [ ]
8 −3 2 0
4 1 9 2
i) BTAT = [ ] [ ]
2 0 8 −3
44 5
= [ ] = (AB)T
18 4
= (AB)T - BTAT
9 2 4 1
ii) AT BT = [ ] [ ]
8 −3 2 0
40 9
= [ ] = (AB)T
26 8
We can clearly observe from here that (AB)T  ATBT

Exercise
4 5
2 −1 1
1. If A = [ −1 0 ] and B = [ ]
7 5 −2
2 3
Verify the following

< 19 >
 i) (A + B)T = AT + BT ii) (A - B)T = AT - BT
iii) (BT)T = B
2 8 9
2. If P = [ ] and K is a constant, then verify (KP)T = KPT
11 −15 −13
3. If A is a 3 x 4 matrix and B is a matrix such that both ATB and BAT are defined, what is
the order of the matrix B.
Determinants:
Introduction of Determinants
The method of solving simultaneous linear equations was instrumental to the origin of
the topic determinants. The theory of determinants began with Leibnitz who solved, the
simultaneous linear equation.
The term was first used by Cauchy, Jocobi, and Cayley.
Definition of a Determinant:
The determinant is a scalar value that can be computed from the elements of a square4
matrix A.
It is denoted by dot (A)
Also A = de + (A) = f (A) = | A |
First Order Determinant:
Let A = [a] be the matrix of order? Then the determinant of A is defined as “a”.
Second Order Determinant:
If a Determinant consists of two rows and two columns then the determinant is called
second order determinant.
a b
Ex: |A| = | | = ad – bc
c d
Third Order Determinant:
If a Determinant consist of three rows and three columns then the determinant is
called a third order determinant.
1 −1 2
Ex: |A| = |2 −1 0 | = 1 (-3 + 0) + 1 (6 – 0) + 2 (-4 + 1)
1 −2 3
| A | = -3
Properties of Determinants:
Property: 1
The determinant of a matrix remains unaltered if its rows are changed into columns
and columns into rows.
i.e. | A | = | AT |

< 20 >
Proof:
a1 b1 c1
|A| = [ a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 c3 c3
 a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
a1 a2 a3
| A | = [ b1
T
b2 b3 ]
c1 c2 c3
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – c1 b3) + a3 (b1 c2 – c1 b2)
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
| A | = | AT |
Proved.
Property: 2
If any two rows / columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the determinant
change the sign but its absolute value remains unaltered.
Property: 3
If two rows (or) two columns of a matrix are identical, then its determinant is zero.
Proof:
2 5 1
Let | A | = | 2 5 1|
0 2 4
Here R1, R2 are identical.
| A | = 2 (20 – 2) – 5 (8 – 0) + 1 (4 – 0)
= 2(18) – 5 (8) + 4
= 36 – 40 + 4
|A| = 0
Property: 4
If each element in a row (column) of a matrix is multiplied by a scalar K, then the
determinant is multiplied by the same scalar K.
a1 b1 c1
i.e. If | A | = [ a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 c3 c3
ka1 kb1 kc1
then | A | = [ a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 c3 c3
 | A | = k | A1 |

< 21 >
Proof:
1 0 1
Let | A | = | −1 2 4|
3 9 4
 1 (8 – 36) – 0 (-4 – 12) + 1 (-9 -6)
= -28 – 15 = - 43
2 multiply by the Row 1.
a1 b1 c1
. Let | A | = [ a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 c3 c3
|A| = a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
R2  R3
a1 b1 c1
| A1 | = [ a3 b2 c3 ]
a2 b2 c2
= a1 (b3 c2 – b2 c3) – b1 (a3 c2 – a2 (3) + c1 (a3 b2 – a2 b3)
= -a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) + b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) - c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)
= [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – a3 c2) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)]
| A1| = - | A |
Hence proved.
Note:
If there are n interchanges of rows (columns) of a matrix A then the determinant of
the resulting matrix is (-1)n | A |.
2 0 2
| A | = | −1 2 4|
3 9 4
 2 (8 – 36) – 0 (- 4 – 12) + 2 (- 9 – 6)
 2 (-28) – 0 + 2 (-15)
= -56 – 30
= - 86
= 2 (-43)
A1 | = 2|A|
Proved.

< 22 >
Property: 5
If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is expressed as sum of two or
more terms then the whole determinant is expressed as sum of two (or) more determinants.
a1 b1 + m1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 m1 c1
i.e. | a3 b2 + m2 c3 | = |a2 b2 a
c2 | + | 2 m2 c2 |
a2 b3 + m3 c2 a3 b3 c3 a3 m3 c3
Property: 6
If to each element of any row (column) of a determinant the equi-multiples of the
corresponding entries of one (or) more rows are added (or) subtracted, then the value of the
determinant remains unchanged.
a1 b1 c1
i.e. if | A | = |a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
a1 + pa2 + qa3 b1 + pb2 + qb3 c1 + pc2 + qc3
|A| = | a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
Then | A | = A1
Proof:
a1 + pa2 + qa3 b1 + pb2 + qb3 c1 + pc2 + qc3
|A| = | a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
By property (5),
a1 b1 c1 pa2 pb2 pc2 qa3 qb3 qc3
 |a 2 b2 c2 | + | a2 b2 c2 | + | a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
By property (4)
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 a3 b3 c3
 |a 2 b2 c2 | + p |a2 b2 c2 | + q |a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
 | 2
a b2 c2 | + p (0) [R1, R2 Identical] + q (0) [R1, R3 Identical]
a3 b3 c3
a1 b1 c1
 |a 2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
|A|  |A|

< 23 >
Problems : Properties of Determinants:
1 a b+c
1. Evaluate: |1 b c+a|
1 c a+b
Solution:
1 a b+c
Let  = | 1 b c+a|
1 c a+b
Effect C12 = C2 + C3
1 a+b+c b+c
= |1 b+c+a c+a|
1 c+a+b a+b
1 1 b+c
= (a + b + c) | 1 1 c+a|
1 1 a+b
= (a + b + c) 0
= 0  [ sin  C1  C2)
2a+b a b
2. Prove that | 2 b + c b c| = 0
2c+a c a
Solution:
2a+b a b
LHS = |2b+c b c|
2c+a c a
2a a b b a b
= |2b b c| + |c b c|
2c c a a c a
b a b
= |c b c | + 0 [∵ C1  C3]
a c a
= 2 (0) [∵ C1  C2]
= 0
= RHS
1 x yz
3. Prove that | 1 y zx | = (x – y) (y – z) (z – x)
1 z xy
Solution:
1 x yz
LHS = |1 y zx |
1 z xy

< 24 >
 effect R1 = R1 – R2
effect Re = R2 – R2
0 x−y yz − zx
|0 y−z zx − xy |
1 z xy
x − y −z (x − y)
= 0+0+1 | |
y − z −x (y − z)
(Expanding along the first column)
1 −z
= (x – y) (y – z) | |
1 −x
= (x – y) (y – z) (z – x)
= RHS
Product of Determinants:
While multiplying two matrices “row-by column” rule alone can be followed. The
procedure interchanging the rows and columns will not affect the value of the determinant i.e.
we can also apply the following procedures for multiplication of two determinants.
(i) Row by row multiplication rule
(ii) Row by column multiplication rule
(iii) Column by column multiplication rule
(iv) Column by row multiplication rule
i.e. If A and B are square matrices of same order n, then | AB | = |A | | B |.
If Matrices AB  BA then we can | AB | = | BA |

Worked Examples
1 2 1 0
(1) If | A | = | |, |B| = | | , then find the product of Determinant?
3 4 3 −2
Solution:
By Row – Column Multiple,
1 2 1 0
|A||B|= | | | |
3 4 3 −2
1+6 0−4
= | |
3 + 12 0−8
7 −4
|A||B|= | |
15 −8
We know | A | | B | = | AB |
7 −4
So | AB | = | |
15 8

< 25 >
 By Row – Row Multiple,
1 2 1 −0
| AB | = | | | |
3 4 3 −2
1+0 3−4
| |
3+0 9−8
1 −1
= | |
3 +1
(2) If Ai, Bi, Ci are the co-factors of ai, bi, ci respectively, i = 1 to 3 in
a1 b1 c1
|A| = |a2 b2 c2 | show that
a3 b3 c3
A1 B1 C1
= |A2 B2 C2 | = | A | 2
A3 B3 C3
Solution:
Consider the product
a1 b1 c1 A1 B1 C1
|a2 b2 c2 | |A2 B2 C2 |
a3 b3 c3 A3 B3 C3
By the Row – Row Multiplication
a1 A1 + b1 B1 + c1 C1 + a1 A2 + b1 B2 + c1 C2 a1 A3 + b1 B3 + c1 C3
 a2 A1 + b2 B1 + c2 C1 a2 A2 + b2 B2 + c2 C2 a2 A3 + b2 B3 + c2 C3
a3 A1 + b3 B1 + c3 C1 a3 A2 + b3 B2 + c3 C2 a3 A3 + b3 B3 + c3 C3

|A| 0 0
 | 0 |A| 0 | = | A | [|A|2 – 0]
0 0 |A|
 | A |3
A1 B1 C1
i.e. | A | x |A2 B2 C2 | = | A | 3
A3 B3 C3
A1 B1 C1
 |A2 B2 C2 | = | A | 2
A3 B3 C3
Hence proved.
cos  −sin  cos  sin 
(3) Verify that, | AB | = | A | | B | if A = [ ] and B = [ ]
sin  cos  −sin  cos 
Solution:
cos  −sin  cos  sin 
AB = [ ] [ ]
+sin  cos  −sin  cos 

< 26 >
 [ cos 2  + sin2  cos  sin  ]
cos θ sin  − cos θ sin  sin2  + cos 2 
1 0
| |
0 1
1 0
| AB | = | |
0 1
= 1–0
| AB | = 1
cos  −sin 
|A| = | |
sin  cos 
|A| = cos2  + sin2 
|A| = 1
cos  sin 
|B| = | |
−sin  cos 
= cos2  + sin2 
|B| = 1
|A||B| = 1.1 = 1
∵|A||B| = 1.1 = 1
Hence proved.

Exercise
1 2 3 1 0 0
1) If A = [ 4 5 6]& B= [0 1 0]
7 8 9 0 0 1
Then find the product of determinants (by Row – Row Multiplication).
2 1 1 2
2) If A = [ ] . B = [ ] then find | AB |
0 5 −1 3
2
o c b b2 + c 2 ab ac
3) Show that | c o a| = | ab c 2 + a2 bc |
b a o ac bc a2 + b2
Adjoint of Matrix:
The Adjoint of a square matrix A is the transpose of the matrix which is formed by
the elements which are the co-factors of the corresponding elements of the determinant of the
matrix A.
Method for to find adjoint of Matrix of order 3 (order 2)
i) A is square Matrix of order 3 (order 2) find the determinant of A.
ii) Find the co-factor of all the dement of det A.

< 27 >
 iii) Form the matrix by replacing all the elements of A by the corresponding co-factor in
| A |.
iv) Then take the Transpose of that matrix, then we get adj. A.
1 3
Ex: 1 Find the Adjoint of A = [ ]
6 5
Solution:
1 3
A = [ ]
6 5
1 3
|A| = | | = 5 – 18 = - 13
6 5
For Example: 1 Positions
a11 a12 a13 a1 b1 c1
a
| A | = | 21 a22 a23 | like |a2 b2 c2 |
a31 a32 a33 a3 b3 c3
Cofactor of a1 (a11) = (-1)1+1 Minor of a11 (a1)
Cofactor of a1 (a11) = (-1)2 Minor of a11 (a1)
b2 c2
Cofactor of a1 = (+1) = | |
b3 c3
= b2 c3 – b3 c2
Example: 2
1 3 0
If A = | −1 2 4 | the find the cofactor of 4.
7 6 −2
Solution:
Cofactor of 4 = (-1)5 Minor of 4
1 3
 (-1) | |
7 6
= (-1) (6 – 21)
Cofactor of 4  + 18
Minor of an element:
Minor of an element is a determinant obtained by deleting the row and column in
which the element occurs.
For Ex: 1
a1 b1 c1
Let |A| = |a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
b2 c2
Minor of a1 | |
b3 c3
Minor of a1  b2 c3 – c2 b3

< 28 >
Example: 2
Find the minor of 2 to the following matrix.
1 0 −1
| A | = |2 3 4 |
7 8 −2
0 −1
∵ Minor of 2 = | |
8 −2
= 0+8
Minor of 2  2
Co-factor of an element:
Co-factor of an element is a signed minor of that element.
∵ Co-factor of aij = (-1)i+j minor of aij
4 1 6
z = |2 −1 −6| = 4 (-3 + 6) – 1 (6 + 6) + 6 (2 + 1)
1 1 3
 4(3) – 1 (12) + 6 (3)
 12 – 12 + 18
z = 18
By (ramor’s Rule)
∆x 3
x = = = 1
∆ 3
∆y −12
y = = = -4
∆ 3
∆z 18
z = = = 6
∆ 3

Exercise
1) Solve the equations by Cramer’s rule:
3x + 3y – z = 11, 2x – y + 2z = 9, 4x + 3y + 2z = 25
3 4 2 1 2 1 2 5 4
2) - - - 1 = 0, - + = 0, - - + 1 = 0,
x y z x y 2 x y z

3) x + 2y – z = -3, 3x + y + z = 4, x – y + 2z = 6
4) x + 2y + 5z = 4, 3x + y + 4z = 6, -x + y + z = -1
5) 4x + y + z = 6, 2x - y - 2z = -6, x + y + z = 3
Solution of simultaneous equation using Cramer’s Rule:
Let we take 3 equations with 3 unknown x, y, z.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d 1

< 29 >
 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d 2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d 3
We have to write in the form of matrix Ax + b
a1 b1 c1 x d1
[a 2 b2 c2 ] [y] = [d2 ]
a3 b3 c3 z d3
Ax=6
Then the Cramer’s Rule:
∆x ∆y ∆z
x = , y = , z =
∆ ∆ ∆

a1 b1 c1
Where,  = |a2 b2 c2 |
a3 b3 c3
d1 b1 c1
x = | 2
d b2 c2 |
d3 b3 c3
a1 d1 c1
y = |a2 d2 c2 |
a3 d3 c3
a1 b1 d1
z = |a2 b2 d2 |
a3 b3 c3

Worked Example:
1. Solve the following equations using Cramer’s rule x + y – z = 4, 3x – y + z = 4, 2x – 7y +
3=-6
Solution:
x+y–z = 4 ----- (1)
3x - y + z = 4 ----- (2)
2x - 7y + 3z = -6 ----- (3)
1 1 −1 x 4
[3 −1 1 ] [y] = [ 4 ]
2 −7 3 z −6
1 1 −1
 = |3 −1 1|
2 −7 3
 1 (-3 + 7) –1 (9 -2) -1 (-21 + 2)
 1 (4) -1 (7) -1 (-19)

< 30 >
  4 – 7 + 19

 = 16
4 1 −1
x = | 4 −1 1 | = 4 (-3 + 7) – 1 (12 + 6) -1 (-28 - 6)
−6 −7 3
 4(4) – 1 (18) - 1 (-34)
 16 – 18 + 34

x = 32
1 4 −1
y = |3 4 1|  1 (12 + 6) – 4 (9 - 2) -1 (-18 - 8)
2 −6 3
 18 – 4 (7) - 1 (-26)
 18 – 28 + 26  16 = y
1 1 4
z = |3 −1 4|  1 (6 + 28) – 1 (-18 -8) + 4 (-28 + 2)
2 −7 −6
 34 + 26 - 76
By Cramer’s Rule  z = -16
∆x 32
x = = = 2
∆ 16
∆y 16
y = = = 1
∆ 16
∆z −16
z = = = -1
∆ 16

 Solution: {2, 1, -1}

2. Solve the following eqns using Cramer’s Rule
4x + y + z = 6, 2x – y – 2z = -6, x+y+z=3
Solution:
4x + y + z = 6
2x – y – 2z = -6
x+y+z=3
Ax=b
4 1 1 x 6
[2 −1 −2] [y] = [−6]
1 1 1 z 3
4 1 1
 = |2 −1 −2|  4 (-1 + 2) – 1 (2 + 2) + 1 (2 + 1)
1 1 1

< 31 >
  4 (1) – 1 (4) + 1 (3)

= 3

6 1 1
y = |−6 −1 −2|  6 (-1 + 2) – 1 (-6 + 6) + 1 (-6 + 3)
3 1 1
 6 (1) - 1 (0) + 1 (-3)
 6–3
x  3
4 6 1
y = |2 −6 −2|  4 (-6 + 6) – 6 (2 + 2) + 1 (6 + 6)
1 3 1
 4(0) – 6 (4) + 1 (12)
 -24 + 12

y  - 12

Co-factor of 1 = (-1)1+1 5 = 5
Co-factor of 3 = (-1)1+2 6 = -6
Co-factor of 6 = (-1)2+1 3 = -3
Co-factor of 5 = (-1)2+2 1 = 1
5 −6
 Co-factor matrix = [ ]
−3 1
5 −3
Adj. A = [ ]
−6 1
Example: 2
2 3 4
Find the adjoint of A = [ 1 2 3]
−1 1 2
Solution:
2 3 4
|A| = |1 2 3|
−1 1 2
 2 (4 - 3) – 3 (2 + 3) + 4 (1 + 2)
 2 – 3 (5) + 4 (3)
 2 – 15 + 12
|A| = -1  0

< 32 >
 Co-factor 2 = (-1)1+1 (4 – 3) = 1
Co-factor 3 = (-1)1+2 (2 + 3) = - 5
Co-factor 4 = (-1)1+3 (1 + 2) = 3
Co-factor 1 = (-1)2+1 (6 – 4) = - 2
Co-factor 2 = (-1)2+2 (4 + 4) = 8
Co-factor 3  (-1)2+3 (2 + 3) = - 5
Co-factor -1 = (-1)3+1 (9 – 8) = 1
Co-factor of 1 = (-1)3+2 (6 – 4) = -2
Co-factor of 2 = (-1)3+3 (4 – 3) = 1
1 −5 3
Co-factor of matrix = [−2 8 −5]
1 −2 1
1 −2 1
Adj. A = [−5 8 −2]
3 −5 1
Inverse of Matrix:
Let A be a non-singular matrix if there exist a square matrix B, such that AB = BA = I
Where I is the unit matrix of same order then B is called the inverse of matrix A and it
is denoted by A-1.
Note:
i) Inverse of matrix is unique
ii) AB = BA = I
iii) (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
iv) (AT)-1 = (A-1)T
Formula for Inverse of matrix.
1
A-1 = adj. A.
|𝐴|

Inverse of Matrix:
Let A be a non-singular matrix if there exist a square matrix B, such that,
AB = BA = I
Where I = unit Matrix of same order
B is called the inverse of Matrix A.
It is denoted by A-1.

< 33 >
Note:
i) Inverse of Matrix is unique
ii) AB = BA = I
iii) (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
iv) (AT)-1 = (A-1)T
v) Formula for Inverse of the Matrix
1
A-1 = adjA
|A|

2 3 4
Find the inverse of [4 3 1]
1 2 4
Solution:

2 3 4
Let A = [4 3 1]
1 2 4
= 2 (12 – 2) – 3 (16 – 1) + 4 (8 – 3)

= 20 – 45 + 20

= -5  0

 Inverse of A exist.

Cofactors of Matrix A:

3 1
A11 = + | | = 12 – 2 = 10
2 4
4 1
A12 = - | | = - (16 – 1) = -15
1 4
4 3
A13 = | | = 8-3=5
1 2
3 4
A21 = - | | = - (12 – 8) = - 4
2 4
2 4
A22 = | | = 8–4 = 4
1 4
2 3
A23 = - | | = - (4 – 3) = - 1
1 2
3 4
A31 = - | | = 3 – 12 = - 9
3 1

< 34 >
 2 4
A32 = - | | = - (8 - 4) = - 4
1 4
2 3
A33 = - | | = 6 – 12 = - 6
4 3

 Adj (A) = [Aij]T

T
10 −15 5
= [−4 4 −1]
−9 −4 −6
10 −4 −9
= [−15 4 −4]
5 −1 −6
1
 A-1 = adjA
|A|

10 −4 −9
1
= [−15 4 14 ]
−5
5 −1 −6
2 1 1
Find the inverse of [1 0 2]
4 2 2
Solution:

2 1 1
Let A = [1 0 2]
4 2 2
2 1 1
|A| = [1 0 2]
4 2 2
= 2 (- - 4) – 1 (2 – 8) + 1 (2 – 0)

|A| =0

 A is a singular matrix

 Inverse of A does not exist.

Example: 1

2 3
If A = | | Find the inverse of A
−1 2
Solution:

2 3
A = | |
−1 2

< 35 >
 2 3
|A| = | |
−1 2
= 4+3

|A| = 7

2 −3
adj A = [ ]
1 2
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

1 2 −3
= [ ]
7 1 2
Example: 2

−1 2
If B = [ ] Find B-1
1 −5
Solution:

−1 2
B = [ ]
1 −5
−1 2
|B| = | |
1 −5
|B| = 5−2=3

−5 −2
Adj B = | |
−1 −1
1 −5 −2
B-1 = adj B = 3 [ ]
|B| −1 −1

Exercise

5 2
1) Find the Adjoint of the matrix [ ]
10 4
2 5 7
2) Find the Adjoint of the matrix [7 1 6]
5 −4 −1
−1 0 1 3
3) For any two Matrix A = [ ] B= [ ] prove that (AB)T = BTAT
2 1 −2 1
1 −1 1
4) Find the inverse of [2 −3 −3]
6 −2 −1
5 0
5) Find the inverse of [ ]
2 3

< 36 >
Rank of Matrix:
If ‘r’ is said to be a ranks of matrix which is denoted by,
Rank (A) = R(A) = P(A) = r.
Defind by,
(i) At least one minor of order r is non-zero.
(ii) All minors of higher order are zero.
Note:
From the definition of rank of the matrix if follows,
1. The rank of non-singular matrix of order n is n. If the matrix is singular its rank is
less than n.
2. The rank of a m x n matrix ‘A’ can at most be equal to the smaller of numbers m and
n but it may be less.
(n)  minimum of m and n.
3. If there is a non-zero minor of order ‘r’ then rank is  r.
4. The rank of the null matrix is zero and rank of non zero matrix is  1.
5. The rank of In, the unit matrix of order n is equal to n.
i.e. (In) = n
(I2) = 2
(I3) = 3 etc.
6. (A) = (AT)

Example
5 2
1) Find the rank of [ ]
6 3
5 2
Let A = [ ] 2x2
6 3
Order of A = 2 x 2
 (A)  2.
The higher order of minor of A = 2.
5 2
The minor is | | = 15 – 12 = 3  0
6 3
 Rank of A = (A) = 2.

3 −6
2) Find the rank of [ ]
−1 2

< 37 >
 3 −6
A = [ ] 2x2
−1 2
Order of A = 2 x 2
 (A)  2.
The highest order of minor of A = 2.
3 −6
i.e. | | = 6–6=0
−1 2
 (A)  2.
To find at least one non zero first order minor i.e. to find at least one non zero element
of A, non zero element exist in A.
 (A) = 1

−1 2 2
3) Find the rank of [ 0 3 1]
4 5 2
Solution:
−1 2 2
Let A = [ 0 3 1] 3 x 3
4 5 2
Order of A = 0 (A) = 3 x 3
 (A)  3.
The highest order of minor of A = 3.
−1 2 3
The minor is = | 0 3 1|
4 5 2
3 1 0 1 0 3
= -1 | | -2 | | +2| |
5 2 4 2 4 5
= -1 (6 – 5) – 2 (0 – 4) + 3 (0 – 12)
= -1 + 8 – 36 = - 29  0
 rank of A = (A) = 3.

1 −3 4 7
4) Find the rank of [ ]
9 1 2 0
Solution:
1 −3 4 7
Let A = [ ] 2x4
9 1 2 0
Order of A = 2 x 4
 rank of A = (A)  Min {2, 4} = 2.

< 38 >
 The highest order of minor of A = 2.
To find a non zero minor of order 2.
−2 4
| | = -6 – 4 = - 10  0.
1 2
 A has a non zero minor of order 2
 (A) = 2.

1 2 3 2
5) Find the rank of [2 3 5 1]
1 3 4 5
1 2 3 2
Let A = [2 3 5 1] 3 x 4
1 3 4 5
Order of A = 3 x 4.
 rank of A = (A)  Min {3, 4} = 3.
The highest order of minors of A = 3.
A has the following minors of order 3.
1 2 3
A1 = |2 3 5|
1 3 4
= 1 (12 – 15) – 2 (8 – 5) + 3 (6 – 3)
= -3 – 6 + 9 = 0
1 2 2
A2 = |2 3 1|
1 3 5
= 1 (15 – 3) – 2 (10 – 1) + 2 (6 – 3)
= 12 – 18 + 6 = 0.
2 3 2
A3 = |3 5 1|
3 4 5
= 2 (25 – 4) – 3 (15 – 3) + 2 (12 – 15)
= 42 – 36 - 6 = 0.
1 3 2
A4 = |2 5 1|
1 4 5
= 1 (25 – 4) – 3 (10 – 1) + 2 (8 – 5)
= 21 – 27 + 6 = 0.
All third order minors vanish

< 39 >
  (A) < 3.
To find at least a non zero of order 2 x 2.
1 3
| | = 5 – 6 = - 1  0.
2 5
 A has at least one zero minor of order 2
 (A) = 2.

Matrix Inversion Method:

This method can be applied only when the co-efficient matrix is a square matrix and
non-singular.
Consider the matrix equation in the form, Ax=B ----- (1)

Here A is a square matrix s non-singular.

Since A is non-singular, A-1 exist s A-1 A = AA-1 – I. ----- (2)
From (1) pre-multiply A-1 on both sides,
(1)  A-1 (AX) = A-1 (B)
(A-1 A) x = A-1 (B)

X = A-1B

This is the formula for Matrix inversion method. This method also can be used for
finding the solution of linear equations.

Worked Examples
1) Solve the following system of linear equations by matrix – inversion method.
2x + 5y = -2, x + 2y = -3
Solution:
Given 2x + 5y = -2 ----- (1)
x + 2y = -3 ----- (2)
We have write in the form of A X = B.
x
2 5 −2
[ ] [y] = [ ]
1 2 z −3
A X = B
By Matrix – inversion formula, X = A-1 B
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

2 5
|A| = | | = 4–5=-1
1 2

< 40 >
 2 −5
adj A = | |
−1 2
1 2 −5
∵ A-1 = [ ]
−1 −1 2
−2 +5
A-1 = [ ]
+1 −2
−2 5 −2
A-1B = [ ] [ ]
1 −2 −3
−2 5 −2
A-1B = [ ] [ ]
1 −2 −3
4 −15
 [ ]
−2 + 6
−11
A-1B  [ ]
4
−11
 x = A-1 B = [ ]
4
x −11
 x = [y] [ ]
4
 Solution (x, y) = (-11, 4)
2) Solve the following system of equations using Matrix inversion – Method.
2x + 3y + 3z = 5, x – 2y + z = -4, 3x – y – 2z = 3.
Solution:
Given, 2x + 3y + 3z = 5
x – 2y + z = -4
3x – y – 2z = 3
We have to write in the form of AX = B
2 3 3 x 5
[1 −2 1 ] [y] = [−4]
3 −1 −2 z 3
A X B
By the Matrix – inversion formula, X = A-1 B
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

2 3 3
| A | = |1 −2 1 |
3 −1 −2
= 2 (4 + 1) – 3 (- 2 – 3) + 3 (- 1 + 6)
 2(5) – 3 ( - 5) + 3 (5)
| A |  40
Adj A = [Co-factor of A]
−2 1
Co-factor of 2  | | = 4+1=5
−1 −2

< 41 >
 1 1
Co-factor of 3  | | = - (- 2 – 3) = + 5
3 −2
1 −2
Co-factor of 3  | | = -1 + 6 = 5
3 −1
3 3
Co-factor of 1  | | = - (-6 + 3) = 3
−1 −2
2 3
Co-factor of 2  | | = -4 -9 = -13
3 −2
2 3
Co-factor of 1  | | = - (- 2 – 9) = 11
3 −1
3 3
Co-factor of 3  | | = 3+6=9
−2 1
2 3
Co-factor of -1  | | = - (2 – 3) = 1
1 1
2 3
Co-factor of -2  | | = -4–3=-7
1 −2
T
5 5 5
adj A = [co-factor of A]T = [3 −13 11 ]
9 1 −7
5 3 9
adj A = [5 −13 1]
5 11 −7
5 3 9
1
∵ A-1 = [ 5 −13 1]
40
5 11 −7
-1
Then X = A B
5 3 9 5
1
X = [ 5 −13 1 ] [−4 ]
40
5 11 −7 3
25 −12 + 27
1
 [ 25 + 52 + 3 ]
40
25 −44 −21
40
1
 [ 80 ]
40
−40
1
1
X  [ 2]
40
−1
So the solution x = 1, y = 2, z = -1
3) Solve the following linear equations by Matrix inversion method.
x + y + z – 2 = 0, 6x – 4y + 5z – 31 = 0, 5x + 2y + 2z = 13
Solution: Given, x + y + z = 2
6x – 4y + 5z = 31
5x + 2y + 2z = 13

< 42 >
We have to write in the form of AX = B
1 1 1 x 2
[6 −4 5] [y] = [31]
5 2 2 z 13
A X B
By the Matrix – inversion formula,
X = A-1 B
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

1 1 1
| A | = |6 −4 5|
5 2 2
= 1 (- 8 - 10) – 1 (12 – 25) + 1 (12 + 20)
 1 (- 18) – 1 ( - 13) + 1 (32)
| A |  - 18 + 13 + 32

| A |  27

adj A = [Co-factor of A]T

−4 5
Co-factor of 1 = | | = - 8 – 10 = - 18
2 2
6 5
Co-factor of 1 = | | = - (12 – 25) = 13
5 2
6 −4
Co-factor of 1 = | | = 12 + 20 = 32
5 2
1 1
Co-factor of 6 = | | = - (2 – 2) = 0
2 2
1 1
Co-factor of - 4 = | | = 2–5=-3
5 2
1 1
Co-factor of 5 = -| | = - (2 – 5) = 3
5 2
1 1
Co-factor of 5 = | | = 5+4=9
−4 5
1 1
Co-factor of 2 = -| | = - (5 – 6) = 1
6 5
1 1
Co-factor of 2 = | | = - 4 – 6 = - 10
6 −4
−18 13 32
Co-factor of A = [ 0 −3 3 ]
9 1 −10
−18 0 9
adj A = [Co-factor of A]T = [ 13 −3 1 ]
32 3 −10

< 43 >
 −18 0 9
1
 A-1 = [ 13 −3 1 ]
27
32 3 −10
1
X = A B
−18 0 9 2
1
= [ 13 −3 1 ] [ 31 ]
27
32 3 −10 13
−36 + 0 + 117
1
= [ 26 −93 + 13 ]
27
64 + 93 −130
81
1
= [ −54]
27
27
3
X = [−2]
1
x 3
X = [ y ] [−2]
z 1
 So the solution x = 3, y = -2, z = 1

Exercise
1) Solve the following system of linear equations by Matrix Inversion Method.
a) 2x – y = 8, 3x + 2y = -2
b) 2x + 3y – z = 9, x + y + z = 9, 3x – y – z = -1
c) x + y + 2z = 1, 3x + 2y + z = 7, 2x + y + 3z = 2
2) A man is appointed in a job with the monthly salary of certain amount and a fixed
amount of annual increment. If his salary was ` 19,800 per month at the end of the
first month after 3 years of service and ` 23,400 per month at the end of first month
after 9 years of service, find his starting salary and his annual increment. (Use Matrix
inversion method to solve the problem)
3) Four men and 4 women can finish a piece of work jointly in 3 days while 2 men 5
woman can finish the same work jointly in 4 days. Find the time taken by one man
along and that of one woman alone to finish the same work by using matrix inversion
method.
Gaussian Elimination Method:
This method can be applied even if the co-efficient matrix is singular matrix and
rectangular matrix. It is essentially the method of substitute which we have already seen.
In this method we transform the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations
into row-echelon form and then by back-substitution.
Then we get a solution.

< 44 >
 Worked Examples
1) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gauss – elimination method.
4x + 3y + 6z = 25, x + 5y + 7z = 13, 2x + 9y + z = 1
Given:
4x + 3y + 6z = 25
x + 5y + 7z = 13
2x + 9y + z = 1
We have to transforming the augmented matrix to echelon form,
We get,
4 3 6 25
 [1 5 7 13]
2 9 1 1

R1  R2

1 5 7 13
 [4 3 6 25]
2 9 1 1
R2  R2 – 4R1, R3  R3 – 2R2
1 5 7 13
 [0 −17 −22 −27]
0 −1 −13 −25
R2  R2  (-1), R3  R3  (-1)
1 5 7 13
 [0 +17 +22 +27]
0 +1 +13 +25
R3  17R3 - R2
1 5 7 13
 [0 17 22 27 ]
0 0 199 398
The equivalent system is written by using echelon form
x + 5y + 7z = 13 ----- (1)
7y + 22z = 27 ----- (2)
199z = 398 ----- (3)
From (3) we get
199z = 398
z = 398/199

Z=2

Sub z value in (2)

< 45 >
 (2)  17y + 22(2) = 27
17y + 44 = 27
17y = 27 – 44
17y = -17
y = -17/17

y = -7

Sub: y = 1, z = 2 in (1)
(1)  x + 5y + 7z = 13
x + 5 (1) + 7(2) = 13
x + (5) +14 = 13
x + 19 = 13
x = 13 - 19

x = -4

Sub: y = -1, z = 2 in (1)

x + 5y + 7z = 13
x + 5 (-1) + 7(2) = 13
x + (-5) +14 = 13
x+9 = 13
x = 13 - 19

x=4

So the solution is x = 4, y = -1, z – 2.

2) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gauss elimination method.

2x - 2y + 3z = 2, x + 2y - z = 3, 3x - y + 2z = 1
Solution:
Given:
2x - 2y + 3z = 2
x + 2y - z = 3
3x - y + 2z = 1
We have to transforming the augmented matrix to echelon form,
2 −2 3 2
 [1 2 −1 3]
3 −1 2 1

< 46 >
 R1  R2

1 2 −1 3
 [2 −2 3 2]
3 −1 2 1
R2  R2 – 2R1, R3  R3 – 3R1
1 2 −1 3
 [0 −6 5 −4]
0 −7 5 −8
R3  7R2 – 6R3
1 2 −1 3
 [0 −6 5 −4]
0 0 5 20
The equivalent system is written by using echelon form
x + 2y - z = 3 ----- (1)
-6y + 5z = -4 ----- (2)
5z = 20 ----- (3)
From (3) we get, 5z = 20
z = 20/5

Z=4

Sub z value in (2)

-6y + 5(4) = -4
-6y = - 4 - 20
-6y = 24
y = -24/-6

y=4

Sub: y = 4, x = 4 in (1)
(1)  x + 2y - z = 3
x + 2 (4) - 4 = 3
x+4 = 3
x = 3-4

x = -1

∵ so the solution x = -1
y=4
z=4

< 47 >
 Exercise
1) Solve the following system of linear equation by Gaussian elimination method.
i) 2x + 4y + 6z = 22, 3x + 8y + 5z = 27, -x + y + 2z = 2
ii) 3x - 4y - 2z = 1, x + 2y + z = 2, 2x - 5y - 4z = -1
iii) 3x + 3y - z = 11, 2x - y + 2z = 9, 4x + 3y + 2z = 25
2) A boy is walking along the path y = ax2 + bx + c through the points (-6, 8) (-2, -12) and
(3, 8) he wants to meet his friend at p (7, 60) will he meet his friend?
[Use Gaussian elimination method]

< 48 >
 Chapter 1.2: CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
Consider the linear transformation Y = AX
In general, this transformation transforms a column vector.
x1 y1
x2 y2
X = [ ⋮ ] into another column vector Y = [ ⋮ ]
xn yn
by means of the square matrix A where
a11 a12 … a1n
a21 a22 … a2n
A = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ]
an1 an2 … ann
If a vector x is transformed into a scalar multiple of the same vector.
i.e. x is transformed into x,
then y = x = AX
i.e. AX = X
AX = IX,
Where I is the unit matrix of order ‘n’.
AX - I x = 0
(A - I) x = 0
Then the system of equations will have a non-trivial solution, if
| A - I | = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of A.

Worked Examples
1 2
1. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix [ ]
−1 4
Solution:
1 2
Let A = [ ]
−1 4
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0
1 2 1 0
| A - I | = | [ ] − [ ]| =0
−1 4 0 0
1− 2
| | = 0
−1 4 − 
(1 - ) (4 - ) + 2 = 0
4 -  - 4x + 2 + 2 = 0

< 49 >
 2 - 5 + 6 = 0
 The required characteristic equation is 2 - 5 + 6 = 0
1 0 0
2. Find the characteristic equation of [0 1 1]
0 0 1
Solution:
1 0 0
Let A = [0 1 1]
0 0 1
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
| [0 1 1] −  [0 1 0] | = 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1− 0 0
| 0 1− 1 | = 0
0 0 1−
(1 - ) [ (1 - ) (1 - ) ] - 0 = 0
(1 - )3 = 0
-3 + 32 - 3 + 1 = 0
 The required characteristic equation is 3 - 32 + 3 - 1 = 0

Exercise
1. Find the characteristic equation of the following matrices:
1 1 1 1
i) [ ] ii) [ ]
3 −1 1 1
−1 3 1 1
iii) [ ] iv) [ ]
−2 4 3 −1
0 1 1
2 −2
v) [ ] vi) [1 0 1]
−2 1
1 1 0
1 1 3 1 1 1
vii) [1 2 1] viii) [1 2 2]
1 1 1 1 2 3
1 0 −2 1 2 3
ix) [2 2 4] x) [0 4 −1]
0 0 2 0 0 1

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a real Matrix:

Eigen values (or) characteristic roots:
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix of order of n.
The characteristic equation of A is | A - I | = 0 the roots of this equation are called Eigen
values (or) characteristic roots of the Matrix A.

< 50 >
 Eigen Vector (or) Characteristic Vectors:
Let A = [aij] be a square Matrix of order ‘n’, Let X be any non-zero column vector.
x1
X = [⋮]
xn
Then this equation AX = X has a non-zero solution of X.
Corresponding to each value of  is called Eigen Vector or Characteristic Vector (or)
latent vector of A.
Note:
i) If all the Eigen values 1, 2 ……….n of a matrix A are distinct, then the
corresponding Eigen vectors are linearly independent.
ii) If two or more Eigen values are equal, then the Eigen vectors may be linearly
independent or linearly dependent.

Worked Examples
a h g
1. Find the Eigen values of [0 b 0]
0 0 c
Solution:
a h g
Let A = [0 b 0]
0 0 c
The characteristic equation is | A - I | = 0
a− h g
| 0 b− 0 | = 0
0 0 c−
(a - ) [ (b - ) (c - ) -0 ] - h (0) + g (0) = 0
(a - ) (b - ) (c - ) = 0
  = a, b, c
2 −2 2
2. Find the Eigen values of Eigen vectors of the matrix [1 1 1]
1 3 −1
Solution:
2 −2 2
A = [1 1 1]
1 3 −1
The characteristic equation is A is | A  I | = 0
2− −2 2
| 1 1− 1 | = 0
1 3 −1 − 
(a - ) [ (1 - ) (+) - 3 ] + 2 [-1 -  - 1] + 2 [ 3 – (1 - )] = 0

< 51 >
 (2 - ) ( - 2) ( - 2) = 0
 The Eigen values of A are  = - 2, 2, 2.
Case: 1
 = -2
The Eigen vector is given by
4 −2 2 x1
[1 3 1] [x 2 ] = 0
1 3 1 x3
x1 x2 x3
= =
−8 −2 14
x1 x2 x3
= =
−4 −1 7
−4
X1 = [−1]
7
Case: 2
 = 2
The Eigen vector is given by
0 −2 2 x1
[1 −1 1] [x2 ] = 0
1 3 −3 x3
x1 x2 x3
= =
0 4 4
x1 x2
= = x3
0 1
0
 X2 = X3 = [1]
1
Exercise
1. Define Eigen values of a Matrix.
2. Define Eigen vectors of a Matrix.
3. If two Eigen values are equal and the Eigen vectors are linearly __________.
4. The characteristic roots of a real Symmetric Matrix are __________.
2 1
5. Find the Eigen vectors of A = [ ]
3 0
cos  − sin 
6. Find the Eigen roots of the matrix [ ] and prove that the product of Eigen
sin  cos 
value is unity.
7. Find the Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the following matrices.
2 2 −2
4 −3
a) [ ] b) [0 1 1]
−2 1
2 −1 4
2 1 0 1 1 −2
a) [0 2 1] d) [−1 2 1 ]
0 0 2 0 1 −1

< 52 >
Consistency and inconsistency of system of linear Algebraic equations:
Let us consider a system of linear Algebraic equations.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ………….. a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ………….. a2n xn = b2
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ………….. amn xn = bn
The equations can be written in the form of matrix equation AX = B.
Where A1 X1 B are mxn, nx1 and mx1 matrices respectively.
A set of values of x1, x2 ……… xn, which satisfy all the given m equations.
Simultaneously is called a solution of the equation.
When the system of equations has a solution, it is said to be consistent. Otherwise the
system is said to be inconsistent.
A consistent system may have either only one (or) infinitely many solutions. When
the system has only one solution, it is called the Unique Solution.
Condition for Consistency
Rouche’s Theorem:
The system of equations AX = B is consistent, if and only if the coefficient Matrix A
and the augmented matrix [A, B] are of the same rank.
Note:
The necessary and sufficient condition for the consistency of a system of linear non-
homogeneous equations is provided by a theorem, called Rouches’s theorem, which we
statement above without proof.
Working Rule for finding the solution of the equation AX = B.
Consider the given m equations and n unknowns.
i) Find Rank A and Rank [A, B]
ii) If Rank A  Rank [A, B].
The equations are inconsistent i.e. they have no solution.
iii) If Rank A = Rank [A, B] = r (say).
The equations are consistent i.e. they possess a solution
If r < n then the solution is unique.
If r < n then there are infinite number of solutions.
2) Verify whether the given system of equations is consistent. If it is consistent, solve them:
x – y + z = 5, -x + y – z = -5, 2x – 2y + 2z = 10
Solution:
The matrix equation corresponding to the given system is
1 −1 1 x 5
y
[−1 1 −1] [ ] = [ −5 ]
2 −2 2 z 10

< 53 >
 AX = B
The augmented matrix is
1 −1 1 5 1 −1 1
[A, B] = [ −1 1 −1 −5]  [0 0 0]
2 −2 2 10 0 0 0
R2  R2 + R2
R3  R3 - 2R
in the last equivalent matrix, there is only one non-zero,  e [A, B] = 1 and e (A) = 1.
Thus e (A) = e (A, B) = 1.
 The given system is consistent, since the common value of the rank is less than the
number of unknowns. There are infinitely many solutions. The given system is equivalent to
the matrix equation.
1 −1 1 x 5
y
[0 0 0] [ ] = [ 0 ]
0 0 0 z 0
x – y + z = 5; taking y = k1, z = k2, we have x = 5 + k1 – k2. For various
values of K1 and K2 we have infinitely many solutions. k1, k2 ∈R.
3) Solve the following homogeneous linear equations.
x + 2y - 5z = 0, 3x + 4y + 6z = 0, x+y+z=0
Solution:
The given system of equations can be written in the form of matrix equation.
1 2 −5 x 0
y
[3 4 6 ] [ ] = [ 0 ]
1 1 1 z 0
AX = B
The augmented matrix is
1 2 −5 0 1 2 −5 0
[A, B] = [ 3 4 6 0]  [ 0 −2 21 0]
1 1 1 0 0 −1 6 0
R2  R2 + 3R1
R3  R3 – R1
1 2 −5 0
= [ 0 −1 6 0 ] R2  R3
0 −2 21 0
1 2 −5 0
= [ 0 −1 6 0 ] R3  R3 – 2R2
0 0 9 0
This is in the echelon form clearly e (A, B) = 3 and e (A) = 3.
e (A) = e [A, B] = 3 = number of unknowns.
 The given system of equations is consisted and has a unique solution.
i.e. trivial solution,
 x = 0, y = 0 and z = 0.

< 54 >
1) Test for the consistency of the following system of equation x1 – 2x2 – 3x3 = 2, + 3x1 –
2x2 = -1, -2x2 – 3x3 = 2 x2 + 2x3 = 1. The system can be put as
1 −2 −3 x1 2
3 −2 0 −1
[ ] [ x2 ] = [ ]
0 −2 −3 x3 2
0 1 2 1
i.e AX = B (say)
1 −2 −3 2 1 −2 −3 2
3 −2 0 −1 0 4 9 −7
(A, B) = [ ] = [ ]
0 −2 −3 2 0 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1 0 1 2 1
(R2  R2 – 3R)
1 0 0 0
0 4 9 −7
= [ ] (C2  C2 + 2C1, C3  C3 + 3C1, C4  C4 - 2C)
0 −2 −3 2
0 1 2 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 2 1
= [ ] (R2  R4, R4  R2)
0 −2 −3 2
0 4 9 −7
1 0 0 0
0 1 2 1
= [ ] (R3  R3 + 2R2 (R4  R4)
0 0 1 4
0 4 9 −7
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= [ ] (C3  C3 – 2 C2, C4  C4 – C1)
0 0 1 4
0 0 1 −11
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= [ ] (R4  R4 – R3)
0 0 1 4
0 0 1 −15
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
= [ ] (C4  C4 – 4C3)
0 0 1 4
0 0 1 −15
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
= [ ] (R4  - 15 R4)
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
 R [A, B] = 4
But R (A)  4, as A is a (4 x 3) matrix,
In fact R (A) = 3, as the value of the minor

< 55 >
 3 −2 0
|0 −2 −3|  0
0 1 2
Thus R(A)  R [A, b]
 the given system is inconsistent.
Test for consistency, if possible for the balance the chemical reaction.
Equation
C5 H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O
The above is the reaction that is taking place in the burring of organic compound called
isoprene.
Solution:
Let x1, x2, x3 & x4 are positive integers such that
x1 e5 H8 + x2 O2 = x1 Co2 + x4 H2O ----- (1)
The number of carbon atoms on the LHS of (1) should be equal to the number of
carbon atoms on RHS of (1).
We get,
5x1 = x3  5x1 – x3 = 0 ----- (2)
Similarly, considering hydrogen and oxygen atoms, we get
8x1 = 2x4  4x1 – x4 = 0 ----- (3)
2x1 = 2x3 + x4  2x2 – 2x3 – x4 = 0 ----- (4)
5 0 −1 0 0
[A | B] = [4 0 0 −1 0]
0 2 −2 −1 0
R1  R2 0 0 0 −1 0
[A | B] [5 0 −1 0 0]
0 2 −2 −1 0
4 0 0 −1 0
[A | B] = [ 0 2 −2 −1 0 ] R2  R3
5 0 −1 0 0
4 0 0 −1 0
= [0 2 −2 −1 0 ] R3  4R3 - 5
0 0 −4 5 0
  (A) =  (A, B) = 3 < 4 = No. of unknowns.
The system is consistent and has infinite number of solutions.
4x1 – x4 = 0, 2x2 – 2x3 – x4 = 0, -4x3 + 5x4 = 0
So, one of the unknowns should be chosen arbitrarily as a non – zero real number.
Let us choose x4 = t, t  0.
t 7t 5t
 we get x1 = , x2 = , x3 =
4 4 4

< 56 >
 Exercise
Test for consistency consistency of the following system of equations and solve, if
consistent:
a) 2x – y + 3z = 9; - x + 2y – z = 4; 3x + y – 4z = 0.
b) x + 2y – z = 6; -3x – 2y + 5z = - 12; x – 2z = 3.
c) x + 2y – z = 5; x – y + z = -2; - 5x – 4y + z = - 11.
d) x - 2y + 3z = 2; 2x – 3z = 3; x + y + z = 0
e) 3x + y – 3z = 1; - 2x – y + 2z = 1; - x – y + z = 2
f) x + y – z = 1, 2x + 2y – 2z = 2, - 3x – 3y + 3z = -3.

Problems
1. Find the Area of the Triangle by the points (-1, 3), (0, -5) and (2, 8)
Solution:
Given, A (-1, 3) = (a1, b1)
C (2, 3)
B (0, -5) = (a2, b2)
C (2, 8) = (a3, b3)
a1 b1 1 (-1, 3) A
1
Area of the Triangle =  a
| 2 b1 1|
2
a3 b1 1
−1 3 1
1
=  |0 −5 1|
2
2 8 1
B (0, 5)

1
=  [ - 1 (- 5 - 8) – 3 (0 – 2) + 1 (0 + 10) ]
2
1
=  [ - 1 (- 13) – 3 (– 2) + 1 (10) ]
2
1
=  [ 13 + 6 + 10 ]
2
1
=  [ 29 ]
2

Area of the triangle =  14.5 square units

2. Find the final grades for Alexandra, Megan and Brigida.

Student Tests Projects Home work Quizzes

Alexandra 92 100 89 80

Megan 72 85 80 75

Brigida 88 78 85 92

< 57 >
 Weightages for test 40%, for project 15% and for homework 25%, for Quizzes 20%.
Solution:
Form a Matrix to the Given Data
92 100 89 80
Let A = [ 72 85 80 75 ]
88 78 85 92
Along the weightages for test, project, homework, Quizzes
40%
0.4
15%
0.15
Let B = 25%  [ ]
0.25
20%
[ ] 0.20

By Matrix Multiplication,
0.4
92 10080 89
0.15
AB = [ 72 8575 ] [
80 ]
0.25
88 7892 85
0.20
36.8 + 15 + 22.25 + 16
AB = [ 28.8 + 12.75 + 20 + 15 ]
35.2 + 11.7 + 21.25 + 18.4
90.05
AB = [ 76.55 ]
86.55
∵ Alexandra has a grade 90,
Megan has 77,
Brigida has 87.

3. In a competitive Examination one mark is awarded for every correct answer while ¼
mark is deducted for every wrong answer. A student answered 100 questions and got 80
marks.
∵ How many questions did he answer correctly?
Solution:
x = No. of questions he answer correct
y = No. of questions he answer wrong
∵ x + y = 100 ------ (1)
1
x y = 80
4

4x + y = 320 ------ (2)

By Cramer’s Rule,
1 1
 = | | = -1 – 4  - 5
4 −1
100 1
x = | | = -100 – 320  - 420
320 −1

< 58 >
 1 100
y = | | = -320 – 400  - 80
4 320
x −420
x = =  84
 −5
y −80
y = =  16
 −5

∵ He answered 84 questions correctly.

4. An electronics warehouse ships televisions and DVD players in certain combinations to
retailers throughout the country. The weight of 2 televisions and 5 DVD players is 62.5
pounds, and the weight of 3 televisions and 2 DVD players is 52 pounds. Then solve it to
find out much each television and DVD player weights (use matrix inversion method to
solve the problem).
Solution:

Televisions DVD Player Weight in Pounds

2 5 62.5
3 2 52

Let x = Television weight & y = DVD player weight

2x + 5y = 62.5
3x + 2y = 52
Writing the above equations in matrix form
2 5 x 62.5
[ ] [ ] = [ ]
3 2 y 52
AX = B
 x = A-1B
1
To find A-1 : A-1 = adj A
|A|

2 5
A = [ ]
3 2
2 5
|A| = | | = 4 – 15 = - 11  0
3 2
+2 −5
adj A = [ ]
−3 +2
1 1 2 −5
A-1 = adj A = adj A [ ]
|A| −11 −3 2
x
Now x = [y] = A-1B
1 2 −5 62.5
= [ ] [ ]
−11 −3 2 52
1 125 − 260
= [ ]
−11 −187.5 + 104

< 59 >
 1 −135
= [ ]
−11 −83.5
12.27 x
X = [ ] = [y]
7.59
 Each Television weight is 12.27 pounds and each DVD player weight is 7.59 pounds
you are an IT organization that wants to equip some new cabinets into your office. You
contacted a furniture company, and they informed you that cabinet A costs Rs. 10 per unit,
requires 5 square feet of floor space. The cost of cabinet B is 20 per unit, requires 15 square
feet of floor space. You have space only for 125 square feet of cabinets and a budget of Rs.
200 to make purchase. How many of models A & B should you be purchased ?
Solution:

A B Total

Cost 10 20 200

Space 5 15 125

Let x = No. of model A cabinets purchased

y = No. of model B cabinets purchased.
10x + 20y = 200  x + 2y = 20
5x + 15y = 125  x + 3y = 25
The matrix form of the above equations are
1 2 x 20
[ ] [y] = [ ]
1 3 25
AX = B
The augment Matrix (A1 B) is
1 2 20
[A1 B] = [ ]
1 3 25
1 2 20
~ [ ] R2  R2 – R1
0 1 5
The above matrix is in echelon form. Now writing the equivalent equations.
1 2 x 20
[ ] [y] = [ ]
0 1 5
x + 2y = 20

y=5
x + 2(5) = 20
x = 20 - 10

x = 10

x=x = No. of model A cabinets purchased

y = No. of model B cabinets purchased.

< 60 >
6) A Company Manufacturers two products A and B. Both products are processed on two
machines M1 & M2

M1 M2

A 6 hrs/unit 2 hrs/unit

B 4 hrs/unit 4 hrs/unit

Availability 7200 4000

hrs/month hrs/month

Profit per unit for A is Rs. 100 and for B is Rs. 80. Find out the monthly production of
A and B is to maximize profit by Graphical Method (or) and also in Matrix Method.
Solution:
By Graphical Method
Formulation of LPP
x1 = No. of units of A/Month
y2 = No. of units of B/Month
Objective Function:
Max z = 100 x1 + 80 x2
Subject to the constraints,
6x1 + 4x2  7200
2x1 + 4x2  4000
x1, x2  0
Constraint (1) Constraint (2)
6x1 + 4x2  7200 2x1 + 4x2  4000
Converting into equality, Convert into equality,
6x1 + 4x2 = 7200 2x1 + 4x2 = 4000
Let x1 = 0  4 x 2 = 7200 Let x1 = 0  4 x 2 = 4000
x2 = 1800 x2 = 1000
 1 (0, 1800)  3 (0, 1000)

Let x2 = 0 ∵ 6 x1 = 7200 Let x2 = 0 2 x1 = 4000

x1 = 1200 x1 = 2000
 2 (1200, 0)  4 (2000, 0)

< 61 >
 Draw a Graph to the points P1, P2, P3, P4
X21

2200

2000

P1 (0, 1800) 1800

1600

1400

1200

1000
P3 (0, 1000)
A 800

600 B (800, 600)

400

200

(0, 0) C P2 (1200,0) P4 (2000,0)

O 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

From the Graph,

We can identify the feasible Region OABC then the points are 0 (0, 0) . A (0, 1000),
B (800, 600) C (1200, 0).

Then we have to find the optimal solution,

O (0, 0) Z = 100 x1 + 80 x 2
= 100 (0) + 80 (0)
Z = O
A (0, 1000) Z = 100 (0) + 80 (1000)
Z = 80,000
B (800, 600) Z = 100 (800) + 80 (600)
= 80,000 + 48,000
Z = 1,28,000
C (1200, 0) Z = 100 (1200) + 90 (0)
Z = 1,20,000

< 62 >
We want maximise of Z
∵ Max Z = 1,28,000 at B (800, 600)
∵ The optimal solution is X1 = 800
X2 = 600
Matrix Method:
Max Z = 100 X1 + 80 X2
6 X1 + 4X2 = 7200 ----- (1)
2 X1 + 4X2 = 4000 ----- (2)
AX = B
6 4 x1 7200
[ ] [x ] = [ ]
2 4 2 4000
By Matrix Inversion Method, X = A-1 B

1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

6 4
|A| = | | = 24 – 8 = 16
2 4
4 −4
adj A = [ ]
−2 6
1 4 −4
∵ A-1 = [ ]
16 −2 6
1 4 −4 7200
X = [ ] [ ]
16 −2 6 4000
4 −4 450
= [ ] [ ]
−2 6 250
1800 − 1000
= [ ]
−900 + 1500
800
X = [ ]
600
X1 800
[ ] = [ ]
X2 600
∵ X-1 = 800 X2 = 600
∵ Max Z = 100 x1 + 80 x2
= 100 (800) + 80 (600)
= 80,000 + 48,000
Max Z = 1,28,000
From above these two methods (i) Graphical Method (or) (ii) Matrix Method. We
have same optimal solution and maximize profit.

< 63 >
1) A house wife wishes to mix two types of food F1 and F2 in such a way that the vitamin
contents of the mixture contain at least 8 units of Vitamin A and 11 units of Vitamin B.
Food F1 costs 60/kg and Food F2 costs 80/kg. Food F1 contains 3 units/kg of Vitamin A
and 5 units/kg of Vitamin B while Food F2 contains 4 units/kg of Vitamin A and 2 units /
kg of Vitamin B. Formulate this problem as a LPP to minimize the cost of the mixture.
Also find the optimal solution.
Solution: (i) By Graphical Method:

Food (in Kg) Requirement (in

Vitamin Content units)
F1 F2

Vitamin A 3 4 8
(Units/Kg)

Vitamin B 5 2 11
(Units/Kg)

Cost (E/Kg) 60 80

Decision Variables:
x = Mixture of Food F1 in Kg
y = Mixture of Food F2 in Kg
Objective Function:
Min C = 60x + 9-y
Subject to the Constraints:
3x + 4y  8 ---------- (1)
5x + 2y  11 ---------- (2)
x  0, y  0
Constraint: 1
3x + 4y  8
3x + 4y = 8
If x = 0 4y = 8 If y = 0 3x = 8
y=2 x = 8/3
x = 2.7
P1 (0, 2) P2 (2.7, 0)

< 64 >
 Constraint: 2
5x + 2y  11
5x + 2y = 11
If x = 0 2y = 11 If y = 0 5x = 11
y = 11/2 x = 11/5
y = 5.5 x = 22
P3 (0, 5.5) P4 (2.2, 0)

6
P3 (0, 5.5) A (0, 5.5)
5

1 B (2, 0.5)

O 1 2 3 4 5 6 X

P4 (2.2, 0)

All the constraints are greater than or equal to the type.

∵ Feasible Region should be above (to the Right of) all constraints.
∵ The vertices of the feasible region are A, B, C.
By Corner Point Method:
Min C = 60 x + 80 y
A (0, 5.5) Min C = 80 (0) + 80 (5.5.)
= 0 + 440
Min C = 440
B (2, 0.5) Min C = 60 (2) + 80 (0.5)
= 120 + 40
Min C = 160
C (2.7, 0) Min C = 60 (2.7) + 80 (0)

< 65 >
 Min C = 162
We want Minimize C
∵ Min C = 160 at B (2, 0.5)
∵ The optimal solution is x=2
Y = 0.5 = ½
∵ 2 Kg Mixture of food F1 and
½ kg Mixture of food F2
Matrix Method:
Min C = 60 x + 80 y
3x + 4y = 8 ------ (1)
5x + 2y = 11 ------ (2)
AX = B
3 4 x 8
[ ] [y] = [ ]
5 2 11
By Matrix Inversion Method
X = A-1 B
1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

3 4
|A| = | | = 6 – 20 = -14
5 2
|A| = - 14
2 −4 1 2 −4
Adj A = [ ] ∵ A-1 = [ ]
−5 3 −14 −5 3
X = A-1 B
1 2 −4 8
X = [ ] [ ]
−14 −5 3 11
1 16 −44
= [ ]
−14 −40 +33
1−28
X = [ ]
−14−7
x 2
[y] = [ ]
0.5
∵ x= 2, y = 0.5
Min C = 60 x + 80 y
= 60 (2) + 80 (0.5)
= 120 + 40

< 66 >
 Min C = 160
From above these two methods (i) Graphical Method, (ii) Matrix Method.
We have same optimal solution and minimize the cost of mixture.
2) A small – scale industry manufactures electrical regulators the assembly of which being
accomplished by a small group of 11 skilled workers both men and women. Due to
limitations of space and finance, the member of workers employed cannot exceed and
their salary bill not more than Rs. 60,000 per month.
The male members of the skilled workers are paid Rs. 6,000 per month, while the female
worker doing the same work as the male member gets Rs. 5,000. Data collected on the
performance of these workers indicate that a male member contributes Rs. 10,000 per
month to total return of the industry, while the female worker contribute Rs. 8500 per
month. Determine the member of male and female workers to be employed in order to
maximize the monthly total return.
Solution: By Graphical Method:

Let X1 = No. of Male workers to be employed

X2 = No. of Female workers to be employed

Objective function Max Z = 10000 X1-1 8500 X2

Subject to the Constraints

x1 + x2  11 ------ (1)

6000 x1 + 5000 x2  60,000

6 x1 + 5 x2  60 ------ (2)

x1, x2  0

Constraint : 1 Constraint : 2
x1 + x2  11 6x1 + 5x2  60
x1 + x2 = 11 6x1 + 5x2 = 60
If x1 = 0 x2 = 11 If x1 = 0 5 x2 = 60
P1 (0, 11) x2 = 12
x2 = 0, x1 = 11 ∵ P3 (0, 12)
P2 (11, 0) If x2 = 0 6 x1 = 60
x1 = 60/6
x1 = 10
∵ P4 (10, 0)

< 67 >
 Draw a Graph to the points P1 (0, 11), P2 (11, 0), P3 (0, 12), P4 (10, 0)

14

12
P3 (0, 1000)
A 10

8
B (5,6)
6

4
P4 (10, 0)
2 P2 (11, 0)

O (0,0) 2 4 6 8 C10 12 14 16

From the Graph,

We can identify the feasible Region OABC then the points are 0 (0, 0), A (0, 11),
B (5, 6) C (10, 0).

At O (0, 0) Max Z = 10000 x1 + 8500 x2

= 10000 (0) + 8500 (0)
Max Z = 0
At A (0, 11) Max Z = 10000 (0) + 8500 (11)
= 93,500
At B (5, 6) Max Z = 10000 (5) + 8500 (6)
= 50,000 + 51,000
= 1,01,000
At C (10, 0) Max Z = 10000 (10) + 8500 (0)
= 1,00,000

But we want maximise of Z

∵ Max Z = 1,01,000 at B (5, 6)
Then the optimal solution is
X1 = 5, X2 = 6
(ii) Matrix Method:
Max Z = 10000 X1 + 85000 X2
X1 + X2 = 11 ----- (1)

< 68 >
 6 X1 + 5 X2 = 60 ----- (2)
AX = B
1 1 x1 11
[ ] [x ] = [ ]
6 5 2 60
By Matrix Inversion Method, X = A-1 B

1
A-1 = adj A
|A|

1 1
|A| = | |
6 5
= 5–6
|A| = -1
5 −1
Adj A = [ ]
−6 1
X = A-1 B
−5 1 11
= [ ] [ ]
6 1 60
−55 + 60
= [ ]
66 − 60
X1 5
[ ] = [ ]
X2 6
∵ X1 = 5 X2 = 6
∵ Max Z = 10000 x1 + 8500 (x2)
= 10000 (5) + 8500 (6)
= 50,000 + 51,000
Max Z = 1,01,000
Hence We have same optimal solution in both way.

< 69 >
 Chapter 1.3: BINOMIAL THEOREM
Introduction:
The word ‘Binomial’ refers that “Any Algebraic expression which consists two
terms”.
i.e. Bi-nomial  Bi = two nomial = terms
eg. 1) Bicycle
2) Binocular which all are represents two things
3) Binary
Before we state to know permutation & combination we need a concept of factorials.
Factorial Notation:
The product of first ‘n’ natural numbers.
 Denoted by ∟n = (read as factorial n)
n! = (read as ‘n’ factorial)
 Defined by n! = ∟n same
n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x ……… x n.
For a positive integer ‘n’
n! = n x (n - 1) x (n – 2) x ……… x 3 x 2 x 1.
= n (n - 1) ! for n > 1
= n (n - 1) (n – 2) ! for n > 2 & so on.
Eg. 1! = 1 1! =1
2! =1x2=3 2! = 2x1=2
2! = 1x2x3=6 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 = 6 & so on

The notation n! was introduced by = Christian Kramp French Mathematician

Permutations & Combination:

What is permutation? (arrangements)
Suppose we have a three object,

< 70 >
 2 3 1 3 1 2

3 2 3 1 2 1

Thus above examples are six possible ways in which they can arrange themselves.
Thus if 3 objects have to be arranged in a row there are 3 x 2 x 1 = 3! Possible
permutations (taken at a time).
Like that 4 objects (taken at a time) = 4!
5 objects (taken at a time) = 5!
Suppose you have 7 objects, we want to make four, four groups, we get the result npr
npr i.e = 7p4
For Example:
In alphabetic, there is vowels, ‘a, e, I, o, u’ 5 letters we want to make ‘3’ groups.
a, e, i, o, u = 5 choices (1 letter)
a, e, i, o, u = 4 choices
a, e, i, o, u = 3 choices
5x4x3x2x1 5! 5!
5x4x3= = = (5−3)!
2x1 2!

Generally, the number of distinct permutations of r objects which can be made from n
distinct objects
n!

(n−r)!

Which is denoted by nPr

Combinations: (Selections)
Consider the ‘Badminton’ team will have a 4 members named as ‘A, B, C, D’. But the
first match will allow only two members.

< 71 >
 The possible choices are : AB : AC : AD : BC, BD : CD.
Thus the number of combinations of 4 different players taken 2 at a time is 6.
The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time is represented by
nCr.
Note:

nPr = nCr x r!

The above result is relationship between permutations & combinations.

Value of permutation & combinations

Permutation Combination

1) nPr nCr

2) number of permutation of n different The number of combination of ‘n’ things

things taken r at a time taken ‘r’ at a time

3) n, r (non-negative integers) 4) n, r (non-negative integers)

r  n r  n
∟n n!
nPr = nCr =
∟n−r (n−r)! r!
(1) nPn = n! (1) nCn = 1
(2) nP1 = n! (2) nCo = 1
(3) nC1 = n
(4) nCr = nCn-r
nCr n−r+1
(5) =
nC(r−1) r

(6) If nCr = nC2  either r = 2

R + q = n [∵ nCr = nCn-r

Examples:
1. Find the numbers of permutations of 6 objects taken 4 at a time.
Solution:
= 6P4
∟6
=
∟6−4
6x5x4x3x2x1
= = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 = 360.
2x1
2. In how many ways can 7 books be arranged in a shelf?
Solution:
7 books can be arranged in 7! ways = 5040.

< 72 >
3. In how many ways 4 boys can be seated in a long bench?
4 boys can be seated in 4! Ways = 24
4. Find the value of (i) 7C5 (ii) 10C4 (iii) 6C2 (iv) 8C8 (v) 5Co (vi) 10C7
Solution:
(i) 7C5 = 7C5 [∵ nCr = n Cn-r]
7x6
= = 21
1x2

10 x 9 x 8 x 7
(ii) 10C4 = = 210
1x2x3x4
6x5
(iii) 6C2 = = 15
1x2

(iv) 8C8 = 1 {∵ nCn = 1}

(v) 5Co = 1 {∵ nCo = 1}
(vi) 10C7 = 10C3
10 x 9 x 8
=
3x2x1

= 120
Binomial Expressions:
This chapter deals with the expansion of the various powers of binomial expression.
Before we state the General theorem, we will recall some known results for known
powers of Binomial expressions.
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4
The above results may easily be verified by direct multiplication. But for any positive
integer n, we define the general theorem known as Binomial theorem as given below.
Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Index:
For any positive integer n,
(x + a)n = xn + nC1 xn-1 a1 + nC2 xn-2 a2 + nC3 xn-3 a3 + nCr xn-r ar + … + an
Note:
1. Number of terms in the expansion is = n + 1
2. General term of Binomial expansion is nCr xn-r ar
i.e. (r + 1)th term = nCr xn-r ar
i.e. Tr + 1 = nCr xn-r ar
3. Every term is of nth degree in x and a.
4. nC1, nC2 ……. nCr etc. are called the Binomial coefficients. The Binomial co-
efficients are all integers since nCr is an integer.
5. Co-efficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and the end of the expansion are
equal since nCr = nCn-r.

< 73 >
 Example Problems:
2
1) Find the general term in the expansion of (x + )12
x
Solution:
2
Here X =x, a = , n = 12
x
We know that the general term is
Tr + 1 = nCr xn-r ar
2
= 12Cr (x)12-r ( )r
x
2r
= 12Cr (x)12-r ( r )
x
r 12-r-r
= 12Cr 2 x
= 12Cr 2r x12-2r
 The general term is 12Cr 2r x 12-2r
2
2) Find the general term in the expansion of (x2 - )9
x

Solution:
The general term of (x + a)n is Tr+1 = nCr xn-r
−2
Tr+1 = 9Cr (x2)9-r ( )r
x
−2
= 9Cr x18-2r ( r )r
x

= 9Cr x18-2r (-2)r . x-r here X = x2

−2
= 9Cr (-2)r x18-2r-r a =
x
r 18-3r
Tr + 1 = 9Cr (-2) x n = 9
2
3) Find the 7th term in the expansion of (x2 + )10
x

Solution:
1
Here X = x2, a = , n = 10
x
The general term is Tr+1 = nCr x n-r ar
To find the 7th term. Put r = 6.
1
 T6+1 = 10C6 (x2)10-6 ( )6
x
1
i.e. T7 = 10C6 (x2)4 .
x6
1
= 10C6 x8 . [∵ r + 1 = 7
x6

= 10C6 x8-6 r = 7-1

2
T7 = 10C6 x r = 6
 The 7th term is 10C6 x2

< 74 >
Note: To find the middle term / terms in the expansion of (x + a)n number of terms is n + 1.
Cases:
th
n+2
1. n is even, n + 1 is odd. There exists only one middle term. It is [ ] term.
2
th th
n+1 n+3
2. n is odd, n + 1 is even. There exists two middle term. They are [ ] ,[ ] terms.
2 2

Example Problems:
1. Expand [5x – y]4 using Binomial theorem.
Solution:
Given [5x –y]4
In the expansion of [5x –y]4; there are 5 terms. Each term is found out using the
formula.
Tr+1 = nCr xn-r ar
Here x = 5x
A = -y
n = 4
r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
r = 0.
T1 = 4Co (5x)4-0 (-y)o
= 1.54 x4 . 1
Missing

T2 = 4C1 . (5x)4-1 (-y)1

= 4 . (5x)3 (-y)
= 4.53 x3 (-y)
= -500 x3 y

r= 2

T3 = 4C2 . (5x)4-2 (-y)2

4x3
= . (5x)2 y2
1x2

= 6.52 x2 y2
= 150 x2 y2

r= 3

< 75 >
 T4 = 4C3 . (5x)4-3 (-y)3
= 4C1 ; (5x)1 (-)y3
= - 4.5x y3
= -20 xy3

r= 4

T5 = 4C4 (5x)4-4 (-y)4

= 1.1 . y4
(5x –y)4 = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
= 625 x4 – 500 x3y + 150 x2y2 – 20xy3 + y4
3
2. Find the middle term in the expansion of (2x4 + )16
x

Solution:
3
(2x4 + )16 , Here A = 16
x
th
n+ 2
Middle term = ( ) term
2
th
16 + 2
= ( ) term
2

= 9th term
 Middle term = 9th term.

T9 = ? n = 16
r+1=9 x ~ 2 x4
3
 r= 8 9 =
x

Tr + 1 = nCr xn-r ar
r
3
 T9 = 16C8 (2x4)16-8 ( )
x
8
3
= 16C8 (2x4)8 ( )
x
x32
= 16C8 28 38
x8
8 24
= 16C8 6 x
x32
[∵ = x32-8 = x24 ]
x8

Problems Finding Co-efficient of xn

15
1
1) Find the co-efficient of x32 in the expansion of (x 4 + 3) .
x

Solution: Here n = 15

< 76 >
 1
x ~ x4 , a =
x3
r = ?
General term = Tr+1
= nCr xn-r ar
r
1
= 15Cr (x4)15-r [ 3 ]
x
1
= 15Cr (x4)60-4r [ ]
x3r
x60−4r
= 15Cr [ ]
x3r

= 15Cr x60-7r
We assume that x32 occurs in 15Cr x 60-7r
 x60-7r = x32
Equating the indices 60- 7r = 32
-7r =32 – 60
i.e. -7r = -28
i.e. r = 4

Co-efficient of x32 = coefficient of x60-7r

= 15Cr
= 15C4

Independent Terms
When we find co-efficient of xo, we get independent term of x.
Example sums:
20
1
1) Find the term independent of ‘x’ in the expansion of (√x − )
x2

Solution:
Here n = 20
x - √x
1
a = -
x2
General Term = Tr+1 = n Cr xn-r ar
1 r
= 20 Cr (√x)20-r (- )
x2

(−1) r
= 20 Cr x10-r/2
x2r

= 20 Cr (-1)r x10-r/2 – 2r

< 77 >
2) Finding the independent term of x means finding the co-efficient of xo.
r
 10 - - 2r = 0
2
20−r−4r
i.e. = 0
2
i.e. 20 - 5r = 0
20
r = = 4
5

 Independent term of x = 20 Cr (-1)r

= 20 C4 (-1)4
=
20 C4.
Binomial Theorem for Rational Index:
In the previous chapter, we have seen the expansion of Binomial expression only for
positive integer. Now, we will see the expansion of Binomial expression for any rational
number.
Statements of Binomial Theorem for a Rational Index:
n (n−1)
If ‘n’ is a rational number and – 1 < x < 1, then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x2 +
2!
n (n−1)(n−2)
x3 + …….
3!
n (n−1)…….(n−r + 1)
+ xr + …….. + 00.
r!

(Proof is omitted, since it is not included in our syllabus)

Note:
1) The binomial theorem for rational index is true only when the first term is 1 and
| x | < 1.
2) Number of terms in this expansion is infinite.

Examples
(−1)(−2)
1) (1 – x)-1 = 1 + (-1) (-x) + (-x)2 + …
2

= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + …
(−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3)
2) (1+x)-1 = 1 + (-1)x + x2 + (-x)3 + ….
1.2 1, 2, 3

= 1 - x + x2 - x3 + x4 + …
(−2)(−3)
3) (1+x)-2 = 1 + (-2) (-x) + (-x)2 + ….
1.2

= 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + …
(−2)(−3)
4) (1+x)-2 = 1 + (-2) (x) + (-x)2 + ….
1.2

= 1 - 2x + 3x2 - 4x3 + …

< 78 >
 (−3)(−4) (−3)(−4)(−5)
5) (1+x)-3 = 1 + (-3)x + x2 + (-x)3 + ….
1.2 1, 2.3
(−1)r (r + 1)(r + 2)
= 1 - 3x + 6x2 - 10x3 + …… + = xr + ….
2
(−1)r (r + 1)(r + 2)
 (r + 1)th term = Tr + 1 = = xr
2
(−3)(−4) (−3)(−4)(−5)
6) (1+x)-3 = 1 + (-3) (-x) + (-x)2 + (-x)3 + ….
2 1, 2.3
(r + 1)(r + 2)
= 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 10x3 + …… + xr + ….
2
(r + 1)(r + 2)
(r + 1)th term = Tr + 1 = xr.
2

7) Expand (1 – 2x)-3 using Binomial theorem.

Solution:
(−3)(−4) (−3) (−4) (−5)
(1 – 2x)-3 = 1 + (-3) (-2x) + (-2x)2 + (-2x)
2 1. 2. 3

= 1 + 6x + 6(4x2) + 10 (8 x3)
= 1 + 6x + 24x2 + 80x3
8) Expand (3 – 4x)-3 using Binomial theorem.
4
(3 – 4x)-3 = 3-3 (1 - x)-3
3
−4 (−3)(−4) −4 (−3) (−4) (−5) −4
=
1
[1 + (−3) ( 3 x) + ( x) + ( x3) ]
33 1. 2 3 1. 2. 3 3

Exercises
1. Find the value of 11C4
2. How many middle terms are there in the expansion of (3x2 – 5)10
10
1
3. Find 7th term in (x 2 − )
x
20
3
4. Find 11th term in (x + )
x
17
1
5. Find the general term (2y − 2 )
2y

6. Find the general term (3x + y)8

14
1
7. Find the middle term in the expansion of (x 4 − 3 )
x
11
1
8. Find the middle term in the expansion of (x 4 − 3 )
x
15
1
9. Find the coefficients of x32 in the expansion of (x 4 − 3 )
x
15
1
10. Find the coefficients of x-17 in the expansion of (x 4 − 3 )
x
12
1
11. Find the term independent of x in the expansion of (2x 2 − )
x

< 79 >
 20
3
12. Find the term independent of x in the expansion (4x 3 + 2 )
x

13. Expand the following using binomial theorem

a) (4 + 3x)-1 b) (1 + 3x)-1
b) (5 – 2x)-2 d) (1 + 5x)-2
c) (1 – 3x)-3 f) (1 + 2x)-3
14. Find the first three terms in the expansion of the following
a) (1 - 4x)-2 b) (1 - 2x)-3
b) (1 – 5x2)-2 d) (1 - 3x2)-2
x 4x -3
c) (1 – )-2 f) (1 – )
2 5

Application of Binomial theorem

Binomial theorem has a wide range of application in mathematics like
1. Finding the remainder
2. Finding digits of a number
3. Finding greatest term

Worked Examples
1. Finding digits of a number using binomial theorem
(i) (99)5 (ii) (102)6 (iii) (10.1)5
(99)5 = (100 – 1)3 = 5Co (100)5 – 5C, (100)4 + 5C2 (100)3 – 5C3 (100)2 + 5C4 (100) – 5C5
= (100)3 – 5 (100)4 + 10 x (100)3 – 10 x (100)2 + 5 (100) –
= 1010 – 5 x 108 + 107 – 105 + 5 x 102 – 1
= (1010 + 107 + 5 x 102) – (5 x 108 + 105 + 1)
= 10010000500 – 500100001
= 9509900499.
(ii) (102)6 = (100 + 2)6
= 6Co x (100)6 + 6C1 x (100)5 x 2 + 6C2 x (100)4 x 22 + 6C3 x (100)3 x 23
+ 6C4 x (100)2 x 24 + 6C5 x (100)1 x 25 + 6C6 x (100)o x 26.
= (100)6 + 6 x (100)5 x 2 + 15 x (100)4 x 22 + 20 x (100)3 x 23 + 15 x
(100)2 x 24 + 6 x (100)1 x 25 + 26.
= 1012 + 12 x 1010 + 6 x 109 + 10 x 107 + 24 x 105 + 192 x 102 + 64
= 1126162419264.
(iii) (10.1)5 = (10 + 0.1)5
= 5Co x (10)5 x (0.1)o + 5C1 x (10)4 x (0.1) + 5C2 x (10)3 x (0.1)2 + 5C3 x
(10)2 x (0.1)3 + 5C4 x (10)1 x (0.1)4 + 5C5 x (10)o x (0.1)5

< 80 >
 = (10)5 + 5 x 104 x 0.1 + 10 x 103 x (0.1)2 + 10 x (10)2 x (0.1)3 + 5 x 10 x
(0.1)4 + (0.1)5
= 105 + 5 x 103 + 102 + 1 + 5 x 0.001 + 0. 00001
= 100000 + 5000 + 100 + 1 + 0.005 + 0.00001
= 105101.00501
Finding the Remainder
1. Find the remainder when 7103 is divided by 25.
(7103  25) = [ 7(49)51 / 25 ]
= 7 (50-1)51 / 25
= 7 [ 51Co (50)51 – 51C1 (50)50 …….. – 51C51 ] / 2
= 7 [ 51Co (50)51 – 51C1 (50)50 …….. – 1 ] / 25
= [ 7 (51Co (50)51 – 51C1 (50)50 ……..) – 7 ]  25
= [ 7 (51Co (50)51 – 51C1 (50)50 ……..) – 7 + 18 - 18 ]  25
= [ 7 (51Co (50)51 – 51C1 (50)50 ……..) – 25 ] + 18
= K + 18 (∵ K is divisible of 25)
 remainder = 18

2. Show that 119 + 911 is divisible by 10.

119 + 911 = (10 + 1)9 (10 – 1)11
= (9co 109 + 9c, 108 + … 9ca) (11co 1011 – 11c, 1010 + … - 11c11)
= 9co 109 + 9c, 108 + … + 9c8 10 + 1 + 1011 – 11c1, 1010 + … - 11c10 10 – 1
= 10 [ 9co 108 + 9c, 107 + … + 9c8 + 11co + 1010 – 11c1, 109 + … + 11c10 ]
= 10k, which is divisible by 10.
Find the digits of the number
1. Find the last two digits of the number (13)10
Solution:
(13)10 = (132)5
= (169)5
= (170 – 1)5
(13)10 = 5Co (170)5 – 5C1 (170)4 + 5C2 (170)3 – 5C3 (170)2 + 5C4 (170) – 5C5
= [ 5Co (170)5 – 5C1 (170)4 + 5C2 (170)3 – 5C3 (170)2 ] + 5 (170) – 1
= A multiple of 100 + 850 – 1
= 100 K + 849
 The last two digits are 49.

< 81 >
2. Find the last two digits of the number 7400.
Solution:
7400 = (72)200 = (50 – 1)200
= 200Co 50200 – 200C1 50199 + … + 200C199 50 (-1)199 + 200 C200 (-1)200
= 502 [ 200Co 50198 – 200C1 50197 + …. + 200 C198 (-1)197 ] – 200 x 50 + 1
As 502 and 200 are divisible by 100, the last two digits of 7400 is 01.
Finding the Greatest Term:
 If { (n + 1) | x | / | x | + 1 } = p is a positive integer then P th term and (p + 1)th terms
are numerically greatest terms in the expansion of (1 x x)n.
 If [ (n + 1) | x | ] / [ 1 x 1 + 1 ] . P + F, where P is a positive integer o < F < 1 then
(P + 1)th term is expansion of (1 + )n.
1. Find the numerically greatest term in (1 – 3x)10 when x = (1/2)
Solution:
[ (n + 1) | a | ] / [ | a | + 1 ] = [ (11 x 3/2) ] / [ (3/2) + 1 ]
33
= / (5/2)
2
33 2 33
= x =
2 5 5
9
2. Find the greatest term in (1 + 5x) when x = ¼
[ (n + 1) | 9 | ] / [ | 9 | + 1 ]
5
= [ (10 x ) ] / [ 5/4 + 1 ]
4
50 9 50 4 50
= /  x =
4 4 4 9 9

Exercise Problems:

1) Finding the digits of a number using Binomial expansion

(i) (52)9 (vi) (13.2)5
(ii) (65)8 (vii) (109)5
(iii) (112)5 (viii) (120)4
(iv) (125)7 (ix) (158)6
(v) (12.1)6 (x) (50.1)5
2) Finding the remainder using the binomial theorem
(i) 6102  20 (ii) 598  30
3) Find the remainder when 950  13
4) Show that 107 + 82 is divisible by 8
5) Show that 192 + 63 is divisible by 5.

< 82 >
 Determinants of order 2 and 3

Properties of Determinants 1 to 5

Property 6

Introduction to Matrix and Cramer's Rule

Operations on Matrices, Adjoint and Inverse of Matrix

Factorial , Permutation and Exercise

Combinations, Binomial Theorem

Binomial Theorem – Exercise

Expansion of Binomials using Binomial Theorem, Coefficient of Xn

and Term Independent of x

< 83 >
< 84 >