Environmental and Social Impact/Risk

Assessment/Auditing and Mitigation Measures

For
Creating Opportunities for Municipalities to Produce and
Operationalize Solid Waste Transformation (COMPOST) Project
By

January 2021
Addis Ababa

Address: Basal Consulting;

Woreda 09, 4-killo, Ambachew tower, 2nd floor, Office No. 206, P.O Box 100707, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Mobile:
+251913436142; Email:basalconsulting@gmail.com; Website: www.basalconsult.com.et
 Table of Contents

Contents Pages
I. Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................ v
II. List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... vi
III. List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. vii
IV. Acronyms and Abbreviation .......................................................................................................... viii
V. Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................. x
1 Introduction and Background................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Project Background ....................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Project Rationale ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Project Objective ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Objective of the Consultancy Work (The TOR) ........................................................................... 8
1.5.1 Objective of the Assignment ................................................................................................. 8
1.5.2 Specific Objective of the Assignment ................................................................................... 8
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Assignment ...................................................................................... 8
1.6.1 Technical Scope of the Assignment ...................................................................................... 8
1.6.2 Spatial Scope of the Assignment........................................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Limitation of the Assignment ............................................................................................... 9
1.7. Composition of the Report .......................................................................................................... 10
2 Description of Project Intervention Areas .......................................................................................... 11
2.1 Physical Environment ................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Biodiversity and Natural Habitat ................................................................................................ 13
2.3 Socio-economic Status ................................................................................................................ 16
3 Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework ......................................................................................... 21
3.1 The FDRE Constitution, 1994 .................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia ............................................................................................... 21
3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation No. 299/2002 ................................................ 22
3.4 Health Policy............................................................................................................................... 23
3.5 The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE) ............................................................................ 23
3.6 Public Health Proclamation No 200/2000................................................................................... 24

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 3.7 Proclamation on Environmental Pollution Control (NO 300/2002) ........................................... 24
3.8 Solid Waste Management Proclamation (No. 513/2007) ........................................................... 25
3.9 Solid Waste Management Standards in Ethiopia ........................................................................ 26
3.10 Proclamation on Hazardous Waste Management and Disposal Control No. 1090/2018 ............ 27
3.11 Compost Preparation Standard, MUDH November 2017 ........................................................... 27
3.12 International Conventions and Protocols .................................................................................... 30
3.13.1. Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change............................. 30
3.13.2. International Convention on Biodiversity ........................................................................... 30
3.13.3. United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification ........................................................ 30
3.13.4. UNDP safeguard policies and procedures........................................................................... 32
3.13.5. IFC Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines on Noise Management ......................... 33
3.13.6. IFC Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines on Waste Management ........................ 34
3.14. Urban Greenery Legal Framework and Urban Land Plan Policy ........................................... 34
3.15. Administrative and Institutional Framework .......................................................................... 35
4. Methodology and Approach................................................................................................................ 39
4.1 Study Area ........................................................................................................................................ 39
4.2 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Conceptual Framework ............................. 41
4.2.2 Environmental and Social Risk Auditing Conceptual Framework ..................................... 42
4.3 General Study Approach ................................................................................................................... 43
4.4 Preparation ........................................................................................................................................ 44
4.5 Sampling Technique and Sample Size .............................................................................................. 44
4.5.1 Sampling Technique .................................................................................................................. 44
4.5.2 Sample Size ................................................................................................................................ 44
4.6 Data Collection (Field Work) ........................................................................................................... 45
4.6.1. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)................................................................................................. 45
4.6.2. Key Informants Interviews (KIIs) ................................................................................................. 47
4.6.3. Physical observation ..................................................................................................................... 48
4.7 Data Analysis and Report Write Up ................................................................................................. 49
4.8 Managing Potential Limitations ........................................................................................................ 49
5. Baseline Information on Project Intervention Areas Prior to Project Intervention ............................. 50
5.1 Environmental and Social-Economic Baseline of ISWM Intervention Areas ............................ 50

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 5.1.1 Environmental Baseline ...................................................................................................... 51
5.1.2 Socio-Economic Baseline ................................................................................................... 52
5.2 Environmental and Socio-Economic Baseline UGI Intervention Areas ..................................... 52
5.2.1 Environmental Baseline ...................................................................................................... 53
5.2.2 Socio-Economic Baseline ................................................................................................... 54
6 Findings and Discussion (Project Intervention Results and Changes Observed) ............................... 55
6.1 Results and Changes in Integrated Solid Waste Management .................................................... 55
6.1.1 Generation ........................................................................................................................... 55
6.1.2 Collection and Transportation ............................................................................................. 56
6.1.3 Composting and Recycling: ................................................................................................ 58
6.2 Results and Changes in Urban Green Infrastructure Development ............................................ 60
7 Project Environmental and Social Impact Audit Findings and Proposed Mitigation Measures ......... 63
7.1. Impact Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 63
7.2. Positive Impacts of the Project......................................................................................................... 65
7.2.1. Income Generation .................................................................................................................... 65
7.2.2. Employment Generation ........................................................................................................... 65
7.2.3. Social Benefits .......................................................................................................................... 66
7.2.4. Environmental Benefit .............................................................................................................. 67
7.3. Negative Impacts of the Project ....................................................................................................... 68
7.3.1. Impact on Soil Quality ........................................................................................................ 68
7.3.2. Impact on Water Resource .................................................................................................. 68
7.3.3. Impact on Air Quality ......................................................................................................... 69
7.3.4. Impact on Biological Environment ..................................................................................... 69
7.3.5. OHS Risks ........................................................................................................................... 69
7.3.6. Impact on Utility ................................................................................................................. 70
7.3.7. Impacts on Land-use / Land Cover Impact ......................................................................... 70
8. Impact Mitigation Measures ............................................................................................................... 70
8.1. Soil Quality Impact Mitigation Measures ................................................................................... 70
8.2. Water Resource Impact Mitigation Measures ............................................................................. 70
8.3. Air Quality Impact Mitigation Measures .................................................................................... 71
8.4. Biological Environment Impact Mitigation Measures ................................................................ 71
8.5. Occupational Health and Safety Impacts Mitigation Measures .................................................. 71

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 8.6. Impact on Utility ......................................................................................................................... 72
8.7. Impacts on Land-use / Land Cover Impact ................................................................................. 72
9. Project Risk Assessment and Proposed Mitigation Measures ............................................................ 73
9.1. Risks Identified and Measures Taken by the Project during Implementation ............................ 73
9.2. Newly Identified Risks/Not Fully Addressed Risks/ and Proposed Mitigation Measures.......... 74
10. Environmental Management Plan ................................................................................................... 76
11. Monitoring Plan .............................................................................................................................. 84
12. Public and Stakeholder Consultation Views ................................................................................... 90
12.1. Workers View and Concern .................................................................................................... 90
12.2. Public Consultation ................................................................................................................. 92
13. Conclusion and Recommendation .................................................................................................. 93
13.1. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 93
13.2. Recommendation .................................................................................................................... 96
14. Reference ........................................................................................................................................ 97
15. Annexes........................................................................................................................................... 98
15.1. Sample Maps of Urban Greenery Infatuation ......................................................................... 98
15.2. Sample Title Deed Certificates for UGI................................................................................ 101
15.3. Signed FGD minutes and List of People Contacted.............................................................. 102

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 I. Acknowledgement

This Environmental and Social Impact Assessment/Audit report was made possible through the
support of various people and institutions that provided key and valuable information. Most
important primary and secondary data and substantial critical information were collected from
different sources at Federal and City Administration level offices who have direct involvement in
NAMA COMPOST project implementation, beneficiaries and community representatives. The
team is thankful to all 100 respondents who were contacted for interview and discussion during
the study.

Especial thanks go to staff of the Project Management Unit; Tigist Alemu, Girma Workie and
Semere G/Tsadik who facilitated and guide the overall assignment. We appreciate the dedication
and cooperation received from staff of ISWM and UGI related departments of the five project
cities (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, and Hawassa) during our field work.

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 II. List of Tables
Table 1: Physical environment of target areas ............................................................................................ 11
Table 2: Study area Biodiversity and Habitats............................................................................................ 13
Table 3: Socio-economic status of target areas ........................................................................................... 16
Table 4: Breakdown of Solid Waste Management Proclamation No. 513 and the Environmental Pollution
Control proclamation .................................................................................................................................. 26
Table 5: Administrative and institutional roles and responsibilities ........................................................... 36
Table 6: Number of FGDs conducted per City Administrations ................................................................ 45
Table 7: Key FGD Discussion Topics used as a checklist .......................................................................... 46
Table 8: KII conducted at federal and city administration level ................................................................. 47
Table 9: Environmental Condition of Greenery Areas Prior to Project Intervention ................................. 54
Table 10: Impact Classification ................................................................................................................. 63
Table 11: Impact Analysis Result Interpretation ........................................................................................ 64
Table 12: Impact analysis of the proposed project (UGI) ........................................................................... 64
Table 13: Total impact analysis of the proposed project COMPOST Activity .......................................... 65
Table 14: Environmental management plans for compost and UGI .......................................................... 79
Table 15: Environmental and social impact monitoring plan ..................................................................... 85

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 III. List of Figures
Figure 1: Target city in relation to seismic hazard...................................................................................... 13
Figure 2: The geographical locations of the six cities and towns included in the NAMA COMPOST
Project ......................................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3: Key steps of ESIA, Adopted UNDP 2016................................................................................... 41
Figure 4: Environmental Risk Assessment Conceptual Framework........................................................... 42
Figure 5: General study conceptual framework .......................................................................................... 43
Figure 6: Some of FGD Participants at Bahir Dar left and Adama right .................................................... 45
Figure 7: Some of FGD Participants at Bishoftu left and Dire Dawa (Harla Rural Kebele) right.............. 46
Figure 8: Some KII Pictures ....................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 9: Some KII participants .................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 10: Pictures of physical observation by the consulting team ........................................................... 49
Figure 11: Qualitative Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 49
Figure 12: Plastic waste collection and transportation for recycling (Hawassa) ........................................ 57
Figure 13: Waste Collection and Transportation to dumping site (Bahir Dar) ........................................... 58
Figure 14: COMPOST shed and its damaged leachate pipes at Bishoftu ................................................... 58
Figure 15: Composting at Adama and Bishoftu.......................................................................................... 59
Figure 16: Produced compost ready for market (Bishoftu and Adama) ..................................................... 60
Figure 17: Seedling production at Adama, Dire Dawa and Bishoftu respectively from left to right.......... 60
Figure 18: UGI Performance ...................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 19: Rehabilitated Urban Greenery Sites at Adama .......................................................................... 62
Figure 20: Rehabilitated Urban Greenery Site at Bahir Dar Diaspora Sefer .............................................. 63
Figure 21: Dire Dawa Urban Greenery Sites .............................................................................................. 98
Figure 22: Map showing Bahir Dar Urban Greenery Sites ......................................................................... 99
Figure 23: Map showing Mekelle Urban Greenery Sites.......................................................................... 100
Figure 24: Magra Greenery Area Title Deed Certificate, Adama ............................................................. 101

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 IV. Acronyms and Abbreviation
AR5 Assessment Report 5
CH4 Methane Gas
CO Country Office
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COMPOST Creating Opportunities for Municipalities to Produce and
Operationalize Solid Waste Transformation
CRGE Climate Resilient Green Economy
EFCCC Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission
EMP Environmental Management Plan
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
FGD Focus Group Discussion
GEF Global Environment Facility
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GoE Government of Ethiopia
GTP Growth and Transformation Plan
HHs Household
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change
IPs Implementing Partners
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
KII Key Informant Interview
MFI Micro-finance Institution
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
MOF Ministry of Finance
MOH Ministry of Health
MOUDC Ministry of Urban Development and Housing
MRV Measurement Reporting and Valuation
MSEs Micro and Small Enterprises
MtCO2e Metric Tonnes of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent
MTR Midterm Review
NAMA Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PHI Public Health Institute
PLC Private Limited Company
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
QDA Quality Data Analysis
RAP Resettlement Action Plan
RBM Result Based Management

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SBPDA Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Authority
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SES Social and Environmental Screening
tCO2e Tonnes of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent
TOR Terms of Reference
UGI Urban Greenery Infrastructure
UNDP United Nations Development Programme

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 V. Executive Summary
This consultancy work is undertaken by an independent consulting firm, Basal Consulting Plc for
the contracting organizations United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and Ministry of
Urban Development and Construction (MoUDC) for a GEF funded project know by abbreviation,
NAMA COMPOST. The consulting team has used secondary data and primary data from field
observation as well as KII and FGD of 55 and 172 people respectively in meeting objective of the
study. Accordingly, the team has assessed and identified existing and potential environmental and
social impacts of the ongoing project as well as risks that could affect sustainability of results
achieved so far based on which an Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) including
implementation and monitoring plan is developed.

The NAMA COMPOST is designed and implemented with an objective of promoting greater use
of Integrated Solid Waste Management and Urban Green Infrastructure approaches in six
Ethiopian cities and towns (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, Hawassa and Mekelle) for a
period of five years. The solid waste management component includes composting and recycling
and both components are designed in such away jobs are created along the value chain. At the end
of the project lifetime is expected to result in annual emission reductions from UGI initiatives and
ISWM equal to approximately 306,000 and 132,321 tCO2e, respectively. These will accrue from
the annual generation of 45,500 tonnes of compost from 152,000 tonnes of household organic
waste, and the reforestation of 33,000 ha of degraded land by the end of the 5-year project lifetime.

Since the start of project implementation in 2017, remarkable achievements have been recorded in
ISWM, UGI, GHG emission reduction and job creation. A total of 91,329.4 tons of compost has
been produced from 300,456.9 tons of organic waste diverted from land fill,
reforested/rehabilitated more than 20,000 ha of urban and peri-urban degraded areas and created
jobs for more than 36,0000 people in the six project intervention areas. The project has built
capacity of federal and local government units and established system for better performance in
waste management and urban greenery development.

Projects can have intended or untended effect on society and the environment which could be
positive or negative. Likewise, achievement of project objectives and sustaining its results can be
hindered or promoted by the environment. The study on the project intervention areas in the six
cities has found out considerable positive social and environmental impacts such as regeneration
of biodiversity on areas that were degraded prior to project intervention; flooding, soil degradation
and siltation on water bodies and urban infrastructure has been halted through building soil and
water harvesting structures, area closure and afforestation; a number of former illegal waste
damping sites are now converted to nursery sites resulting in better community health as well as
increase in land value; improving livelihood of many citizens through job creation; bring
attitudinal change and practice on local government and community towards waste management
and urban greenery and reducing 128,089 tone of Co2 equivalent GHG emission.

x
Similarly, though currently adverse negative impact is not observed, there are potential
environmental and social impacts arising from waste management related interventions mainly
composting for which management plan is developed to prevent the likelihood of adverse
consequences. Such impacts are the result of not adhering to the Occupational Safety and Health
standards by MSEs members and delay in constructing recommended structures such as leachate
ponds in some of the composting shades. Such practice can have medium to significant impacts
on soil quality, visual, on biological environment and utility. Moreover, severe impact is foreseen
on water resource (underground and surface water), on air quality, and OHS related impacts if
appropriate measures are taken. Proposed mitigation measures including action plan and
monitoring plans is included in the report.

The major risks that could possibly affect project sustainability are illegal land grabbing related to
UGI, limited supply of diverse vegetation for UGI, extended drought in Mekelle, Adama and Dire
Dawa, health related risks to waste handling and processing, sustainability due to poor income
generation of UGI, market problem for compost and risk of contamination of the compost due lack
of segregation at source and separate transportation.

Concerning the views of the local community in the six cities towards the project, valuable
information was obtained from public consultations made with concerned stakeholders and local
government bodies. The residents welcome the project and appreciate the positive contributions it
has made so far. Project sustainability is the major concern of the community mainly the MSEs
due to lack of market for compost as raised above.

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1 Introduction and Background
1.1 Introduction
The NAMA COMPOST is designed and implemented with an objective of promoting greater use of
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) and Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) approaches in six
Ethiopian cities and towns (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, Hawassa and Mekelle). The solid
waste management component includes composting and recycling and both components are designed in
such away jobs are created along the value chain. Municipal Solid Waste Management including
composting/recycling and Urban Green Infrastructure Development have their own positive and negative
impacts on the environment and the society during implementation as well as years to come.

Municipal Solid Waste if not collected and well managed has an impact on environment by polluting
rivers, lakes, underground water and the society by affecting their health because it creates favorable
condition for vector of diseases, creates psychological dissatisfaction and cause flooding by blocking
ditches and water canals that intern damages infrastructure. Similarly, if the waste management practice
of the municipality is not properly designed and implemented, it will result in high environmental and
social impact throughout the value chain including composting/recycling practices. This is how:

Generation – the municipality has to encourage reduction of waste and ensure economic activities do not
generate hazardous waste as much as possible. However, so long as there is consumption and production
waste generation are apparent. In order to avoid/minimize environmental and social impacts during
generation, segregation is the next solution because waste segregation at source helps:

▪ To separately handle the waste accordingly to its nature during collection and transportation to
avoid potential health impact on the collectors and people engaged on recycling or composting
▪ To separately treat the waste at landfill because different types of waste require different type of
treatment techniques to avoid potential impact on health and environment
▪ To avoid possible contamination of the compost and recycled product to avoid potential impact on
final users

Collection and transportation of waste – municipal solid waste has to be separately collected and hauled
with appropriate means of transportation to avoid/minimize environmental and social impacts. The use of
mixed transportation system has similar environmental and social impact as is un-segregated waste at
source as well as discourages the community. In addition to this, if appropriate transportation system is
not used, such as using uncovered vehicles, will pollute the city along the root and create bad odder.
Moreover, people engaged in waste collection and transpiration have to be aware of safety measures,
supplied with Health and Safety Materials and ensure they adhere to the safety requirement all the time to
avoid social impacts.

Composting/Recycling: waste generation as well as collection and transportation are the most
determinant stages to avoid/minimize environmental and social impacts of composting/recycling. Source
segregation and timely and separate transportation of waste plays major role to avoid potential health
1
hazards on people engaged on composting and recycling as well as final consumers of the product.
Moreover, there are measures that have to be taken during composting/recycling:

• The composting ground has to be properly constructed according to the standard to avoid surface
and underground water pollution.
• Windrow composting method generates leachate that can pollute surface and underground water.
Therefore, proper leachate collection pond has to be constructed according to the standard
• Mixed or partially separated waste still has to be segregated to avoid incorporation of hazardous
elements such as heavy metals and chemicals that could potentially affect health
• People engaged on the composting and recycling business have to be aware of OHS, supplied with
safety materials and ensure they adhere to the safety measures
• Undertaking laboratory check minimizes potential environmental and social impact of the
compost

Composting/recycling on the other hand can positively impact the environment and society by reducing
emission of CH4, CO2 and GHG gases to the atmosphere from accumulation of waste in the landfill and
burning by diverting the organic fraction of waste to produce compost and recycling the non-organic
fraction. It can also contribute to livelihood improvement of people engaged in the composting/recycling
business and urban food security through improving urban agriculture productivity by applying compost.

Dumping, Flaring and Burning– proper damping in well designed and managed dumping sites, flaring,
burning according to the standards and guidelines helps to avoid/minimize environmental and social
impacts. Since this is outside of the scope of the consultancy work, it will not be covered in this report.

Urban Green Infrastructure Development, which is major component of the project, is expected to have
positive environmental and social impact through enhancing ecosystem services; protecting siltation,
carbon sequestration, protecting degradation and protecting flooding; creating good scenery by developing
parks and job creation. However, looking from project perspective, UGI development may have negative
social impact if community is relocated without proper Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) and
compensation.

The other important aspect to making a city ‘green’ is the development of Urban Green Infrastructure
(UGI) or urban greenery. Generally, UGI supports sustainable urbanization, health and mental well-being,
social cohesion (e.g., public parks) and the preservation of the natural environment and ecology. Green
infrastructure also plays a significant role in improving air quality and reducing vulnerability to climate
change by absorbing pollutants such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Moreover, it
provides sustainable supplies of fuel wood for low-income Ethiopian households. Because biomass
energy, mainly of fuelwood and charcoal, accounts for 92% of the country’s energy supply in Ethiopia.

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1.2 Project Background

The Ministry of Urban Development and Construction (MoUDC) of Ethiopia in collaboration with key
stakeholders, including UNDP, has been implementing the GEF-financed project titled “Ethiopian
NAMA: Creating Opportunities for Municipalities to Produce and Operationalize Solid Waste
Transformation (COMPOST) to promote greater use of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)
and Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) approaches in six cities and towns (Dire Dawa, Hawassa, Adama,
Bishoftu, Bahir Dar and Mekelle) since 2017.

The project has tried to achieve its objectives by creating linkage between waste management and Urban
Green Infrastructure Development efforts while creating jobs by organizing people in to MSEs and
helping them engage in both sectors. Through the use of compost, mainly by municipalities for
reforestation activities, the project has simultaneously promoted urban greenery development to enhance
ecosystem services (including carbon sequestration) while increasing solid waste management to
strengthen greenhouse gas mitigation and environmental protection. The project has supported the transfer
of technical expertise for developing a national standard for compost, as well as putting in place a quality
assurance system.

The project intervention is built on four envisaged outcomes that contribute to the realization of the overall
objectives of the project, as listed below:

1. The regulatory and legal framework, institutional and coordination mechanisms, and tools are
established for supporting the national policy environment for integrating ISWM and UGI
within urban systems in six selected cities and towns;

2. A market-based system is developed and participating micro and small enterprises (MSEs) are
supported professionally to ensure financial sustainability of compost production and
utilization;

3. A NAMA is designed and implemented to catalyze the transformational capacity of integrated

urban systems to generate large emission reductions;

4. Proof-of-concept urban systems integrating ISWM and UGI are operationalized with
quantified GHG emission reductions in a NAMA framework.

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The realization of the above outcomes at the end of the project lifetime is expected to result in annual
emission reductions from UGI initiatives and ISWM equal to approximately 306,000 and 132,321 tCO2e,
respectively. These will accrue from the annual generation of 45,500 tonnes of compost from 152,000
tonnes of household organic waste, and the reforestation of 33,000 ha of degraded land by the end of the
5-year project lifetime. By assuming a lifetime of 20 years for compost facilities and managed landfills as
well as for carbon sequestration and the generation of renewable biomass for thermal energy, the direct
emission reductions generated by the project was forecasted to be 8.33 MtCO2e. The project is expected
to produce co-benefits such as employment, increased resilience of urban areas to drought and flooding
hazards, and improved quality of life in urban areas.
The project is financed by Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) and co-financed by Ethiopian Government mainly the Ministry of Urban Development and
Construction and the six cities. A Project Steering Committee with members drown from MoUDC,
EFCCC, MoF, three regional states and UNDP gives overall project leadership. The project is managed
by a Project Management Unit staffed with Project Manager, ISWM and UGI experts and finance expert
established at the ministry of Urban Development and Construction. The unit is responsible to head of
Urban Resilience Bureau of MoUDC and Program Analyst of UNDP. Ground level implementation is
undertaken by the six cities.

1.3 Project Rationale

Climate change is exacerbating sustainable green development of Ethiopian cities and towns. The National
Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management (2013) of the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) details
how urban centres are exposed to increasing risks of floods and forest and bush fires due to climate change
in the future. Stakeholder consultations with Ethiopian Government representatives indicates that removal
of tree cover for urban expansion, charcoal production and agriculture is already a concern due to the
resulting adverse impacts on the environment; urban heat islands are an expected outcome and are
predicted to grow in size due to temperature increases. Similarly, increases in impervious surfaces
associated with urbanisation are reducing soil infiltration and increasing surface runoff during storms.
Consequently, flooding is common in dense urban areas. Extreme flooding conditions have contributed to
erosion and loss of fertile topsoil. These conditions are already noted in the IPCC’s 5th Assessment Report,
AR5.

4
Ethiopia is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. Ethiopian cities and towns currently
produce 60% of the country’s GDP and house approximately 19.5% of Ethiopia’s economically-active
population. In spite of its importance, urban growth has largely been unplanned and uncoordinated, giving
rise to a range of problems, including poor land-use planning related to UGI, inefficient waste
management, limited opportunities for employment and a deteriorating urban environment. Ethiopia’s
urbanisation growth rate reached 4.9% in 2013, leading to an increase in energy needs that has accelerated
forest degradation to a rate as high as 5%/year in some regions due to the need for fuelwood and charcoal.
The resulting deforestation has resulted in land degradation, landslides, flood risks and increased siltation
in nearby water bodies. Rapid urbanisation is adversely impacting the urban and peri-urban environment
through the loss of arable soils, loss of riparian buffer zones to absorb runoff and reduce impacts to
sensitive fresh water bodies, and higher risks of shortages of water supplies for households and agricultural
lands.
Economy (CRGE) vision of the Government of Ethiopia (GoE), With the country’s focus on efforts
towards developing a renaissance of its cities to contribute to building a green economy, and in addition
to the CRGE, Ethiopia has developed a number of strategies supporting urban green development that
cover both Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) and Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI). The link
between SWM and UGI comes through their integration under the pillar for Environmental Sustainability
under the GTP II of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing. Urbanisation is generating a range
of environmental impacts from the perspectives of both ISWM and UGI, the principal ones being:
➢ Increasing volumes of solid waste generated in Ethiopian towns and cities: With municipal solid
waste (MSW) collected and disposed of at landfills (semi-engineered or sanitary), this waste
increases the generation of methane emissions;
➢ Increasing population in informal settlements, which do not necessarily benefit from the collection
of MSW. The end-result is the dumping of waste in public spaces such as open areas and river
banks, and the deterioration of urban open green areas and river banks;
➢ Increasing demand for primary energy in urban areas, predominantly in the form of non-renewable
biomass, as well as the demand for timber for construction: Both are driving rapid forest
degradation and deforestation in Ethiopia.

To support Ethiopia’s CRGE vision for sustainable urban green growth and mitigate such ad
environmental impacts, Ethiopia must address significant capacity and financial gaps. Local governments
within cities and towns lack the knowledge, capacity and financial resources necessary to implement
significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction measures based on ISWM and UGI. In spite of a
range of strategies and plans promoting urban greenery in Ethiopia, UGI activities are weakly enforced
and given little importance. Dumping areas require cleaning to be able to support Ethiopia’s UGI

5
Standards on urban greenery development in open green spaces and along river banks. Moreover, almost
all cities and towns in Ethiopia collect and dispose of only half of the solid waste generated, and have little
or no disposal infrastructure in terms of either well-designed and operated landfill sites or disposal through
recycling or incineration of organic waste. A baseline assessment has been carried out on the SWM
systems in the 6 cities and towns (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, Hawassa and Mekelle) targeted
by the UNDP-implemented, GEF-financed COMPOST project, and it found that both the collection
efficiency of MSW at the household level and the solid waste disposal rate at the landfill are, at most,
75%. With a low disposal rate (70%), these rates give an overall system efficiency of 52% of MSW being
disposed of at landfills.

❖ Generation – MSW is not sorted at the household level in a systematic manner. With only an
informal economy related to the collection of recyclable waste at the household level, MSW
collection suffers from a lack of investment;
❖ Collection and transportation of waste – Primary waste collection can be characterised as crude
in all cases, with door-to-door collection by micro and small enterprises (MSEs) with 2-wheel
wheelbarrows, and MSE personnel employed under very poor conditions with little regard to
occupational health and safety. The collection system has no transfer stations, and filled communal
bins are then loaded by skip trucks owned by the municipality or city administration for dumping
at a landfill. The major challenges regarding waste collection are: (1) cost recovery by either the
MSEs or the city/town administration; and (2) a collection rate that is only approximately 75%;
❖ Disposal of waste – In most cities and towns, the solid waste is dumped at open landfills that are
not fenced, permitting access to scavengers who pick waste that have commercial value. A
significant fraction of MSW is dumped in open public spaces such as green areas and along river
banks. The current regulatory framework is virtually silent on waste collection and disposal
enforcement mechanisms.
❖ Financial constraints - There are several problems related to financing the SWM system,
including: (1) due to socio-economic acceptability, not all cities and towns have recourse to the
‘water bill’ method, making cost recovery a problem; (2) in cases where the contractual agreement
for household waste collection is between the households and the MSEs, there is a higher rate of
waste dumping, and weaker oversight by the city administration or municipality on the quality of
waste collection and disposal; and (3) there is no cost recovery by the city
administration/municipality for waste that is transported from communal bins to the landfill.
❖ Energy recovery – There is no energy recovery at any of the waste disposal sites in the cities and
towns considered in the baseline despite the fact that disposal sites such as in Adama and Hawassa
were originally designed as sanitary landfills fitted with landfill gas capture equipment.
❖ Enforcement of UGI designated areas – The growth of urban centres places further pressure on
UGI-designated areas to become human settlements. Personnel from urban local governments
(ULGs) currently do not have the knowledge to enforce the proper use of UGI-designated areas.
Over the past year, however, digitised cadastral maps with satellite imagery have now become
available at the Land Registration Agency for use by municipalities as a tool for enforcing land
uses within an urban area, notably the dedicated green areas that will be developed by this project.

6
 To overcome the challenges of enforcing UGI-designated areas, training municipal personnel on
the use of these cadastral maps to enforce land uses is required;
❖ Insufficient number of technically-qualified stakeholders involved in UGI – Most cities do not
have a sufficient number of MSEs that are technically qualified to implement UGI projects
involving nursery operations or the planting of trees and shrubbery. Meeting the demands for a
30% increase in UGI, as outlined in the GTP II, will require increased attention to the training of
MSE personnel in nursery operations, plantation of reforested areas and maintenance of reforested
areas;
❖ No cost recovery for UGI initiatives – The financing of UGI initiatives is primarily from locally-
collected revenues. With limited capacities to leverage other sources of financing, ULGs are
unable to implement a broader set or scale of UGI initiatives that meet the targets of GTP II.
Furthermore, ULGs generally do not have a full understanding of the true costs of implementing
and maintaining UGI initiatives, and hence cannot articulate these costs to potential funding
sources.

In response to the already present and expected impacts of climate change, Ethiopia’s National Adaptation
Programme of Action (NAPA) recommends increasing the use of sustainable biomass resources.16 The
UNDP-implemented, GEF-financed COMPOST project directly addresses this recommendation by
supporting the development of biomass-based compost market development. Through the use of compost,
mainly by municipalities for reforestation activities, the project will simultaneously promote urban
greenery development to enhance ecosystem services (including carbon sequestration) while increasing
solid waste management to strengthen greenhouse gas mitigation and environmental protection. The
project will support the transfer of technical expertise for developing a national standard for compost, as
well as putting in place a quality assurance system.

1.4 Project Objective

Objective of the project is to promote significantly greater use of ISWM and UGI approaches in Ethiopian
cities and towns in alignment with the national Growth and Transformation Plan for the urban sector.

The COMPOST project is designed to assist the Government of Ethiopia in achieving the objectives of its
Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II). This will be achieved through four outcomes:

❖ Strengthening the regulatory and legal framework and institutional coordination mechanisms
to integrate ISWM and UGI within urban systems;
❖ A developed market-based system with micro and small enterprises (MSEs) that are supported
professionally to ensure financial sustainability of compost production and utilization;
❖ Implementation of a Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) that transforms the
capacity of integrated urban systems to generate large emission reductions;
❖ Operationalized urban systems that integrate ISWM and UGI, with quantified GHG emission
reductions, within a NAMA framework/ UGI 306,000 and ISWM 132,321 tCO2e/

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1.5 Objective of the Consultancy Work (The TOR)
1.5.1 Objective of the Assignment

The NAMA COMPOST project has been under implementation since 2017 and has passed through
Midterm Review where its achievement was rated as satisfactory. Though development projects are
designed to benefit the society, they might also have unintended negative impact on the society as well as
the environment. Moreover, unforeseen risks might hinder progress of the project or its sustainability. The
overall objective of this assignment is therefore, to assess current and future project impacts for which
mitigation measure is developed to ensure the project does not have potential negative impacts on the
society as well as the environment, project outcomes are sustainable and enhance positive impacts.

1.5.2 Specific Objective of the Assignment

Within the framework of the overall objective, the consultancy work aims at achieving the following
specific objectives:

• To assess/audit the composting, urban greenery and related activities currently being undertaken
in the six cities and determine their potential social and environmental risk.

• Develop management plan to minimize the potential social and environmental risk of the
composting, urban greenery and related activities on the community and environment.

• Design environmental and social risk mitigation and monitoring plans to ensure proposed
measures are undertaken.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Assignment

1.6.1 Technical Scope of the Assignment

The project has aimed at achieving annual emission reductions from integrated solid waste management
equal to approximately 132,321 tCO2e. These will accrue from the annual generation of 45,500 tonnes of
compost from 152,000 tonnes of household organic waste, by the end of the 5-year project lifetime. By
assuming a lifetime of 20 years for compost facilities and managed landfills, the direct emission reductions
generated by the project will be 8.33 MtCO2e. The project will produce co-benefits such as employment,
increased resilience of urban areas to drought and flooding hazards, and improved quality of life in urban
areas. Towards this end the project has constructed composting sheds in the six cities where production

8
of compost from organic fraction of municipal solid waste has already started by MSEs. Most of the sheds
are constructed inside a waste landfill sites for which EIA has been already conducted. However, the sheds
as well as their composting activities are not assessed for their exiting as well as potential impacts. As a
result, no management plan is developed for unidentified and potential risks to reduce the impact and there
is no monitoring tool to track unnecessary side effects. The scope of the consulting firm’s service work is
therefore to assess/audit existing and potential risk of the UGI, composting and related activities on the
environment as well as the community mainly the indigenous people, design the related management plan
and develop a monitoring and tracking tool to minimize/avoid negative consequences that might possibly
resulted from the on-going operations in the six project cities (Bishoftu, Adama, Bahir Dar, Dire Dawa,
Hawassa, Mekelle). Moreover, the assignment also covers assessment of existing identified risks and/or
identifying new risks and develops mitigation measures.

1.6.2 Spatial Scope of the Assignment

The study covers four region states and one city administration where target beneficiaries live and the
intended project is under implementation (Mekelle, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Adama, and Hawassa cities and
Dire Dawa City Administration). Therefore, the sampling technique and sampling size considered all
target areas of the project.

1.6.3 Limitation of the Assignment

This environmental and social impact/risk assessment/audit aims at identifying existing and potential
risks since start of project implementation as well as future undertakings. In carrying out the assignment,
the team has faced the following limitations:

• There was high confuse whether to undertake Environmental and Social Impact assessment or
auditing which usually have different objectives. Since the project has been under implementation
in the past four years, impacts so far are audited and potential impacts are assessed. In this
assignment, both terminologies are used interchangeably which might confuse the reader.
• The scope of the work didn’t include laboratory test for compost (elemental analysis) which was
one of the challenges that we face. This may be one of the key limitations of this study which is
not resolved because of the additional cost and time it will impose on the firm. Laboratory analysis
is very important to see the risk of compost and predict its environmental impact.
• The communication blockage at Mekelle was difficult to travel and/or hire somebody to conduct
the study. But we have managed to reach one of our senior advisors based in Mekelle who travelled
to access the tools send via email and go back to Mekelle to undertaken the assessment. However,
despite of the efforts, he couldn’t freely move and talk to people and staff of the municipality are
out of work. The composting shed also is not under use due to the instability in the area.

9
 • In some project sites such as Bahir Dar and Hawassa finding and talking to city leadership was
difficult because of they were busy at work which may be considered as a gap to triangulate and
to hear from the horse mouth. However, its impact is insignificant and can’t affect the overall
findings of the report.
• In Dire Dawa site, it was very difficult to conduct FGD and KII with municipality staffs, MSE
working on compost shed and residents around the greenery area. The Compost shed was not
functional at the time of data collection because the MSEs quite working due to high cost of
transport and low income from compost. The team has tried its best to fulfil minimum requirement
using different mechanisms.

1.7. Composition of the Report

This ESIA report has ten sections including annexure to the document. The first section details about the
introduction and background overview of the project including project objective, purpose of the
assignment, scope and limitations. The second section of the report presents descriptions of project target
areas followed by a literature review about legal and policy frameworks. The fourth section of this report
explain about method and approaches employed for the study followed by details of baseline information
of the project in sections five.

Key deliverables presented starting from section six to section nine which changes presented in section 6
followed by ESIA and their mitigation measures in section 7 and project risks and proposed mitigation
measures in section 8. The final sections, section 9 and 10 presents conclusion and recommendation as
well as annexure part of the report respectively.

10
2 Description of Project Intervention Areas
2.1 Physical Environment
In this subsection, the physical environment includes land, air, water, plants and animals, and other natural
resources that provide basic needs and opportunities for social and economic development in each project
sites where NAMA COMPOST project is under implementation, namely, Mekelle, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu,
Hawassa, Adama and Dire Dawa.

For this study only important physical environment factors have been reviewed as follows:
Table 1: Physical environment of target areas

City Location Climate and meteorology Geological setting Hydrogeology Seismolo

Mekelle ❖ Around ❖ Temperature: high ❖ Geology: Basement complex, ❖ Main water source is ❖ Loca
780KM from temperatures year- Paleozoic - Mesozoic Groundwater with
Addis Ababa, round and Sedimentary sequence, (borehole ranging seism
❖ Latitude: 13° distinct wet and dry Cenozoic Trap Volcanic and from 32-250m) they zone
29' 48.01" N seasons. All month’s Sediments of the Ethiopian are over 17 in the c
Longitude: 39° average above 18 °C Rift., number ❖ Bedr
28' 31.01" E or 64.4 °F, ❖ Soil: 30-40% black cotton ❖ Water quality --- acce
❖ Elevation of ❖ Rainfall: semi- clay, 30.7% sandy soil and good ratio
2,254m arid climate receiving 10 to 20% for silty clays, and ❖ Has high shortage of ❖ Earth
(7,395 ft) a mean annual the reset loam soil water supply due to risk:
above sea level rainfall of 530 mm increased population Mod
❖ Air quality: and high demand for
❖ Acoustic compensation
environment

Bahir ❖ Around ❖ Temperature: average ❖ Geology: Made up of volcanic ❖ Groundwater from ❖ Loca
Dar 567KM from annual temperature is rocks, mainly basalts, most of nearby catchment in with
Addis Ababa 18.7 °C | 65.7 °F the Tana basin is covered by the regions seism
❖ 11” 38’N, 37” ❖ Rainfall: around 892 Tertiary volcanic rocks ❖ Lake tana catchment zone
10’E mm ❖ Topography: Flat plan with and another surface coun
❖ Elevation of pockets of conical hills, rugged water such as enfraze ❖ Earth
1800m above and undulating features dotting are main water risk:
mean sea level the city’s landscape, sources for the city
Bishoftu ❖ Around ❖ Temperature: average ❖ Geology: consists of an area of ❖ Groundwater as a ❖ Loca
61.9KM from ranges from 7.40C to fissure-fed Holocene lava sources of water with
Addis Ababa 30.20C that make an flows, cinder cones, tuff rings, supply within 75– seism
❖ Longitude: average of 18.80C and maars 120-meter depth, zone
39.0085346 · ❖ Weather: fully sunny ❖ Soil: ❖ Drainage: surface the c
Latitude: and dry wind Light soils (Alfisols/Mollisols, water drainage can ❖ Earth
8.7346496 ❖ Rainfall: around 20 ha or 14%. be constructed risk:
❖ Elevation: 860mm Black soils (Vertisols) also Mod
1878m / constitute 127 ha, 86%
6161feet
❖ Elevation of
1920m above
mean sea level

1
Seismic zones with bedrock acceleration ratio greater than 0.05 are considered as high seismicity
11
 Hwassa ❖ Around ❖ Temperature: average ❖ Geology: pyroclastic deposits, ❖ Major water ❖ Loca
273KM from annual temperature is trachyte, lacustrine and resources are surface with
Addis Ababa 19.2 °C | 66.5 °F alluvial deposits, unsorted water from rivers seism
❖ 7.0504° N, ❖ Rainfall: around1007 gravels, sandy gravel, clay and and lakes, deep zone
38.4955° E mm underlain basaltic rocks groundwater and the c
❖ Elevation of ❖ Located in the central part of groundwater as ❖ Bedr
1708m above the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley springs, acce
mean sea level with a volcano-tectonic ❖ Drainage: there are a ratio
collapse, number of rivers ❖ Earth
❖ Soil: 40% black cotton, 30% such as Kedo, Boga, risk:
red clay, 20% sandy soil and Afina and Abosa Mod
10% silty rivers in
AwassaZuriaWoreda
drain into Awassa
lake basin
Adama ❖ Around ❖ Weather: windy with ❖ Geology: topographically flat ❖ Groundwater, ❖ Loca
95.9KM from dust and is covered by Lacustrine ❖ Surface water for with
Addis Ababa ❖ Temperature: average sediments, both drinking and seism
❖ 8.5263° N, annual temperature is ❖ Whereas some parts are irrigation purposes zone
39.2583° E 20.5 °C | 68.8 °F covered by ignimbrite, ash ❖ the c
❖ Elevation of ❖ Rainfall: around 808 flow tuffs and unwelded tuffs, ❖ Earth
1712m above mm rhyolite domes and flows, and risk:
mean sea level basalt unit Mod
❖ Soil: Andosol, accounting for
74.3% of the land area of the
district. Cambisols and
Luvisols cover 25.7%
Dire ❖ Around ❖ Temperature: mean ❖ Geology: comprises various ❖ water sources. ❖ Loca
Dawa 567KM from annual temperature metamorphic, volcanic and Groundwater (there with
Addis Ababa ranges from 20 - 35°C sedimentary rocks are two seism
❖ 9.6009° N, ❖ Rainfall: mean annual ❖ Sedimentary rocks of the area groundwaters, zone
41.8501° E average around 657 include various sandstone, namely Escarpment the c
❖ Elevation of mm limestone, alluvial sediments Groundwater ❖ Earth
1,276 m above and travertine and Dire Dawa risk:
mean sea level ❖ sediments are composed of Groundwater Mod
sands, silt and clay with minor Basin (Foot of
wadi gravel the escarpment)
❖ Surface water:
aggregate annual
runoff from the main
ephemeral rivers of
DDAC amounts to
448 Mm3

According to world health organization information published in 2010, Ethiopia is under seismic zones of
medium and low or very low. However, majority of NAMA COMPOST project sites are under moderate
risk of earth quick as almost all located in Great Rift Valley belt or very near to it except Bahir Dar.

12
 Figure 1: Target city in relation to seismic hazard

Source: World Health Organization, 2010. (http://www.whoeatlas.org/africa/countries/ethiopia/ethiopia-seismic-

map.html)

Figure 1 shows Ethiopia’s major cities in relation to seismic hazard. Notably the three most populous
cities – Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, and Mekelle are found in the most seismically hazardous areas – marked
in yellow in the center of the country and categorized as having a “medium” risk of seismic hazard. The
cities Addis Ababa, Adama, Dire Dawa and Hawassa are very near main fault lines where many
earthquakes have previously occurred.

2.2 Biodiversity and Natural Habitat

Biological Environment of each project site varies as the six cities have different geographical location in
the country. Like ways, the natural habitats within these target project sites are also varies depending on
the geographic zone of each cities. The consulting team tried to summarize key biodiversity and natural
habitats of project sites as follows.

Table 2: Study area Biodiversity and Habitats

Project Biodiversity and Natural Habitat

Sites/Area
Mekelle Vegetation: The surrounding of Mekelle represents dry evergreen montane forest ecosystem type. Due
to climatic and anthropogenic impacts the catchments of the town are degraded and as a result the
development of the vegetation is very much stunted in the surrounding terrains. There are ongoing

13
 Project Biodiversity and Natural Habitat
Sites/Area
efforts of catchment rehabilitation through terracing, reforestation and area closure. Eucalyptus
camaldulensis is an example of better-established species in the degraded catchments. Representative
species of the dry evergreen montane vegetation such as Oleaeuropa sub species cuspidata and
Juniperusprocera are found in the old Church yards and Palace of Mekele. In addition to this in human
settlement areas (homestead plantations) are covered with species such Schinus mole, Neem, Opuntia,
Jacaranda, Casuarinaequisitifolia, Ziziphusmucronata. The area outside Mekelle city has suffered
considerably from over exploitation of natural forest resources. The original vegetation has been
significantly disturbed due to the expansion of subsistence level agricultural practices that predominate
in the area. The country side around Mekelle is almost completely denuded of trees except along the
stream banks. With the exception of few and scattered bushes & shrubs the vegetation coverage of the
area is insignificant.

Wildlife: Human intervention in the area, consisting of expansion for agriculture and grazing practices
and encroachment for fuel wood and construction has significantly affected the vegetation cover in the
area. Hence, it couldn‘t provide a good habitat to support diverse wildlife species. However, species
that are common in many parts of the country like spotted hyenas, hare, Fox, duiker, warthog, jackal,
baboons, Dikes etc. are seen in the area. These are very common in many parts of the country. There
are no rare or endemic animal species known to be in the Project Area. The population and diversity of
Fauna in the study area is expected to be very low mainly because of the decline of their natural habitat.
There are birds in the project area. However, according to Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History
Society (EWNHS, 1996), none of the 76 nationally designated Important Bird Areas are found anywhere
in or near the project area.

Bahir Dar The Bahir Dar city is dominated by the following tree species such as Lantana species, Cordia species,
Croton species, Ficus species, Combretum species, Millettia species, Albizia species, Rose, Acacia
species, Balanites species, Strychnos species, Carissa species, Podocarpus species, Justiciaspeciez,
Erythrina species, Rhus species, Sterospermum species, prunus species, gardenia species, neem species,
diospyros species, oxytenanthra species, moringa species, grevillea species, mango species, avocado
species papaya species citrus species, phoenix species, buddleia species, Euclea species and different
shrub and grass plants. The main functions of the vegetation’s are to keep soil moist and prevent
excessive evaporation of the soil water; reduces soil erosion and keeps the soil particles intact; improve
the soil fertility; provide livelihood options to the local people; maintains ecosystem and wildlife habitat;
clean water; and increases water percolation capacity and ground water level.
The urban agriculture also produces maize, millet, teff. Sorghums and different vegetables like cabbage,
lettuce, Carrot and onion.
There are also different terrestrial and aquatic animals in the urban area. Some of the list of fauna
available in Bahir Dar city administration is Milk Cow, common pig, hyena, wild cat, monkey,
hippopotamus, crocodile, snakes, lizards and different bird species.
Bishoftu In the past, natural ecosystems were protected merely for economic or social value, but now days there
is a growing momentum Pas are also used for the storing and sequestering carbon, and thus reducing
the rate of climate change. Protected areas thus help both to preventing further losses of carbon to the
atmosphere and contributing for a healthy ecosystem, by sequestering additional carbon (Dudley et al.
2009).
Awassa Vegetation: The City of Hawassa including the Hawassa ZuriaWoreda has an evergreen woodland and
other vegetation cover. The vegetation coverage shows grass land of 30.7% and forest/bush land of

14
 Project Biodiversity and Natural Habitat
Sites/Area
12.7% from the total surface area. Arable land in Hawassa ZuriaWoreda is some 32.5% of the total
surface area. The Woreda has some 24.04% of the degraded, rock-out-crop, water bodies, built- up areas
and settlement areas from the total surface area.
The area has indigenous trees such as Ficussur, Ficusvasta, Carissa edulis, Croton macrostachys,
Oleaafricana, Millettiaferruginea, Acacia mellifera, Rubusapetalus, Coffeaarabica, Carica papaya,
Cordiaafricana, Phytolaccadodecandra and others. There indigenous grasses such as Hyparrheniarufa,
Strychnosinnocua, Lippia Abyssinia, Festucaelatior, Bruceaantidysenterica, and others.
Wildlife and Avifauna
The wild animals around the project areas are Bushbuck, Dikdik, Hyaena, Monkey, Baboon, Colobus,
Leopard, Snake, Python Snake, Scorpion, Porcupine, Mole-rats, Rat and Mice, Warthog, Waterbuck,
Bush pig, Wild Cat, Fox, Civet, Lizard, Chameleon, Spider, Hippopotamus, Lion, Cheetah, Crocodile,
Hare, Fishes of various types (such as Tilapia, Catfish and others), etc.
The Avifauna around the project area are Bush-Crow, Bat, Bitter, Wattledlbis, Kite, Eagle, Owl,
Woodpecker, Sunbird, African Pitta, Duck Pochard, Dove, Goose, Francolin, Guinea Fowl, Parrot,
Sparrow, Waldrap, Vulture, Ostrich, Bat and the like.
Adama The urban forest of Adama has an estimated 525,200 trees with a tree cover of 20%. The three most
common species are AzadirachtaIndica (14.8%), Carica papaya (6.8%), and Acacia abyssinica (5%).
The i-Tree Eco model was used to organise output. A total of 214 sample plots were generated directly
in the i-Tree Eco application using the random plots’ generator via the Google Maps function. A 0.1acre
circular plot was used. A total of 805 trees were sampled across the 214 plots. Among the 86 species
encountered in the sample plots, 68 (79%) were introduced and only 18 (21%) were native species. Most
introduced trees originated from Asia (22%). The tree diversity calculated using the Shannon Weiner
index (H’) was 3.61 and the dominance of Simpson’s value was 0.95. The evenness index of the plots
sampled was 0.80. The study indicates the crucial role that urban forests play in maintaining and
conserving urban trees and enhancing ecosystem services in urban areas.

Dire Dawa Flora /forest resources: Ethiopia’s diverse agro-ecology has resulted in diverse vegetation formation
in the country, ranging from tropical rain and cloud forests in the southwest and on the mountains
through the dens woodlands covering the northern, northwestern and southeastern parts to the desert
scrubs in the east and north east and the parkland agro-forestry on the central plateau of the country
(Demel et al., 2010, Mulugeta and Habtemariam, 2011, Adefires, 2016). From the 6,027 vascular plant
species (including subspecies) reported in the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea, 5,757 vascular plant species
(including subspecies) are found in Ethiopia (Kelbessa and Demissew, 2014). The diverse vegetation
resources made Ethiopia to rank 25th in the world and 5th in Africa in terms of its biodiversity. The
vegetation of is classified into nine broad vegetation types such as the dry evergreen Afromontane
vegetation, Combretum–Terminalia (broad-leaved) deciduous woodland, Acacia–Commiphora (small-
leaved) deciduous woodland, the lowland dry forests, the lowland semi-desert and desert vegetation,the
evergreen scrub,wetland (swamps, lakes, rivers and riparian) vegetation,the moist evergreen montane
forest, and Afroalpine and sub-Afroalpine vegetation (Zerihun, 1999).
There is significant variation among agro-ecologies and regions in Ethiopia in terms of their vegetation
types. For instance, dry land agro-ecologies are predominantly covered by dryforests such as Dry afro-
montane forests, Combretum–Terminalia (broad-leaved) deciduous woodlands, Acacia–Commiphora
(small-leaved) deciduous woodlands, the lowland dry forests, the lowland semi-desert and desert
vegetation and lowland bamboo, among others. These vegetations are also not uniformly distributed
across drylands in the country. DDA has vegetation formation characterized as arid and semi-arid
vegetation which is highly variable, including cactus scrub, thorn scrub and areas dominated by woody
species, and sparse grasses formations. In contrast to what is common in many regions in the country,

15
 Project Biodiversity and Natural Habitat
Sites/Area
there is no climax forest in DDA. The small exception is the remaining patches of Junipers open
woodland with Eucalyptus plantations in the upper reaches of the western part of the escarpment and
some Acacia dominated forests in the low lands. Below the escarpment and in the valleys between the
ridges there is Eucalyptus wood lots. The ridges are largely devoid of vegetation with only scattered
low shrubs and grass land. The plains to the north-east are also bare, whilst those to the south east are
covered with low shrub land.
According to the land cover mapping units of DDA, quantitatively, about 9.2% of the total area of DDA
is covered by physiognomic vegetation, while an estimated 4.93% and 3.67 % is covered by
Prosopisjuliflora plantation and other open shrubland, respectively. Whereas, the rest 0.58% and the
vast majority of the land (60.48%) is covered with dense shrubland and exposed soil, sand or rock with
scrubs and grasses, respectively. However, the natural forest of the Administration has been cleared to
satisfy the demands of the ever-increasing population, such as construction material, fuel wood, fodder
and agricultural expansion.
Fauna /Wildlife/: A recent study on wildlife resource of DDA states that there was no nationally or
locally known protected or conservation areas in Dire Dawa Administrative Council, and hence no
conflict between conservation areas and other options of land uses like potential development ventures
in the areas is expected to arise in the absence of one. Wildlife densities and diversities (larger
mammals) in Dire Dawa Administration are currently quite low due to poaching and unregulated uses
of their habitats. But still, there is a high potential if effective integrated and coordinated management
and institutional arrangements are in place.

2.3 Socio-economic Status

Socio-economic status of the project sites has been summarized as follows from different secondary data sources.

Table 3: Socio-economic status of target areas

Project Socio-economic status

Sites/Area

Mekelle Population dynamics: Though there is no detailed study on why the population of Mekelle city is
growing rapidly, there are hypothetical reasons the city administration states. These are: • Change of
boundaries: built up areas that emerged due to urban expansion and changes in political or administrative
boundaries.

Occupation, Income and Poverty: When we see the occupation pattern, income level and poverty line
of the city according to the house hold survey done for the Mekelle Structural plan 2014, it can be
presented as follows: Private business is the most common form of occupation with about 23.5% of the
total respondents. This is followed by government employment which is only roughly one percent less
from that of the private business. A point worth noting is that multiple employments are very small with
only roughly 2.2% of the total and the size of dependents is quite big with a share of 20.8% of the total.
The city has a fair degree of household income source diversification. Households with multiple sources
of income have a significant contribution with roughly 23%. Salary is the most important income
generating 31.7% of the total household income. It is followed by, as might be expected, income from
trade which accounts for about 28.8% of the total household income.

16
 Land issues: In any big Ethiopian city, including Mekelle, the major formal land delivery system for
residential housing and investment is through the lease system. According to Ethiopian law, land is a
public property and an individual can enjoy only the right to the use of land under his/her possession.
To legally own a plot of land for housing development and investment purpose is, thus, reliant on the
effectiveness of the lease policy. Th e lease proclamation No 272/2002, which is the current active law
regarding land provision, includes provisions on how an individual can acquire a piece of land. Under
this proclamation, land can be acquired through an auction system, negotiation, lottery system and the
award system. Th e price of lease in Mekelle, as in other Ethiopian cities, increased drastically during
the last ten years. Th is makes it difficult for low-income groups to acquire land in the city. Currently,
the city of Mekelle is expanding very fast with a rapid population growth as well as big migration from
rural areas and other smaller nearby towns. Th is transformation is also bringing a high demand for land
for residential and other functions. Due to this influx, the city is expanding to the neighboring rural
towns incorporating them into the city.

Housing conditions: The Tigray vernacular architecture, including Mekelle, is well known for the use
of stone as a main construction material. It is the most readily available material especially in the rural
as well as city periphery areas. Looking at the housing conditions in the informal settlements in Mekelle,
they are relatively well constructed compared to the chika houses (Mud and straw houses) in Addis
Ababa or other cities in Ethiopia. However, some of the houses are poorly constructed which makes
them require regular maintenance

General infrastructures: As in any informal settlement in other city, also the ones in Mekelle are
characterized for not having proper infrastructures; the roads are mostly unpaved and irregular, and
some of the houses do not have access to adequate water and electrical supply. Lack of proper sanitation
is also an issue.

Bahir Dar Population dynamics: Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia
(CSA), Bahir Dar Special Zone has a total population of 221,991, of whom 108,456 are men and
113,535 women; 180,174 or 81.16% are urban inhabitants, the rest of population are living at
rural kebeles around Bahir Dar. Current forcast shows that at the town of Bahir Dar there are 155,428
inhabitants; the rest of urban population is living at Meshenti, Tis Abay and Zege towns which are part of
Bahir Dar Special Zone. The three largest ethnic groups reported in Bahir Dar Special Zone were
the Amhara (96.23%), the Tigrayan (1.11%), and the Oromo (1.1%); all other ethnic groups made up
1.56% of the population. Amharic was spoken as a first language by 96.78%, and 1.01% spoke Oromiffa;
the remaining 2.21% spoke all other primary languages reported. The 1994 national census reported a
total population for Bahir Dar of 96,140 in 20,857 households, of whom 45,436 were men and 50,704
women. The three largest ethnic groups reported in the city were the Amhara (93.21%),
the Tigrayan (3.98%), and the Oromo (0.7%); all other ethnic groups made up 2.11% of the
population. Amharic was spoken as a first language by 95.52%, and 2.93% spoke Tigrinya; the remaining
1.55% spoke all other primary languages reported.

Education and health services: According to communication office of Bahirdar annual bulletin
publication which was published in 2009 EFY, there are 48 kindergartener school, 70 primary school
and 17 secondary school. If we look at teaching staff at all level, at pre-primary level the number of
teachers is M =8 F=324 T=333, at primary level M=658 F=833 T=1491 whereas at secondary level

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 M=518 F=188 T=706 teachers are working at the end of 2009 EFY. Whereas when we look at the
enrolment rate of the city at pre-primary level, primary level, secondary level, the enrolment rate is
57.5%, 111.5%, and 90.32% respectively. Over a period, female participation rate has shown a
tremendous change. The participation rate of female at pre-primary level, primary level, secondary level,
preparatory level, it has been reached 49.1%, 50.9% 52.7% and 49.5% respectively.There are 124 health
institutions existing in Bahir Dar city. Bahir Dar city has a total of 7 hospitals three government and
four private owned hospital, 10 health centers, 49 clinics. In the category of Youth centre, Bahir Dar
City Administration has 5 Youth centers among this Model Youth center is the Biggest in both service
and number of buildings to provide the service to the city. Collectively the youth centers have 33
buildings and 3,811.13 m2 area coverage. (source: AMP of Bahir dar,2009)
Land use / Land cover: In metropolitan cities with high projected population and uncertain
development dynamics, the task of land use analysis is more challenging since the drivers of land use
change are more complex, interrelated and unpredictable. According to the structural plan, the land use
of Bahir Dar was analyzed on a parcel basis based on nine parameters/standards that include location,
shape, area, orientation, distribution, quantity, hierarchy, relation/integration, and incompatibility.
Based on analysis, the land use is classified as Housing (H), Commerce, and Business & Administration
(CBA), services (S), Recreation & Environmental Sensitive Areas (RE), Manufacturing and Storage
(M), Transportation, Infrastructure, Utilities (TU), Cultural Village, Navigation Route, Nile Marathon,
View & Ventilation Corridor (CNN) and Special Function (SF).

Archeological, Cultural Heritage and Religious Sites: Bahir Dar is one of the leading tourist
destinations in Ethiopia, with a variety of attractions in the nearby Lake Tana and Blue Nile River. The
number of services providing Banks (both government and private), insurance companies, modern
shops, government offices, business organizations, tour and travel agents, hotels, bars and restaurants
are growing from time to time. The presence of the above-mentioned facilities in Bahir Dar is now
hosting an ever-increasing number of inflowing domestic and international tourists almost throughout
the year. Lake Tana in Bahir Dar city and Tis Issat falls 30 km from the city has attracted many visitors
to the city. The major tourist attraction sites found in and around Bahir Dar include monastery of Kibran
Gabriel, Churches and monasteries of Zegie peninsula at the south western side of Lake Tana, Ura
Kidane Mihiret, Azwa Mariam and other monasteries that dates back to the 12th century. This place can
be reached from Bahir Dar city mainly by boat. Sites of historical and religious heritages are commonly
found inside the Tana Lake and its small islands. But the presence of such sites in the mainland of Bahir
Dar town is less common.
Infrastructures: In terms of road network, Bahir Dar is connected with Addis Ababa by a recently
upgraded asphalted road, which is about 552km long. There are also several roads radiating from Bahir
Dar and linking all the districts of the Bahir Dar Zone and Woreda.
Bishoftu The landfill surrounding settlements has favorable climatic condition for agriculture crop production,
Dairy farm, poultry production because of its accessibility and proximity to city capital market center
and also agro processing are highly practiced in the city individually, at house hold level, at micro and
small enterprise, cooperative and at huge investment level.
Land use / Land cover: Previously the site is farming land and all necessary compassion was paid for
the land owner to resettle them and some scattered settlements on the northern side of the site and
relatively well-established settlements towards the northwestern of the site also relocated in the short
and long run. The risks to public health and impacts on the areas surrounding the landfill can be
limited by providing buffer zones between the landfill and sensitive areas.
Hawassa Population, Nationality and Religion: As per the 1994 projection of the Population and Housing
Census, the population of the city of Hawassa in the year 2000 is estimated to reach 107,700 having a
growth rate of 4.11% per annum. The average household size is about 4.9. Some 70% of the households

18
own the houses they live in. Regarding migration patterns, some 44% of the population is immigrants
from rural parts of Hawassa Zuria Woreda and other areas. In recent years students enrolled to Southern
University and to the other Colleges in the City contributed a lot to the surprising increment of
immigrant numbers in Hawassa.

The major nationalities in the city of Hawassa are Amhara (31.4%), Wolayta (24.9%), Oromo (11.5%),
Sidama (10.2%), Guraghe (5.4%), Kembata (4.9%), Tigray (4.6%), Siltie (2.2%), Hadiya (1.6%), and
others (3.3%).

The majority of the people in the Woreda are Christians [Orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic (95.2%)],
Muslims (4.1%). Also, there are some (0.7%) of the Woreda people who worship in other and traditional
religions.

Economic Activities: The City of Hawassa is the capital of SNNP Region and can be characterized as
the administrative center rather than the commercial or trade center. According to the 1994
Population and Housing Census, 46.5% of the adult population is economically active whereas 19.3%
of the adults are unemployed. Almost 40% of the households in the city are earning their incomes from
government employment (principal occupation). The main income source of the second largest group
(about 24%) is a pension. Seasonal labor, artisans and business employees have income sources share
of 9.3%, 7.3% and 7.3%, respectively.

Moreover, Hawassa has some industries such as sisal processing factory, ceramic factory, floor mill,
agricultural development factory (oil production), cement products factory, textile factory (1&2), soft
drink factory, tobacco and matches factory, etc. The economic base of HawassaZuriaWoreda is crop
farming and livestock rearing.

Social and Physical Infrastructure: The administrative setup of Hawassa City is currently divided in
to seven sub cities namely: Addis Ketema, Haik Dar, Mahal Ketema, Bahil Adarash, Misrak and
Menaheria sub cites. The seven sub cities comprise around 32 kebeles and have its local administration
representatives elected from the community. The city is recognized for its attainment level of
Municipality.

From a recent survey the city of Hawassa is known to have about 14,150 housing units, 177
shops/businesses, 72 hotels, 1 University, 2 Colleges, 16 schools, 20 kindergartens. There are also other
infrastructures such as health centers, clinics, pharmacies, private offices, a market square, asphalt road
crossing Hawassa city (main road from Hawassa to Dilla and other southern parts of Ethiopia), gravel
roads, water supply, power supply, play grounds, commercial vehicles (buses, taxis and bicycles for
rent), horse carts or Garis and abattoirs.

Housing Condition and Lighting: Nearly 99% of the houses in the city of Hawassa are non-story
ground building blocks. Most houses have corrugated iron sheet roofing whereas some poor households
at the periphery of the city have houses with thatched roofs. According to the 1994 Population and
Housing Census report, the average household size is 4.9 whereas the latest other studies claim to be
significantly higher than this figure. About 34.6% of the households own the houses they are living in
whereas the rest 65.4% live in rental houses from government or private owners.

As per the Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Corporation (EELPC), some 95.2% of the total
households in the city of Hawassa have electricity through shared or private meters.

Water Supply Facilities: The city of Hawassa gets its water supply from Kodo water treatment station
by treating Kodo River at about 11 km south of the city at an elevation of 1811 masl. Water from Kodo

19
 River is abstracted by tyrdean weir and the water is conveyed through PVC pipe to an adjacent well
with a capacity of 15.63 m³.
The existing water treatment plant was constructed some years back and comprises of operation
building with chemical dosing system, sedimentation units, rapid sand filters, a balancing chamber, clear
water reservoir and service water tank. Water production from Kodo water treatment plant is 3360
m³/day.

Sanitation Condition: Safe and appropriate sanitation coverage of residents with toilets in the city of
Hawassa is about 90% whereas the remaining 10% are residents without suitable toilet facilities.
According to the 1999 Household Survey report, only 20% of the households in Hawassa city have
proper bath facilities whereas most of the household use buckets for bath.
Health Situation: The Hawassa ZuriaWoreda including Hawassa city has 2 hospitals (1 is a referral
hospital) three health centers (two governmental and one non-governmental), 27 clinics (six
governmental, four non-governmental and seventeen private) and 11 pharmacies (three governmental,
one non-governmental and seven private). The health coverage in the city is 100%.

The ten top diseases in the city and its surroundings are malaria, intestinal parasites including giardia,
pneumonia, upper respiratory tract disease, gastritis, skin disease, diarrhea, all other parasites, disease
of unknown origin and amoebiasis.
Land use/Land cover: The land use/land cover types of Hawassa city Land use/Land cover Type and
the respective relative area cover percent proportion in decreasing order accounts to: Urban Agriculture
(42%), Entertainment (22%), Resident (16%), Road 11, Social Services (4%), Trade (2%),
Improved Services (2%) and, Administration (1%).
Adama Population dynamics: With an area of 29.86 square kilometers, Adama has a population density of
7,374.82; all are urban inhabitants. A total of 60,174 households were counted in this city, which results
in an average of 3.66 persons to a household, and 59,431 housing units.
Adama is a busy transportation center. The city is situated along the road that connects Addis
Ababa with Dire Dawa. A large number of trucks use this same route to travel to and from
the seaports of Djibouti and Asseb (though the latter is not currently used by Ethiopia, following
the Eritrean-Ethiopian War). Additionally, the new Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway runs through Adama
Dire Dawa Population dynamics: Dire Dawa city is amongst the fast-growing urban centers in the country.
According to the 2017 population estimate of CSA, the total population of Dire Dawa administration is
about 479,000 out of which the urban population has been estimated to be 303,000 and that of the rural
population has been founded to be 176,000. Similarly, the socio-economic profile of the city indicated
that the city holds huge number of residential dwellings, diversified business activities, numerous
industrial establishments, higher number of social services providing institutions and abundant urban
agricultural activities. According to 2005E.C study of the Regional Gross Domestic Product (RGDP),
The RGDP is estimated to be about Billon and per capita income is about 749.

Economic Activities: The annual economic growth rate of the administration is computed to be about
11.74. Looking into the composition of total regional output, Service contributed to about 13% while
the remaining balance attributed to Industry (10%) and Agriculture (7%). Though the growth of the
economy increases the per capita income of the residents,
Historic and Archaeological Heritage: Dire Dawa was established in 1902 as a relatively lowland link
(1200 m) bypassing the higher, ancient city of Harar on the Djibouti - Addis Ababa railway an
impressively planned city, its central straight avenues and quarters are a matched only by Addis Ababa.
Growth has since been more organic, and dense unplanned settlements can be seen scattered throughout
the city.
Dire Dawa is primarily known as one of the oldest Ethiopia’s trade centers. The city has numerous
cultural heritages such as Laga-oda Ancient Cave, Africans Graveyard built after the Second World
War, Italian Mosque found at the foothill of Ganda Gara, Ancient Catholic Church, Ancient Railway

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 Station and Kezira (Afetessa) open market area and the natural hot spring found in the northwestern part
of Gerba Aneno Kebele Peasants Association, that of course may have a healing power for certain
ailments.

3 Policy, Legal and Institutional Framework

This part is to provide a comprehensive review of the Ethiopia legal and institutional framework that is of
particular relevance to the NAMA COMPOST project. The main aim is to ensure the compliance of the
project with the national environmental legislation as well as international conventions, treaties and
guidelines, and to adopt the best available techniques in solid waste management and best practices on
COMPOST preparation and utilization at project areas in Ethiopia.

This section presents the international policy, national policy, Proclamations and regulations applicable
to the project under the assessment.

3.1 The FDRE Constitution, 1994

The constitution has enshrined clearly on article 44 that all citizen has the right to live in clean and healthy
environment. It also states that citizens who are affected or displaced due to any development programme
have the right to commensurate alternative compensation. In addition to that article 92 of the constitution
states that people have the right to full consultation and to the expression of views in the planning and
implementations of environmental policies and projects that affect them directly. It is also the duty and
responsibility of government and citizens to protect the environment. All local rules and regulation
emanate from the constitution which will give direction to enactment of environmental legal frameworks.

3.2 Environmental Policy of Ethiopia

The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia was approved by the Council of Ministers in 1997 is aimed at
guiding sustainable social and economic development of the country through the conservation and
sustainable utilization of the natural, man-made and cultural resources and the environment at large
without compromising needs and ability of future generation.

The goal of the Environmental Policy of Ethiopia is to improve and enhance the health and quality of life
of all Ethiopians and to promote sustainable social and economic development through sound management

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of the environment and use of resources so as to meet the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The policy lists specific objectives encompassing wide range of environmental issues to be addressed
through the adoption of the policy. It also provides overarching environmental guiding principles to be
adopted to harmonize the environmental elements in sectoral and cross sectoral policies. The policy
includes ten sectoral environmental policies ( such as (i) Soil Husbandry and Sustainable Agriculture; (ii)
Forests, Woodlands and Trees; (iii) Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Biodiversity; (iv) Water Resources;
(v) Energy Resources; (vi) Human Settlement, Urban Environment and Environmental Health; (vii)
Control Of Hazardous Materials and Pollution from Industrial Waste; (viii) Atmospheric Pollution and
Climate Change; and (ix) Cultural and Natural Heritage); and ten cross-sectoral environmental policies
(such as Pollution and the Environment; Community Participation and the Environment; Social and
Gender Issues; and Environmental Impact Assessment).

3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation No. 299/2002

According to the Environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation No. 299/2002, major development
programs, plans and projects of the private or public enterprises shall be subjected to Environmental
Impact Assessment study before their approval for implementation. This means that Environmental
Impact Assessment is a proactive (not reactive) tool used to predict and manage the environmental effects
of a proposed development activity during its design, construction, operation or an ongoing industry as a
result of its modification.

The Environmental Policy provides a number of guiding principles that require adherence to the general
principles of sustainable development. In particular, the need to ensure that Environmental Impact
Assessment (ESIA) completes the following:

❖ Considers impacts on human and natural environments,

❖ Provides for early consideration of environmental impacts in project and program design,

❖ Recognizes public consultation processes as essential and mandatory to effective management,

❖ Includes mitigation and contingency plans,

❖ Provides auditing and monitoring plan

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 ❖ A legally binding requirement.

The proclamation also provides a legal base for the effective means of harmonizing and integrating
environmental, economic, cultural and social considerations in to the planning and decision-making
processes thereby promoting sustainable development. The objective of undertaking the assessment study
is to ensure the impacts of a development project and the incorporated mitigating measures for the adverse
significant impacts, and policy programs are adequately considered while decisions are put into effect.

3.4 Health Policy

Ethiopia’s health policy was issued in 1993, with the aim of giving special attention to women and
children, to neglected regions and segments of the population, and to victims of man-made disasters. The
priority areas of the policy are in the fields of Information, Education and Communication (IEC) of health
to create awareness and behavioral change of the society towards health issues.

Therefore, emphasis is placed on

• The control of communicable diseases, epidemics, and of diseases that are related to malnutrition
and poor living conditions
• Promotion of occupational health and safety
• The development of environmental health
• Rehabilitation of health infrastructures
• Appropriate health service management systems
• Provision of essential medicines and
• Expansion of frontline and middle level health professionals.

3.5 The Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (CSE)

The CSE, approved by the Council of Ministers in 1996, provides a comprehensive and rational approach
to environmental management in a very broad sense, covering national and regional strategies, sectoral
and cross sectoral policies, action plans and programs as well as providing the basis for development of
appropriate institutional and legal frameworks for the implementation (EPA/Ministry of Economic
Development and Co-operation 1996, MoEDAC). It also deals with providing a strategic framework for
integrating environmental planning into a new and existing policies and projects.

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It mainly recognizes the importance of incorporating environmental factors into development activities
from the beginning so that planners may take into account environmental protection as an essential
component of economic, social and cultural development.

3.6 Public Health Proclamation No 200/2000

As stated in its preambles the purpose of this proclamation is to implement the health policy of the country
and for promotion of public health and creation of healthy environment for the future generation thereby
enabling it assume its responsibilities.
The proclamation states that any employer shall ensure availability of occupational health service to its
employee for the health safety of work environment. It is also prohibited according to the law to use
machinery which generates excessive noise. This Proclamation makes provision for the protection of
public health. It establishes a Public Advisory Board at the Federal and Regional level for the purpose of
advising the appropriate health authority in the proper implementation of this Proclamation. "Public
Health Authority" shall be the Ministry of Health, or the Health Bureau of a Regional State or of a City
accountable to the Federal Government. The Public Health Authority shall appoint qualified inspectors to
implement the provisions.

The proclamation states that collection of waste should be in a designated place which does not affect the
health of the public and disposition of waste shall be made in a manner that will not affect the environment
or human health. Furthermore, the proclamation clearly states in its penalty clause that failure to abide by
this proclamation on public health shall result in both civil and criminal liability.

3.7 Proclamation on Environmental Pollution Control (NO 300/2002)

This Proclamation is mainly based on the right of each citizen to have a healthy environment, as well as
on the obligation to protect the environment of the country and its primary objective is to provide the basis
from which the relevant ambient environmental standards applicable to Ethiopia can be developed, and to
make the violation of these standards a punishable act. The Proclamation states that the “polluter pays”
principle will be applied to all persons. There are also penalties for offences in environmental pollution.
A juridical person is liable on conviction to a fine of Birr 10000 to 20000. The proclamation under its
penalty clause states that the officer who is in charge and who should have known the commission of the
offence and who failed to fulfill his duty shall be liable to birr 5000 to 10000 fine or to two years
imprisonment.

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Based on this proclamation the council of ministers has issued a regulation (No 159/2008) on prevention
of industrial pollution. The regulation has stated the following as a general obligation to prevent industrial
pollution

• A factory shall prevent or if that is not possible shall minimize the generation of every pollutant
to an amount not exceeding the limit set by the relevant environmental standard and dispose of
it in an environmentally sound manner
• Every factory shall have the obligation to handle equipment inputs and products in a manner
that prevents damage to the environment and to human and animal health
• Every factory shall notify the competent environmental organ any potentially pollutant, input
or product under its possession

Regarding monitoring and environmental safety, the regulation under its article 9 states that a factory is
required with a view to ensuring its compliance with the regulation to prepare and implement its own
internal environmental monitoring system. Furthermore, the regulation states on reporting and
information that any factory shall keep written information describing the equipment and input it has used,
the product it has produced, the pollutant it has generated, and the disposal mechanism it has used to
dispose of pollutant and other related matters. It shall submit annual report to competent environmental
organ describing how it is complying with the provision of this regulation.

The provision of this regulation applies to factory which is listed in industrial sector. The regulation states
that a factory shall prevent or if that is not possible shall minimize the generation of every pollution to an
amount not exceeding the limit set by relevant environmental standards and expected to dispose in an
environmentally sound manner.

3.8 Solid Waste Management Proclamation (No. 513/2007)

This proclamation aims to prevent environmental damage from solid waste while harnessing its potential
economic benefits. It defines solid waste management as the collection, transportation, storage, recycling
or disposal of solid waste. The proclamation states that solid waste management action plans designed by,
and implemented at, the lowest administrative units of urban administrations can ensure community
participation and it is essential to promote community participation in order to prevent the adverse effects
and enhance the benefits resulting from solid waste.

25
 As it is clearly indicated all project activities must make sure their waste meets environmental standards,
and obtain a permit before discharging any liquid waste in any case. On the other hand, project
stakeholders must monitor the composition of its waste, keep records and report periodically to the
Environmental Protection Authority where the project is under implementation.

Solid wastes can be transported from one regional state or urban administration to another regional state
or urban administration only if the recipient regional state or urban administration has notified the sender
in writing of its capacity to recycle or dispose of it in an environmentally sound manner. The Proclamation
has also listed the management of different solid wastes such as glass containers and tin cans, plastic bags,
used tires, food related solid wastes, construction debris and demolition wastes.

3.9 Solid Waste Management Standards in Ethiopia

There is a Solid Waste Management Standard developed by the Ministry of Urban Development and
Construction but was not adopted by the cities until recently. The project has transposed this stander to
the six cities on which municipal staff are trained and supported to develop related plan. We also have
examined the legal system that governs waste such as solid waste management proclamation and
environmental pollution control proclamation (Table 4).
Table 4: Breakdown of Solid Waste Management Proclamation No. 513 and the Environmental Pollution Control proclamation

Solid waste management Law or Act Description

Activity
Source Solid Waste Management Households shall ensure that
reduction/segregation - proclamation, Article 11.1 recyclable solid wastes are segregated
households
Collection and storage Solid Waste Management Urban administration shall ensure that adequate HH solid waste
proclamation, Article 11.2 collection facilities are in place to ensure the installation of marked
waste bins by streets and in other public places guaranteeing the
collections of solid waste from bins with sufficient frequency
Transportation Solid Waste Management Urban administration shall set the standards to determine the skills
proclamation, Article 13.2 of drivers and equipment operators and prevent overloads of solid
waste
Treatment Environmental Pollution All urban administrations shall ensure the collections,
Control Proclamation, Article transportation, and, as appropriate, the recycling, treatments or
5.1 safe disposal of municipal waste through the institution of an
integrated municipal waste management system
Disposal/Landfill Solid Waste Management Construction of solid waste disposal sites and auditing existing
proclamation, Article 14,15 solid waste disposal waste
Recycling and reuse Solid Waste Management Manufacturer or importer of glass container or tin cans
proclamation, Article 7.1 shall…collect and recycle glass or tins
Hazardous waste Environmental Pollution Any person engaged in the collection, recycling, transportation,
Control Proclamation, Article treatment or disposal of any hazardous waste shall take appropriate
4.2 precaution to prevent any damage to the environment or to human
health or well-being.

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3.10 Proclamation on Hazardous Waste Management and Disposal Control No. 1090/2018
The purpose of this proclamation is to prevent and control problems of environmental pollution caused by
the mismanagement and disposal of hazardous waste. It is also to control the generation, storage,
treatment, recycling and reuse of hazardous waste in order to prevent harm to human and animal health as
well as the environment.

The proclamation applies to a legal person who generates reuses, recycles, stores, transports or disposes
hazardous waste at large in the country.

Regarding the management of waste, the proclamation directs that the waste producer has to minimize the
release of hazardous waste by reducing hazardous substances in raw materials during production. The
proclamation clearly stipulates the responsibility of the waste generator as follows:

• Collect, segregate and dispose or to be disposed of hazardous waste by authorized body

• Ensure that the container of hazardous waste is properly packed and carefully labeled with
Amharic and English language
• Keep record of the type of hazardous waste that exist in the temporary container and show at any
time when requested by appropriate inspector
• Not to store hazardous waste for more than one month

The proclamation states that reuse of hazardous waste is allowed provided it does not make harm to the
human, animal health and environment. However hazardous waste must be removed properly if it is
proved it is impossible to recycle after treatment.

In accordance with this proclamation, the movement of hazardous waste is illegal if it is carried out without
the permission of authorized body. It is also deemed to be illegal if it contravenes the Basel convention
ratified by Ethiopia and other national laws related with hazardous waste.

In its penalty clause the proclamation clearly put that the authorized ministry may suspend a person trading
license for 15 days if it fails to comply with requirements and conditions of transportation, storage and
recycling of hazardous waste. It also states that storing, transporting and recycling of hazardous waste
without obtaining authorization from pertinent government body shall be punished with rigorous
imprisonment of 5 years and a fine of birr 500,000. The same penalty applies for releasing untreated
hazardous waste into the environment.

3.11 Compost Preparation Standard, MUDH November 2017

This standard document specifies requirements, sampling & testing methods, selection of composting site
& technology, land use & composting process and composting site management system which is
applicable on organic municipal solid waste.

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As a general requirement the standard indicates that composting site shall be built far from human
activities in order to minimize the effect of bad smelling, dust, littering, and noise pollution. Regarding
site selection the standard clearly states the proximity of compost site to the following residential area and
amenities 400 meters from residential area, 300 meters from commercial centers, lakes and industries, 150
meters from rivers, springs and well.
Furthermore, the standard put the composting technology to be used and technology selection shall
consider the following criteria:
A. Able to produce high quantity of compost.
B. Cost-effective.
C. Able to serve long time.
D. Availability of spare parts.
E. Environmentally friendly.

In addition to this external condition like climate and geological condition, characteristics of organic solid
waste, level of organic waste pollution, human resources and finance, health and environment condition,
compost market and demand have to be considered in compost technology condition.
The standard also sets the following requirements for compost site. Waste that is generated in composting
site shall be managed according to the following standard:

• Composting site shall be clean at any time.

• Composting site waste management includes cleaning of composting beds, stores, parking lots,
garage, administrative office, road & curb sides, drainage, green area and dust bins.
• Waste generated from composting site shall be managed according to Solid Waste Management
Standard no. MUDH 07:2007.
• Organic waste generated from composting site shall be used as composting input.
• Inorganic waste, weather it is generated within the composting site or brought in, shall be managed
according to Solid Waste Management Standard code no. MUDH 07:2007.
• Dustbins shall be availed inside composting site and designed in accordance with solid waste
management Standard code no. MUDH 07:2007.
• Liquid Waste generated from administrative building and public toilet shall be managed in
accordance with public and communal toilets & shower serves standard code no. MUDH 28:2007.
• In order to manage leachate, the compost site shall have an oxidation pond.
• The compost site shall have toilet and bathrooms in accordance with the public and communal
toilets & shower standard code number MUDH 28:2007.

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In addition, the composting site administration shall have the responsibility to beautify the compound.
Indigenous & ornamental plants shall be planted every 30 centimeters within the compound and trees shall
be planted every 3 meters around the composting site for shade and wind break.
As general requirements first aid kit shall be available and the composting site management shall provide
soap and tissue paper for personal hygiene & sanitation as well as detergents & disinfectants to remove
bad odor and microorganisms.

Safety & personal protective equipment and accessories like leather or plastic boots, heavy duty hand
glove, mask, helmet and eyeglass/goggle/ shall be provided for workers engaged in composting. In
addition, cleaners and guards of the composting site shall have heavy duty glove, boots, mask, uniform,
umbrella, rain coat and hand torch as appropriate.

Workers shall get medical examination from the composting enterprise to the minimum twice a year
(every six months). And Workers shall get health insurance from the composting enterprise. Furthermore,
to protect the health of workers, a minimum of one liter of milk per day shall be provided. The concerned
composting site managers shall have risk management (accident registration, investigation & mitigation)
system.
All Workers of the composting site shall be provided with complete personal hygiene and safety
equipment’s and obliged to use it.

Regarding safety requirements firefighting equipment shall always be available at the composting site and
the source of the fire hazard shall be identified and taken under control.
The standard has clearly described the following measures to be taken to avoid the problems associated
with the compost production:

For reducing gas & bad odor emissions: increasing aeration, preventing water logging, reducing
moisture content, minimizing the volume of compost input storage and installing odor controlling device.

For reducing adverse effects of ammonia and amines: Balancing Carbon to Nitrogen ratio.

For reducing dust particles and pathogens- Covering the compost material, sprinkling water on dusty
areas, planting open spaces, paving composting area, input storage and loading and unloading spaces,
planting wind break trees and vacuum cleaning;

To protect the adjoining properties from noise pollution created by vehicles & machineries appropriate
buffering shall be applied as per sub-clause 5.3.2 of this standard document.

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3.12 International Conventions and Protocols

3.13.1. Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

To further strengthen the commitments of countries to implement the Convention on Climate Change
there was a need for a refined protocol that helps in implementing and elaborating polices and measures
in accordance with national circumstances. The Kyoto protocol promotes sustainable development
through protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases.

Ethiopia has ratified the protocol through proclamation and it provides for the ratification of the kyoto
protocol to the united nations framework convention on climate change and authorizes the environmental
protection authority to take, in cooperation with the appropriate federal, regional and city administration
government organs, actions necessary to implement the protocol.

3.13.2. International Convention on Biodiversity

The Objective of this convention is the conservation of biological diversity. The sustainable use of its
components and the fair equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources,
including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies.
The Principle of the conventions point out that states have, in accordance with the charter of the United
Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant
to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction
or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction.

3.13.3. United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification

The serious degradation of land and the appearance more and more arid areas has threatened livelihood of
over 900 million people in about 100 countries or 25% the total land area of the planet. Main reasons of
the desertification are the unreasonable use of land and natural resources plus unusual changes of the
global climate. Desertification is synonymous with increasing diseases, hunger and poverty and low food
productivity threatening hundreds of millions of poor to migrate for their livelihoods. To enable joint
action of the international community to combat desertification, the draft of UNCCD was submitted for
consideration in the Summit Meeting on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in
June 1992. After one year for consulting contribution from more than 100 counties, the UNCCD was at
last completed in June 1994 and opened for all UN party countries signing on 14-15 October 1994. In
December 1996, only 50 countries acceded, but the number of UNCCD party reached 191 countries. That
reconfirmed the desertification to be a worldwide problem, which, the whole world community has been
aware of a joint action to combat.
The objective of this Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in
countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effective

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action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework
of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the
achievement of sustainable development in affected areas.
Achieving this objective will involve long-term integrated strategies that focus simultaneously, in affected
areas, on improved productivity of land, and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management
of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions, in particular at the community level.
Objectives of United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification:

• Develop National Action Programme, Sub-Regional Action Programme (SRAP) and Regional
Action Programme (RAP) to prevent and combat drought and desertification;
• Call for financial aid from international community to combat desertification;
• Exchange of information and technologies in field of combating desertification;
• Preventing bad consequences of desertification leading to mass migration of people, extinction of
many species of fauna and flora, and changes of climate, etc.

The convention has a number of articles which discuss about different issues. In this convention, article
five and six points out the obligations of affected country parties and developed country parties which is
presented as follows:

Obligations of affected country Parties:

In addition to their obligations pursuant to article 4, affected country Parties undertake to:

• Give due priority to combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought, and allocate
adequate resources in accordance with their circumstances and capabilities;
• Establish strategies and priorities, within the framework of sustainable development plans and/or
policies, to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;
• Address the underlying causes of desertification and pay special attention to the socio-economic
factors contributing to desertification processes;
• Promote awareness and facilitate the participation of local populations, particularly women and
youth, with the support of nongovernmental organizations, in efforts to combat desertification and
mitigate the effects of drought; and
• Provide an enabling environment by strengthening, as appropriate, relevant existing legislation
and, where they do not exist, enacting new laws and establishing long-term policies and action
programmes.

Obligations of developed country Parties:

In addition to their general obligations pursuant to article 4, developed country Parties undertake to:

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 • Actively support, as agreed, individually or jointly, the efforts of affected developing country
Parties, particularly those in Africa, and the least developed countries, to combat desertification
and mitigate the effects of drought;
• Provide substantial financial resources and other forms of support to assist affected developing
country Parties, particularly those in Africa, effectively to develop and implement their own long-
term plans and strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;
• Promote the mobilization of new and additional funding pursuant to article 20, paragraph 2 (b);
• Encourage the mobilization of funding from the private sector and other non-governmental
sources; and
• Promote and facilitate access by affected country Parties, particularly affected developing country
Parties, to appropriate technology, knowledge and know-how

3.13.4. UNDP safeguard policies and procedures

UNDP ‘s Programme and Operations Policies and Procedures (POPP), for Programme and Project
Management includes a policy statement requiring that environmental sustainability must be
mainstreamed in UNDP ‘s Programme and Project Management cycles. In this regard, the POPP will be
updated to include a required environmental screening procedure for projects to determine if further
environmental assessment is required.

UNDP safeguard policies and procedures focus on the following key points:

• A. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT: Overarching Objective: To help ensure the

environmental and social soundness and sustainability of investment projects and to support
integration of environmental and social aspects of projects into the decision-making process.
• B. NATURAL HABITATS: Overall Objective: To promote environmentally sustainable
development by supporting the protection, conservation, maintenance, and rehabilitation of natural
habitats and their functions.
• D. INVOLUNTARY RESETTLEMENT: Overarching Objective: To realize the potential of
forests to reduce poverty in a sustainable manner, integrate forests effectively into sustainable
economic development, and protect the vital local and global environmental services and values
of forests.
• D. INVOLUNTARY RESETTLEMENT: Overarching Objective: To avoid or minimize
involuntary resettlement and, where this is not feasible, to assist displaced persons in improving
or at least restoring their livelihoods and standards of living in real terms relative to pre-
displacement levels or to levels prevailing prior to the beginning of project implementation,
whichever is higher.
• E. INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: Overarching Objective: To design and implement projects in a way
that fosters full respect for Indigenous Peoples ‘dignity, human rights, and cultural uniqueness and
so that they: (a) receive culturally compatible social and economic benefits; and (b) do not suffer
adverse effects during the development process.

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 • F. PHYSICAL & CULTURAL RESOURCES (PCR): Overarching Objective: To assist in
preserving physical cultural resources and avoiding their destruction or damage. PCR includes
resources of archaeological, paleontological, historical, architectural, religious (including
graveyards and burial sites), aesthetic, or other cultural significance.

In addition to the safeguard policies and procedures, UNDP’s social and environmental standards
(SES) underpin our commitment to mainstream social and environmental sustainability in our
Programmes and Projects. The objectives of the standards are to:
• Strengthen the quality of programming by ensuring a principled approach;
• Maximize social and environmental opportunities and benefits;
• Avoid adverse impacts to people and the environment;
• Minimize, mitigate, and manage adverse impacts where avoidance is not possible;
• Strengthen UNDP and partner capacities for managing social and environmental risks; and
• Ensure full and effective stakeholder engagement, including through a mechanism to respond
to complaints from project-affected people.
The SES are an integral component of UNDP’s quality assurance and risk management approach to
programming. This includes UNDP’s social and environmental screening procedure.
The standards are underpinned by an accountability mechanism with two key functions:
1. A Stakeholder Response Mechanism (SRM) that ensures individuals, peoples, and communities
affected by UNDP projects have access to appropriate procedures for hearing and addressing project -
related grievances; and
2. A Compliance Review process to respond to claims that UNDP is not in compliance with UNDP’s
social and environmental policies.
Through application of the SES and Accountability Mechanism, UNDP enhances the consistency,
transparency and accountability of its decision-making and actions, improves performance, and
strengthens achievement of positive development outcomes

3.13.5. IFC Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines on Noise Management

The IFC guideline provides that the preferred method for noise reduction is from stationary source. It has
indicated the reduction option to be considered like selecting equipment with lower sound levels, installing
silencers for fans, installing suitable mufflers on engine exhaust and compressor components, improving
the acoustic performance of constructed building, apply sound installation, relocating noise sources to less
sensitive areas and reducing project traffic routing through community areas where possible.

According to IFC standard on noise level in the industrial and commercial areas the dB level should not
exceed 70dB as indicated below.

Table 5: IFC standard on noise level

One hour (dBA)

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 Receptor Day time Night time
Residential, institutional and educational areas 55 45
Industrial and commercial areas 70 70

3.13.6. IFC Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines on Waste Management

Waste management should be addressed through a Waste management system that addresses issues linked
to waste minimization, generation, transport, disposal, and monitoring. Facilities that generate waste
should characterize their waste according to composition, source, types of wastes produced, generation
rates, or according to local regulatory requirements.

Hazardous waste should be stored so as to prevent or control accidental releases to air, soil, and water
resources. On-site and Off-site transportation of waste should be conducted so as to prevent or minimize
spills, releases, and exposures to employees and the public.

Vehicles and other equipment used for collection industrial non-hazardous wastes should not be used for
collection of MSW without prior cleaning to remove waste residues.

In the absence of qualified commercial or government-owned waste vendors (taking into consideration
proximity and transportation requirements), facilities generating waste should have the technical
capability to manage the waste in a manner that reduces immediate and future impact to the environment.

3.14. Urban Greenery Legal Framework and Urban Land Plan Policy

Study shows that urbanization induced high pressure on natural resources and threats to compromise the quality of
life within urban areas. Urban
green infrastructure is identified as an alternative nature-based and
cost-effective remedy to some of these negative consequences of urbanization and over
population. Urban green infrastructure has been suggested to provide multiple benefits to
urban residents’ through creation of interconnected network of green spaces.

Ethiopia has number of policy and legal framework on urban greenery infrastructural
development and green space planning to make cities good for human living and to reduce the
consequence of over population because of urbanization. The following are some of the policy
frameworks of Ethiopia regarding UGI:

• The Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, which was formulated in 1997, has an objective
to plan and create green spaces within urban areas that provide recreational activities,
habitats for plants and animals and ameliorate urban microclimates,
• The Urban Greenery and Beautification strategy, which was formulated in 2015, has
an objective to develop green spaces, which reduce environmental degradation,
pollution, urban floods, and which promote environmental sustainability in the urban
area

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 • The Ethiopian National Urban Green Infrastructure Standard, which was formulated in
2015, has an objective to create ecologically well-functioning, aesthetically pleasing,
and socially beneficial green spaces in cities and provide suitable, sufficient and
ecologically viable green spaces for recreational, social, economic and environmental
needs of the community.
• The Green Infrastructure Based Landscape Design Supporting Manual, which was
developed in 2011, also proposes to develop street tree plantings for shading, mitigating
the urban heat island effect reducing runoff and sequestering carbon,
Ethiopia urban greenery policy and strategies are not well implemented in urban areas. However, some
the planning documents, which relate to current green space planning practices, have considered the issue
of social inclusiveness in different ways. For instance:

• The Ethiopia National Urban Green Infrastructure Standard states that urban green
infrastructure shall be managed and administered in the interests of the local community
and shall address its needs. The long-term collective interests of the local community shall
be prioritized over the interests of any specific interest group or sector of society.
• The Growth and Transformation Plan (II) that was formulated in 2016 by the National
Planning Commission of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has planned to increase
the coverage of green infrastructure and recreational areas in urban centers of the country.
Enhancing the awareness and participation of the community and stakeholders has been
identified as important measures of green space planning in the document.
• The Urban Greenery and Beautification Strategy has an objective to involve the
community and stakeholders in sustainable ways during the development of urban green
spaces. Moreover, the strategy states that urban greenery planning can be successful only
when there is active participation of the community and the stakeholders.
• The Participatory Urban Planning Manual that was formulated in 2007 by the Ministry of
Urban Development and Housing has the objective of involving disadvantaged groups into
decision-making during urban plan preparation, which includes planning of green spaces.
Moreover, the manual has an objective to pay attention to the priorities, needs and
constraints of the city’s population, especially to low-income groups during urban plan
preparation, which includes green space planning.
Thus, NAMA compost project objective is inline with Ethiopia urban greenery infrastructure development
policy and in line with urban land plan policy. Therefore, NAMA compost will definitely contribute to
the national effort in urban greenery infrastructure development.

3.15. Administrative and Institutional Framework

Ethiopia’s solid waste management proclamation was issues in 2018 with the aim of to enhance capacities
to prevent the possible adverse impacts while creating economically and socially beneficial assets out of
solid wastes.

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The main authorities involved in the Ethiopia solid waste management sector are Ministry of Urban
Development and Housing (MoUDC), Regional Bureau of Urban Development and Construction, Micro
and Small Enterprises (MSEs) Agencies, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and
concerned municipalities at each regional state or cities. In addition, formal government organizations or
structures involved in solid waste management includes City Administration; Sub-city administrations;
District (kebele) administrations; Sanitation, Beautification and Park Development Authority (SBPDA);
Environmental Protection Authority and others. Other institutions are indirectly involved, mainly the
Ministry of Finance (MoF), Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Public Health Institutions (PHI) or Ministry
of Health (MoH), Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC) and others. Having
several institutions and authorities involved in the SWM sector results there are several uncertainties
regarding the roles and responsibilities and the levels of authority.
Although a legal framework for Solid Waste Management in Ethiopia is new (proclaimed in 2018),
Ministry of Urban Development considered SWM as one of the priority themes in its annual work plan
and committed to work with relevant governmental and non-governmental organization like UNDP. The
legal framework in general and the work plan in particular aims to enhance capacities to prevent the
possible adverse impacts while creating economically and socially beneficial assets out of solid wastes.

The correspondent administrative and institutional roles and duties with respect to the ongoing project are
specified below.
1. Ministry of Urban Development and Construction/Housing (MoUDC/
2. Ministry of Finance (MoF)
3. Micro Finance Institutions (MFI)
4. Micro and Small Enterprise Agency
5. Ministry of Agriculture (MoA)
6. City/Town Administration
7. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
8. National and International NGOs

Table 6: Administrative and institutional roles and responsibilities

No Stakeholders Roles and Responsibilities Remark

The MoUDC is the principal federal Government organ responsible for UGI
and ISWM and to provide coordinated support to urban centers to make them
capable of influencing their surroundings in implementing UGI into ISWM

36
 initiatives. MoUDC is the lead implementing body for the Government’s
national initiative on Green Infrastructure. Its Urban Planning, Sanitation
and Beautification Bureau manages urban waste and greenery initiatives. It
also oversees land-cover and housing projects, and is active in supervising
1 MoUDC
MSE activities. In the context of this project, MoUDC will coordinate with
competent authorities such as Regional Bureaus and City Administrations to
undertake management of UGI/IWSM elements during project
implementation.

In addition, the Urban Planning, Sanitation and Beautification Bureau of the

MoUDC is responsible for overall project coordination – i.e. for sharing
project reports, involve stakeholders to contribute at different stage of the
project implementation, and to collaborate with stakeholders to find
alternatives solutions if and when problems arise. It will also coordinate
Government ministries and stakeholders in UGI/ISWM activities; and liaise
with donors and potential participants in the voluntary carbon offset market.
The MoUDC will play a catalytic role
in the implementation of the national voluntary carbon offset scheme
through the provision of cash co-financing to operationalize it.

MoUDC will assure the social and environmental safeguards of the project
are implemented in the intervention cities.
2 MoF MoF oversees the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Facility. The
Facility has been established in order to channel international financing for
the implementation of Ethiopia’s Green Economy Strategy. The project will
work
with the Ministry to better integrate ISWM and SWM into the CRGE
Strategy.
MoF will oversee project budget utilization, integrating the MoUDC MRV
mechanism with that of the CRGE facility through EFCCC. It will also be
involved in the project phase-out period to assure sustainability of the project
with MoUDC’s day-to-day operations.
3 MoA The Ministry of Agriculture will provide technical guidance on sustainable
urban agriculture and composting. The project will collaborate with the
Agricultural Transformation Agency during composting quality testing.
The MoA is also responsible for developing work owner/process for urban
agriculture, investigating the soil condition of the urban area
where horticultural products could be produced, promoting and creating
market opportunities to sell the products; and providing extension services
on composting.
The project will link with MoA under the Soil Fertility Department for
wider dissemination of quality compost into urban and peri-urban
agriculture. The MoA will also be involved in establishing field trials on the
use of compost in urban agriculture, and in the dissemination of the results
to farmers. Its agricultural extension services will act as an outlet for
marketing of compost in urban agriculture.
4 MFI MFI are delivering financial services in Ethiopia with particular emphasis
on rural and urban poor households, the promotion of both credit and savings
products, and a strong focus on sustainability.

37
 MFIs have the experience of providing financial support to MSEs carrying
out urban solid waste collection at the household level. Discussions with one
of the largest MFIs in the Region of Oromia70 has revealed that it will be
willing to lend to MSEs engaged in composting if the activity is supported
by a sound financial and business model (as is the case with the COMPOST
project).
5 MSEs Agency The objective of MSE is to encourage, coordinate and assist institutions
engaged in service provision to the development and expansion of Micro &
Small Enterprises in the country. MSE will support the MSEs that are
engaged in the solid waste value chain (particularly in compost making and
urban greenery development) in the 6 target cities to have access to micro-
credit.
6 City The 6 cities and towns are the main beneficiaries of the COMPOST project.
Administrations For instance, all of the investment under Component 4 – which accounts for
62% of all GEF funding – will take place in the urban cities and towns. The
municipalities of Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, Hawassa and
Mekelle will be implementing ISWM and UGI initiatives. These
municipalities will directly recruit MSEs to implement streamlined waste
collection services, rearing of seedlings in nursery operations, and the
plantation of seedlings for urban green shrubbery and trees in public areas.
Further, each one of the 6 cities and town will integrate project activities
with regional universities to undertake R&D, capacity building and
information sharing. These universities are: Adama University for the City
of Adama and Bishoftu town; Wondogenet University for the City of
Hawassa; Haramaya University for the City of Dire Dawa; Mekelle
University for Mekelle City and Bahir Dar University for Bahir Dar City.
The cities and towns will also be responsible for selecting and providing
incentives for source sorting of household waste; providing or facilitating
the provision of licenses to MSEs engaged in composting and UGI activities;
and awareness creation at household level regarding ISWM, among others.
7 UNDP The UNDP Country Office (CO) has been supporting the Government of
Ethiopia with strengthening institutional capacity for carrying out evidence-
based policy planning to enhance the resilience of Ethiopia against shocks.
The UNDP support is discussed below while drawing immediate links with
the COMPOST project.
UNDP will monitor the implementation of the COMPOST project, review
progress in the realization of the project outputs, and ensure the proper use
of UNDP/GEF funds. Working in close cooperation with MUDH, the UNDP
CO will provide support services to the project - including procurement,
contracting of service providers, human resources management and financial
services - in accordance with the relevant UNDP Rules and Regulations,
Policies and Procedures and Results-Based Management (RBM) guidelines.

UNDP CO also provides its services through technical advice, facilitating

change processes, support to mechanisms for advocacy, networking and
partnership building including intermediation for information, expertise and
funds, and knowledge development and dissemination.
It will also contribute directly to the implementation of several outputs
through the provision of parallel financing.

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 8 Beneficiary Households are one of the main stakeholders in ISWM. They generate SWM
Households and the project will reply on their participation through the segregation of
organic waste from other solid wastes at the household level. They will be
incentivized by the project for segregating household waste according to
established guidelines.
9 National and • Collecting funds
Local NGOs • Undertaking awareness campaigns
• Implementing Solid Waste projects at the national level.
Source: NAMA COMPACT Project Document

4. Methodology and Approach

4.1 Study Area

The study covered four and one city administration where target beneficiaries live and the intended project
is under implementation. The study covered six cities namely, Mekelle, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Adama, and
Hawassa cities and Dire Dawa City Administration.

39
Figure 2: The geographical locations of the six cities and towns included in the NAMA COMPOST Project

Most of the primary and secondary data collected from five city administrations but only some secondary
data obtained from Mekelle due to the recurrent conflict. Of course, there is no an information gap
regarding the project since UNDP programme manager and his team have sufficient information which
the consulting team required about Mekelle.

40
4.2 Conceptual Framework
The study adopted conceptual framework for both environmental and social risk and environmental and
social impact assessment/auditing of Solid Waste Management mainly composting activities as well as
urban green infrastructure development of the ongoing project. The conceptual frameworks are derived
from United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and other international organizations framework.

4.2.1 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Conceptual Framework

Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA): For this study, the consulting team adopted
UNDP’s social and environmental assessment conceptual framework- figure below. The ESIA will further
identify and assess social and environmental impacts of the project and design appropriate avoidance,
mitigation, management, and monitoring measures. It will address all relevant issues related to the SES
Overarching Principles and Project-level Standards, providing input into the ESMP.

Figure 3: Key steps of ESIA, Adopted UNDP 2016

41
However, since the project is already started and is under implementation, almost all environmental and
social issues of the project are already identified during project development phase. However, actual
impact of the identified issues resulting from project execution is not known and still new unforeseen
issues might have arisen in the past 4 year. In addition, newly emerged environmental and social negative
or positive impacts during project implementation were not addressed. Thus, the consulting team focused
on key social and environmental risks (identified or new) and undertake assessment on major impacts
based on the standard checklist prepared for this purpose which is adopted from UNDP SES.

4.2.2 Environmental and Social Risk Auditing Conceptual Framework

Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analyzing, monitoring and managing the intended and
unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of the project and any social change
processes invoked by project activities under implementation.

Risk assessment process has followed the following key steps. Potential risk was identified, then the team
in consultation with stakeholders were determined who might be affected (at risk) following it assess how
sever the risk will be, finally formulate proper risk mitigation action designed to address major risks.

Figure 4: Environmental Risk Assessment Conceptual Framework

42
As the project is under implementation since 2017, the consulting team understands that potential risks
have been identified before project appraisal. Thus, at this stage of the project the consulting team has
undertaken assessment on materialized risks of the project and how the project is working to address these
risks. However, the consulting team was also identified newly emerged risks and major impacts of the
project as main deliverable of the assignment.

4.3 General Study Approach

This study employed cross sectional study which involves both qualitative and quantitative methods. The
consulting team used participatory and technically effective assessment tools to understand and identify
key environmental and social impacts/risks of the project intervention in the target project sites. In addition
to this the study was expected to identify newly emerged and/or unidentified risks during project
development phase and development appropriate mitigation plan to curve environmental and social
negative impacts of the project in the project areas.

Thus, the study team employed a mixed-method approach for data collection, analysis and triangulating
qualitative and quantitative data collected from: project staffs, target beneficiaries (MSE in ISWM and
UGI), respective government sector offices (Municipalities), and secondary data from project office
focusing on quantitative data.

As mentioned, the consulting team used a wide variety of data sources and data collection methods as
needed and at every stage of the study process. Primary data was collected through key informant
interviews (KII), focus group discussions (FGD) and collection and review of documents from different
sources and stakeholders. In addition, physical observations were conducted in almost all project sites to
witness project activities at field level which helped the team to triangulate secondary information with
the reality. The general study conceptual framework represented by the following diagram:

Figure 5: General study conceptual framework

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For the intended purpose questionnaires/ checklists/ guides and different formats were designed to gather
the required information on the set of variables identified to understand the current situation of the project
impact/risk (both positive and negative) in each target project sites that can help to design appropriate
environmental management and risk mitigation plan at city administration level. In general, the study
accomplished following four successive phases, namely: preparation phase, data collection phase, data
analysis phase, and report writing phase.

4.4 Preparation
Document review, preparation of tools for data collection, sampling of KII and FGD and inception report
submission were accomplished before commencing the data collection at field level. The consulting team
reviewed different documents such as: national policy, regulation and strategies, different framework and
strategies for ESIA, similar studies focusing solid waste management and composting activities, national
and international experience in the process of composting, and ISWM,UGI practices, Compost marketing
and value chain development, regional and city administration priorities and actions made to mitigate
climate change, reduce effects of pollution and other negative effects of solid waste and other related
issues have been reviewed.

Solid waste management and environmental related literatures, study reports, policy and strategy papers
and other relevant documents have been reviewed and analyzed for the intended purpose.

Based on a clear insight gained during document review and as per the agreed methods, tools (detail
questions) for both quantitative and qualitative data collection was prepared. Different checklist/guides
were developed to collect qualitative and some quantitative data from representative sector offices and
individual interviewees in selected target project areas. Data collection tools such as focus group
discussion guide and key informants’ interview checklists used to collect qualitative data from the target
respondents and key government and stakeholders’ staffs. Physical observation checklist used to record
key information at each project sites that the team observed during data collection. A cross checking table
has been used to check whether the tools (checklist/ FGD/KII guide/format) are complete enough to
address all study questions.

4.5 Sampling Technique and Sample Size

4.5.1 Sampling Technique

For this study the consultant employed two stage cluster sampling technique (area sampling) to get
representatives from each city administration. In each cluster the consulting team will use random
sampling technique to select interviewees from beneficiary list of each group and random sampling was
employed to drown participants of indirect beneficiaries in each city administration.

4.5.2 Sample Size

The project has both direct and indirect beneficiaries in project sites. Most of these beneficiaries are a
member of MSE engaged in UGI and ISWM and indirect beneficiaries of the project in city
administrations. Thus, the total beneficiaries of the project vary in each city administration and even in
44
each group of respondents. Therefore, the consulting team decided to consider many of the group members
as KII and FGD participants together with indirect beneficiaries. The total KII participants were more than
52 from five city administrations from direct and indirect beneficiaries, key stakeholders and
implementing institutions. To supplement the qualitative data collection, process the consulting team will
also conduct at least three FGDs in each city administrations represented from direct beneficiaries (MSE
groups) and indirect beneficiaries. Thus, total FGD discussion conducted was15 with a total member of a
minimum 172 participants in five project sites except Mekelle (Table 6).

4.6 Data Collection (Field Work)

4.6.1. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

FDG was conducted with UGI and ISWM group members and indirect beneficiary communities in the project sites
that include women, men, youth, community figures, members and project staff and project leaders at each city
administration except Mekelle. The consultants conducted each FGD with 7-12 (9 participants per FGD on average)
participants, by using the FGD guide checklist developed for the purpose.

Table 7: Number of FGDs conducted per City Administrations

Project Sites Number of participants Sex Total

Male Female
Bahir Dar 13 5 3 13
Bishoftu 44 37 7 44
Awassa 35 28 7 35
Adama 36 25 11 36
Dire Dawa 44 32 12 44
Total 172 127 40 172
Sources: FGD Participants list December, 2020.

Figure 6: Some of FGD Participants at Bahir Dar left and Adama right

45
Figure 7: Some of FGD Participants at Bishoftu left and Dire Dawa (Harla Rural Kebele) right
Source: FGD Participants list, December 2020.

Focus group discussions were held in five project cities (except Mekelle). The discussion was facilitated
and lead by lead consultant, in each FGD the following key topics have been discussed.
Table 8: Key FGD Discussion Topics used as a checklist

FGD Discussion Topics for each Project Sites

Activity-waste sorting, transportation, composting, marketing and compost application
Major economic, social and cultural risks and impacts on community
Major risks and impacts on MSEs engaged along the value chain of solid waste management Major risks and
impacts on the environment (direct and indirect as well as reversible and irreversible)
Major risks and impacts on compost users
Major Social and Environmental risks on project implementation and sustainability
Activity: plant nursery, afforestation/reforestation, land rehabilitation
Major Economic, Social and Cultural risks and impact on the community
Major risk and impacts on MSEs engaged along the value chain UGI
Major risks and impacts on the environment (direct and indirect as well as reversible and irreversible)
Major Social and Environmental risks on project implementation and sustainability
Activity: stakeholder engagement and perception
Sources: Study Inception Report December, 2020.

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4.6.2. Key Informants Interviews (KIIs)
Key Informant Interview (KII) was conducted with federal government offices (MoUDC), UNDP
manager, city administration staffs, project staffs, MSEs (ISWM and UGI) representatives and other
community members.

Figure 8: Some KII Pictures

The aim of conducting KII was to incorporate the knowledge and perspectives of decision makers, experts
and special/subject matter advisors, semi-structure interviews questions were developed and KIIs were
conducted with different institutions and individuals at federal and regional city administration level.

Table 9: KII conducted at federal and city administration level

Project Site Number of participants Sex Total

Male Female
Bahir Dar 10 7 3 10
Bishoftu 10 6 4 10
Hawassa 11 7 4 11

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 Adama 10 9 1 10
Dire Dawa 12 7 5 12
Federal 2 1 1 2
Total 55 37 18 55
Source: KII Survey, December 2020

Figure 9: Some KII participants

4.6.3. Physical observation

The consultancy team observed target sites both Composing shed and UGI and took photos as well as
documented some business activities. The team visited business activities of UGI, project activities of
some key partners and government supported projects, and general situations in and around the project
sites.

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Figure 10: Pictures of physical observation by the consulting team

4.7 Data Analysis and Report Write Up

Qualitative data collected using mixed data collection methods analyzed and report has been compiled as
a final and one of the key deliverables. The collected data has been cleaned and analyzed using qualitative
data analysis method detailed below.

The collected qualitative data has been analyzed content-by-content to triangulate and further elaborate
the findings of the assessment. Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the process of turning written data
such as pictures/audio-video records, interviews/records and field notes from observations, FGDs & KIIs
into findings. Qualitative data analysis has been carried out following the steps given in Figure below.

Diagram which shows the steps followed during qualitative data analysis

Figure 11: Qualitative Data Analysis

Then, final Environmental and Social Impact/audit assessment report has been written and submitted to
MoUDC and UNDP for validation and approval

4.8 Managing Potential Limitations

The consultants in collaboration with key stakeholders have exerted maximum efforts to get the most
reliable data. Appropriate data collection time was selected by considering stakeholders, MSEs involved
in UGI and ISWM group suitable time, allocate enough time for interview, considering number of
respondents at particular project site against total beneficiaries’ respondents. These have helped to avert
the potential limitations such as lack of quality due to time constraint and miss representation of
appropriate number of respondents. Participatory techniques used to engage all FGD participants in all
the discussion and there was probing and follow up questions to encourage all participate in the
discussion. Sometimes, consultants probe those participants a bit of silent in the discussion. To the extent
possible, consultants encouraged all to participate by probing and calling their names to provide their
thoughts and responses so that the data is believed as good representation of the target community.

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5. Baseline Information on Project Intervention Areas Prior to Project Intervention
5.1 Environmental and Social-Economic Baseline of ISWM Intervention Areas
Environmental and Social baseline as related to Integrated Solid Waste Management in the project
intervention areas is established based on information provided during focus group discussions with staff
of the municipalities and project management unit, project beneficiaries and community representatives
of the six cities. In addition to that, baseline information collected during project document preparation is
taken from the project document as secondary source of data. Accordingly, the environmental and socio-
economic baseline of the six cities as related to the Integrated Solid Waste Management can be stated as
follows:

There were Solid Waste Management related policies, strategies, regulations at federal level prior to
project intervention. However, those were not transposed and integrated to local level administration to
guide and regulate cities’ solid waste management practices. Moreover, local governments within cities
and towns lack the knowledge, capacity and financial resources to enforce the existing regulations.

The cities and towns collect and dispose of only half of the solid waste generated and had little or no
disposal infrastructure in terms of either well-designed and operated landfill sites or disposal through
recycling or incineration of organic waste. Moreover, there were increasing populations in informal
settlements, which do not necessarily benefit from the collection of MSW management. A baseline
assessment carried out on the SWM systems in the 6 cities and towns (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire
Dawa, Hawassa and Mekelle) during project development of NAMA COMPOST found out that both the
collection efficiency of MSW at the household level and the solid waste disposal rate at the landfill were
at most 75%. With a low disposal rate (70%), these rates gave an overall system efficiency of 52% of
MSW being disposed of at landfills.

There were no Municipal Solid Waste sorting practices except only an informal economy related to the
collection of recyclable waste at the household level. Primary waste collection was crude in all cases, with
door-to-door collection by micro and small enterprises (MSEs) with 2-wheel wheelbarrows, and MSE
personnel employed under very poor conditions with little regard to occupational health and safety. The
collection system had no transfer stations, and filled communal bins are then loaded by skip trucks owned
by the municipality or city administration for dumping at a landfill.

As stated in the project document, there were several problems related to financing the SWM system due
to socio-economic acceptability, not all cities and towns had recourse to the ‘water bill’ method making
cost recovery a problem; household waste collection at households done by the MSEs who charge higher
rate and there was weak oversight by the city administration or municipality on the quality of waste
collection and disposal; there was no cost recovery by the city administration/municipality for waste that
is transported from communal bins to the landfill.

There were no composting and recycling practices in the six cities except small scale composting exercise
in Bahir Dar using pit method and recycling of selected materials such as metal by individuals. Individuals
engaged in the composting and recycling business were not well organized under MSEs, were not trained
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in how to run the business or safely operate had no access to loan or support with the necessary basic
materials and had very weak market linkages. There was illegal dumping of waste everywhere and the
municipality had been the only entity that was collecting and transporting the waste to the landfill.

There were MSEs engaged in door-to-door waste collection but aware not well trained on Occupational
Health and Safety Measures and provided with safety materials regularly. Usually, people engaged in
waste management related economic activities were people with low literacy rate, low self-steam and it
was the most neglected business by the society as stated by the MSEs during Focus Group Discussion.

There was some training on Integrated Solid Waste Management field of operation. However, it was not
systematically organized; proficiency level was not seriously evaluated and was not regularly conducted.
There was no compost standard and guideline neither was there proper training on quality compost
production. Moreover, there were no well-established composting facilities in all of the six cities and
knowledge and skill to guide it.

5.1.1 Environmental Baseline

As a result of reasons raised above coupled with rapid urbanization in the six cities and towns that resulted
in ever increasing waste generation, illegal dumping and high accumulation of waste at landfill had a range
of environmental impacts the principal ones being:

• Waste used to be dumped in public spaces such as open areas and river banks that was deteriorating
the urban open green areas and riparian corridors. River banks were full of PET water bottles and
plastic waste that are carried by flooding during rainy seasons. For instance, Migara pond formed
by rain water runoff from Adama city, Lake Hawassa and Lake Tana were full of waste especially
PET water bottles.
• With municipal solid waste (MSW) collected and disposed of at landfills (semi-engineered or
sanitary), there is an increasing generation of methane and other Green House Gases form
accumulated waste that pollute the atmosphere.
• The compost sheds are constructed within the landfills (except Adama) for which environmental
impact assessment was conducted. There were not residents, no vegetations, water body or natural
elements that could be affected as a result of construction of the sheds.
• There was no waste segregation practice nor separate transportation in the six cities that pose
difficulty to separately treat the waste according to its character. This had an increasing
environmental pollution.
• Transfer station was not common in the six cities and even the existing ones were not well
managed. The mixed waste collected from the source is temporarily stored in those transfer
stations (when available) and transported to the land fill mixed where it pollutes the environment,
air and surface water.

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5.1.2 Socio-Economic Baseline
The inefficiency in waste collection and illegal dumping of waste in public spaces such as open areas and
river banks had been affecting the society in many aspects. Land value of plots and rental prices of houses
found around illegal dumping sites was very low. People living around and passing through these dumping
areas were seriously affected by the bad smell from the accumulated waste. The illegal dumping sites also
had impact on community health such as breathing related, water borne diseases and illness transmitted
by fly, rodents and other vectors. Uncontrolled dumping and improper waste handling used to cause water
contamination; people were being affected by flooding due to blocked drainage canals or gullies and
causing damage on infrastructure such as road.

There were only few MSEs engaged in house-to-house waste collection business while no registered MSE
was working on composting or recycling business. Economical contribution of waste related activities
was therefore very low and government had never considered it as one of the jobs creating sectors. Since
the MSEs had no proper training on Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) and regularly provided with
OHS materials, their health was at risk. The improper handling and disposal of hazardous waste was
resulting in health and safety hazards from fires or explosions.

5.2 Environmental and Socio-Economic Baseline UGI Intervention Areas

Environmental and Social-economic baseline as related to Urban Green Infrastructure Development in the
project intervention areas is established based on information provided during focus group discussions
with staff of the municipalities and project management unit, project beneficiaries and community
representatives of the six cities. In addition to that, baseline information collected during project document
preparation is taken from the project document as secondary source of data.

Like in the case of waste management, Urban Green Infrastructure Development Related strategies,
policies and standards were available at federal level. But they were not fully integrated at city level and
properly enforced. As a result, urban land was not properly utilized for UGI due to an increase in illegal
holdings, weak enforcement and given little importance. Many plots which had been allocated for green
area development were actually been illegally occupied and used. Consequently, people were living in
fragile and environmentally important areas such as on-stream banks, which should have been reserved
for vegetation growth to help with flood control.

The consulting team who developed the project document had noticed that the growth of urban centers
was placing further pressure on UGI designated areas to become human settlements. Personnel from urban
local governments (ULGs) hadn’t the required knowledge to enforce the proper use of UGI-designated
areas despite of the availability of digitized cadastral maps with satellite imagery for use by municipalities
as a tool for enforcing land uses within an urban area, notably the dedicated green areas.

The cities didn’t have sufficient number of MSEs that are technically qualified to manage UGI sites and
run nursery areas. The then exiting MSE’s personnel engaged in nursery business like in Bishoftu were
not trained in nursery operations, plantation of reforested areas and maintenance of reforested areas. The
local governments were sole entities to reforest and manage greenery areas with low/no community and

52
other stakeholders’ participation. The financing of UGI initiatives is primarily from locally-collected
revenues. With limited capacities to leverage other sources of financing, ULGs were unable to
implement a broader set or scale of UGI initiatives.

In addition to the expansion illegal settlement in the greenery areas increasing the demand for fuel wood
and charcoal in urban areas as well as the demand for timber for construction were major driving factors
for forest degradation and deforestation in the cities. Moreover, there was no urban and peri-urban forest
area dedicated for firewood plantation to minimize the pressure on UGI dedicated areas.

There was no experience of compost application on urban greenery areas, install watering system in place
except using shower trucks, water and soil conservation structures and appropriate management system
that resulted in low survival rate of trees. There were well planed and committed
afforestation/reforestation efforts of on peri-urban areas by the cities except some seasonal plantation of
trees without follow up and management system in place. The available green areas had no legally defined
boundaries that made law enforcement difficult.

Two cities; Adama and Bishoftu had nursery sites with annual seedling raising capacity of 240,000 and
350,000 respectively. The reaming four cities had no any and therefore were buying seedling, mainly
ornamental trees from Bishoftu traveling up to 400KMs which is too costly.

5.2.1 Environmental Baseline

Caused by reasons mentioned above environmental conductions of Urban Greenery related project
intervention areas and UGI practices of the six cities can be explained as follows:

• There was increasing surface runoff during storms that results in flooding causing erosion and loss
of fertile topsoil on cliffs surrounding the cities that led to further degradation to decrease survival
rate of vegetation. Moreover, impacting the urban and peri-urban environment through the loss of
arable soils, loss of riparian buffer zones to absorb runoff and reduce impacts to sensitive fresh
water bodies, and higher risks of shortages of water supplies for households and agricultural lands
was expected
• There was increasing land degradation, landslides, flood risks and increased siltation in nearby
water bodies (lake Hawassa, Lake Tana, Blue Nile River and Awash River) as a result of
deforestation in the peri-urban and urban forests
• The cities were getting hotter from time to time resulting in formation urban of heat islands which
was predicted to grow in size due to temperature increase
• There was high deforestation resulted from cutting of trees for fire wood and charcoal making on
naturally afforested areas and city parks because the greenery areas had no legally defined
boundaries to enforce law and there was low sense of community ownership. In addition, there
were no forest areas dedicated for fire wood plantation which could reduce the pressure on the
urban parks and protected forest areas.

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 • High wind cyclone in the cities due to lack of trees that could serve as wind breaker mainly in
Adama and Mekelle was common. Environmental condition of the following selected project sites
prior to project intervention was as follows:
Table 10: Environmental Condition of Greenery Areas Prior to Project Intervention

No Condition of the Urban Greenery Area Prior to Project Size in

intervention Ha
1 Urban and peri-urban areas with no clearly demarcated boundary and title deed to 33,000
support law enforcement
2 Urban and peri-urban areas highly degraded as a result of unsustainable resource 5,921
use, illegal dumping of waste and erosion
4 Urban and peri-urban areas partly covered with forest but not well protected, 14,107
exposed to degradation by erosion and invasive species
5 Urban and peri-urban riparian corridors degraded by erosion and illegal damping of 480
waste

5.2.2 Socio-Economic Baseline

The socio-economic baseline is formed based on information found in the project document as secondary
source of data as well as first-hand information gathered from storytelling by community representatives,
project beneficiaries and staff of the municipalities through Key Informant Interview and Focus Group
Discussion. Accordingly, UGI related socio-economic baseline of the project intervention areas is detailed
as follows:

• There was increasing surface runoff during storms that results in flooding along roads and slum
settlement areas with high impact on traffic movement and houses especially in Bahir Dar, Dire
Dawa and Adama. Major causes of the flooding were lack of vegetation on surrounding cliffs to
absorb rain water and retain the soil from being washed away and clog water canals. Flooding
imposes additional costs associated with repair of water drains, pit latrines, sewers and dams that
lead to contamination and shortage of water supplies impacting community health such as
incidences of diarrheal illnesses.
• Urban greenery was not source income and employment opportunities. There were no people
engaged in nursery except few in Bishoftu, urban greenery and urban landscaping business to
support their livelihood.
• There was no stakeholder participation in urban afforestation and management activities that
resulted in high burden on local governments to cover all costs and low sense of ownership by the
community. This led to low protection on existing urban and peri-urban greenery areas causing
deforestation on naturally forest areas without a reforestation/rehabilitation plan.
• Local governments were buying and transporting seedlings mainly ornamental trees for urban
greening from Bishoftu traveling more than 400 KM that made cost per tree too high. The only
cities with nursery sites were Bishoftu and Adama with annual seedling raising capacity of 240,000
and 350,000 respectively

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 • Compound greening culture of the community was very low caused by low awareness on benefits
of forest and availability of seedling was minimal. The urban community had no parks and green
spaces for refreshment except Hawassa and Bahir Dar which are endowed with nature
• Impacts on sensitive fresh water bodies, and higher risks of shortages of water supplies for
households and agricultural lands as a result of urban and peri-urban environmental degradation
through the loss of arable soils, loss of riparian buffer zones to absorb runoff and reduce erosion
was forecasted. Moreover, climate change was likely to affect water bodies, primarily through
flood damage which can increase sedimentation and pollution, thereby increasing treatment
requirements or forcing service providers to find alternative water sources.
• All greenery areas rehabilitated and reforested/afforested by the project in the six cities were not
legally or illegally occupied places and therefore there were settlements within the intervention
areas prior to project intervention. Few areas however were under use by the local community for
grazing and as source of fire wood for household consumption and sales.

6 Findings and Discussion (Project Intervention Results and Changes Observed)

The section of the report presents major development changes/results of the project. The overview focused
on key results on integrated waste management, Urban Green Infrastructure Development, Positive and
negative changes on the environment and society, important risks which needs attentions and other major
changes are detailed. In addition, under this section for each impacts and risks, the consulting team in
collaboration with concerned body proposed mitigation plan as needed.

6.1 Results and Changes in Integrated Solid Waste Management

The project has been under implementation since 2017 undertaking activities related to Integrated Solid
Waste Management in the six cities (Adama, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa, Hawassa and Mekelle)
which could positively and negatively impact the environment. Project intervention along the value chain
of Municipal Solid Waste Management of the six cities and changes observed as a result are presented
here below.

6.1.1 Generation
The project has undertaken community awareness raising activities through door-to-door communication,
school outreach programs, using posters, community sensitization workshops as well as using national
and local print and non-print media such as radio and television on waste handling in general and waste
segregation in particular. The awareness raising effort is augmented by distribution of colored bags mainly
to 58 model Villages in the six cities with 200,566 households to encourage segregation. Primary waste
collecting MSEs are also made responsible to teach and lobby the community to segregate waste at source.
Similarly, colored dustbins are erected on pedestrians along streets with high traffic. As a result, behavioral
change is observed in the community mainly in the model villages who has started segregation of waste
at source as well as proper disposal of waste from their houses. There was no source segregation practice
in all of the six cities prior to the start of project intervention as discussed in the baseline. The model

55
villages are regularly cleaning their surroundings and there is no illegal damping of waste in these areas.
Some of the households, with enough space in their compound have started small scale composting in
their house and use it for their gardening and greening.

6.1.2 Collection and Transportation

The sources of solid wastes are mainly households and commercial areas and both mixed at transferring
station and during transportation. Door to door collection of waste is undertaken by MSEs using hand
pushed carts for a monthly fee of up to USD 1.5 for household and USD 8 to 13.5 for business firms such
as hotels in all cities except Mekelle where door to door collection is done by private organization and
paid by the municipality. Then the waste is transported to transfer stations or land fill depending on the
contractual agreement entered between the municipality and MSEs/private companies using tractor pulled
trailers, animal pulled carts and tracks. All cities do not have separate transportation facility except Adama
where the MSEs engaged in composting separately transport organic waste directly from households to
the composting shed. Solid wastes are mixed up after segregation by MSEs at the transfer station when it
transports to the landfill. The MSEs working on compost shed then again segregates the wastes at the land
fill to use organic wastes for compost preparation. The municipality and private organizations contracted
by the municipality transport the remaining waste from the transfer stations to the land fill using skip
loaders or Lories designed for such purposes. The municipality is also responsible for collecting waste
from communal areas such as streets and illegal dumping areas. Staff of the municipalities have witnessed
that the project has contributed to the changes observed in solid waste collection and transportation in the
cities as a result of support provided in:
• Transposing the federal Integrated Solid Waste Management Standard to city level on which
staff of the municipalities are trained and supported to develop waste collection and
transportation plan
• Arranging training on solid waste management to staff and leadership of the municipality
including exposure visiting to countries with better waste management system
• Organizing MSEs, creating market linkages and helping them to start recycling and
composting in the cities that has led to better collection of recyclable waste by MSEs and
scavengers for its economic value. Still there is a problem of market linkage in most cities and
the problem is magnified after the occurrence of COVID 19 pandemic .

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 Figure 12: Plastic waste collection and transportation for recycling (Hawassa)

• Training people engaged in Solid Waste Collection and Transportation and helping them to
pass through Certificate of Competency (from level 1 to level 3) has resulted in knowledge-
based operation. The project has also provided training on Occupational Health and Safety
procedures and distributed safety materials to enhance safety of people engaged in this
business. However, the team has understood that people are not using safety materials all the
time in all cities
• The project has also supported the municipalities in cleaning illegal damping sites mainly river
banks found within the center of the cities and converted them into nursery sites and youth
recreational areas through MSEs who provide coffee services and sale seedlings. The team has
also observed mass mobilization on cleaning of streets, riverbeds, water canals and illegal
waste damping areas using additional funding secured from UNDP in response to COVID 19
in five cities.

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Figure 13: Waste Collection and Transportation to dumping site (Bahir Dar)

6.1.3 Composting and Recycling:

The project has supported construction of six composting sheds with total area size of 15,900 m2 and
annual composting capacity of 26,000 tons of waste. All the sheds are constructed within landfills except
for Adama which is constructed at the outskirt of the city. The lands on which the sheds are constructed
are not environmentally sensitive such as forest areas, water point, river, and wildlife habitat or
biodiversity important areas. Two of them (Bahir Dar and Hawassa) are still under construction. The sheds
have concrete floor to protect percolation of leachate to ground water, concrete wall to protect entrance of
rodents, mesh wire to ensure ventilation, roofed and fenced to protect entrance of scavengers such as
hyena. They also have additional facilities such as rest rooms, showering place, office, store and waste
segregation areas. However, two sheds (Adama and Dire Dawa) do not have leachate collection ponds
and the additional facilities though the municipalities have said their construction is about to start. In
Bishoftu, leachate pipes are damaged and not maintained (Figure 14). In addition to constructing the sheds,
the project has supported development of composting standard and manual, arranged hands on training to
the MSEs on compost preparation, provided basic composting equipment such as semi-automated
composting machine that has improved quality and quantity of compost, compost flees, thermometer etc.
to the MSEs.

Figure 14: COMPOST shed and its damaged leachate pipes at Bishoftu

The MSEs collect organic waste from households, vegetable market, urban farming areas and by
segregating from transfer stations and landfill which is transported to the composting sheds either by

58
themselves mainly in Adama to which they are paid by the city administration or by the municipalities’
vehicles. Major buyers of the compost are the city administration for plant nursery and urban greening,
urban safety net program for urban greening, business firms for compound greening and individuals for
home gardening. Laboratory test on CH ratio, PH value and moisture is conducted on sample compost
with the support of the project (two times) and the MSEs have established relationship with nearby
agricultural research institutions and universities for similar support. However, no test has been conducted
on chemical composition of the compost.

The project has also contributed to the start and strengthening of solid waste recycling in the six cities.
MSEs are organized and supported to collect and sale (semi processed or as it is) recyclable waste such as
paper, PET plastic water bottles, materials made of HDPE, metal etc. to business companies operating in
the recycling business.

Figure 15: Composting at Adama and Bishoftu

So far 68,830 tone of compost has been produced from 210,460 tons of waste and 6,436 tone of non-
organic recyclable waste has been collected and sold. Similarly, temporary and permanent job has been
created to 18,850 people (50% women). Even though people engaged in composting and recycling
business are trained on Occupational Health and Safety procedures and provided with safety materials,
the team has observed that some of them are not careful about their safety. The team has also understood
that despite of efforts done by the project and the city administrations, there is no enough market for
compost that has forced the MSEs to operate under capacity and earn low income.

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Figure 16: Produced compost ready for market (Bishoftu and Adama)

6.2 Results and Changes in Urban Green Infrastructure Development

Federal level Urban Green Infrastructure Development Standard has been transposed to the six cities on
which staff of the municipality and relevant stakeholders such as urban environmental protection, urban
land management and urban agriculture offices are trained with the support of the project. Cities are using
the standard to guide their planning and implementation of urban greening activities.

The project has supported the start of new nursery sites in three cities; Mekelle with seedling raising
capacity of 1,500,000/year, Dire Dawa 2,600,000/year and Bahir Dar 2,000,000/year. Moreover, seedling
raising capacity of two nursery sites, Bishoftu and Adama has increased by 800% and 600 %, respectively.
The project has also identified tree species suitable for agro-ecological condition of each city to guide
species selection in raising seedlings, provided water reservoirs, trained and certified people employed in
the nursery sites.

Figure 17: Seedling production at Adama, Dire Dawa and Bishoftu respectively from left to right

As a result of repeated awareness raising programs and by providing seedling for free, community of the
six cities are planting trees in their compound and surrounding areas. Community participation during tree
plantation is increasing from time to time as informed by the municipality. Waste dumping sites have been
60
rehabilitated, degraded areas have been restored and peri-urban areas reforested. As a result, greenery
coverage of the cities is improving from time to time.

UGI Performance
25,000.00

20,000.00
Amount of Hectar

Title Deed
15,000.00
Aforested Area
Fire Wood
10,000.00
Raparian Coridor
Degraded Area
5,000.00

-
2017 2018 2019 2020

Figure 18: UGI Performance

People engaged in urban greening business and employed in government nursery sites are well trained
and certified (level 1 to level 3) after passing through Certificate of Competency (COC) evaluation
process. So far, a number of people (both men and women) are certified. This has narrowed the existing
skill and knowledge gap in urban greenery practices and made the sector more successful.

Participation of MSEs in urban greenery related business; seedling raising and sales, landscaping, park
management has increased. Temporary and permanent jobs are created to more than 36,000 people (50%
women) in this sector. Bishoftu used to be the only source of seedling in the country and cities were forced
to travel more than 400 Km to buy seedling which made cost per tree planted very high. With the support
of the project however, the remaining five cities have now become source of seedling to themselves as
well as neighboring cities and towns. MSEs are supported to start plant nursery business and create market
linkage with afforestation program of the project that helped them continue operating until they find
additional market.

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Figure 19: Rehabilitated Urban Greenery Sites at Adama

The project has used afforestation and reforestation approach different from the usual practice which has
made the intervention successful. Various mechanisms have been used to ensure survival rate of trees and
sustainability of the urban greenery areas. Towards this end:

• Title deed is secured for more than 20,914 ha of afforested/reforested and rehabilitated degraded
areas in the six cities to support the law enforcement effort.
• Diversified management entities are emplaced; city administration by planting trees through
community mobilization, fencing and emplacing guards for the sites; MSEs whose members are
selected from the local community who manage and generate income through cut and carry of
grass for sale as well as for their livestock, collecting fees from visitors and organizing events such
as wedding, providing cafeteria services and bee hiving based on clearly stated Memorandum of
Understanding given by the city administration; local community by developing the areas and

62
 using it for reading, social gathering and children play ground and private and government
organizations who cover cost of plantation and management.
• Rehabilitating degraded land using area closure, constructing soil and water conservation
structures, availing sustainable water source and plantation of edible fruits for the local community

Figure 20: Rehabilitated Urban Greenery Site at Bahir Dar Diaspora Sefer

7 Project Environmental and Social Impact Audit Findings and Proposed

Mitigation Measures
7.1. Impact Analysis
Once all the important impacts have been identified, their potential size and characteristics were predicted
and evaluated systematically by the environmental specialists based on physical, biological, socio-
economic data to estimate the likely characteristics and parameters of impacts (e.g. magnitude, spatial
occurrence etc.). For this analysis weighted matrix was used to assist the total impact estimation (as well
as assign values). The analysis uses Inter-American Development Bank –Manuel. This uses universal
accepted requirements for an effective environmental impact assessment through: a) a comprehensive
environmental analysis, including the basic aspects of the assessment. The result analysis is displayed in
table below:

Table 11: Impact Classification

Character (C) Level of Impact

Disturbance (D) Important (3) Regular (2) Limited (1)
Significance (S) High (3) Medium (2) Low (1)
Occurrence (O) Very probable (3) Probable (2) Unlikely (1)

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 Extension (E) Regional (3) Local (2) Specific (1)
Duration (D*) Permanent (3) medium- term (2) Short -term (1)
Reversibility (R) Irreversible (3) Partial (2) Reversible (1)
Total 18 12 6

The total impact for the identified anticipated impacts was assessed by using below formula. If
environmental disturbances (D) occur too frequently or occur multiple times during an ecosystem’s
recovery period classified as important. If disturbances occur in periodic and predictable manner it is
called regular and the disturbance occur in limited time and area it is called limited.

Total Impact (TI) = C x (D + S + O+ E + D* + R)

The result is interpreted as follow:

Table 12: Impact Analysis Result Interpretation

Negative (-) impact Positive (+) impact

Sever (≥ -15) High (≥15)
Moderate (-15 > -9) Medium (15 > 9)
Compatible (≤-9) Low (≤9)
Source: Inter-American Development Bank, 2002)
Table 13: Impact analysis of the proposed project (UGI)

Identified Impacts C D S O E D* R TI Remark UGI

Income generation + 2 2 3 2 2 2 (+13) Medium
Job opportunity + 2 2 2 2 1 1 (+10) Medium
Social benefits + 1 3 3 2 3 3 (+15) High
Environmental benefit + 3 3 3 3 3 3 (+18) High
Impact on soil quality + 3 3 3 2 2 2 (+15) High
Impact on water resource + 3 3 3 3 2 3 (+17) High
Impact on air quality + 3 3 3 2 3 3 (+16) High
Impact on noise environment + 3 3 3 3 3 3 (+18) High
Visual impact + 3 3 3 3 3 3 (+18) High
Impact on land use and local - 2 1 2 2 3 2 (-12) Moderate
livelihood
Impact on Biological Environment + 3 3 3 3 2 2 (+16) High
OHS risks - 1 1 1 1 1 1 (-6) Compatible
Impact on displacement - 1 1 1 1 1 1 (-6) Compatible
Impact on Utility (water) - 2 3 2 2 1 1 (-11) Moderate
Where, C=Characteristics, S=Significance, D=Disturbance, O=Occurrence, E =Extension, D*=Duration, R=Reversibility

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Table 14: Total impact analysis of the proposed project compost Activity

Identified Impacts C D S O E D* R TI Remark,

Compost
Income generation + -2 3 3 3 2 1 (+10) Medium
Job opportunity + 3 3 3 2 3 2 (+16) High
Social benefits + 3 3 3 3 3 3 (+18) High
Environmental benefit + 3 3 3 3 3 3 (+18) High
Impact on soil quality + 2 3 3 2 3 2 (+15) High
Impact on water resource - 1 1 1 2 2 3 (-10) Moderate
Impact on air quality, bad odor - 2 2 2 1 2 1 (-10) Moderate
Impact on noise environment - 1 1 1 1 1 1 (-6) Compatible
Visual impact - 2 1 1 1 1 1 (-7) Compatible
Impact on land use and land cover - 1 1 1 1 1 1 (-6) Compatible
Impact on Biological Environment - 2 2 1 2 2 1 -(10) Moderate
OHS risks - 2 3 1 1 2 2 (-11) Moderate
Impact on displacement 0 0 0 0 0 0 (0) Neutral
Impact on Utility (water) - 2 2 1 1 2 2 (-10) Moderate
Where, C=Characteristics, S=Significance, D=Disturbance, O=Occurrence, E =Extension, D*=Duration, R=Reversibility

7.2. Positive Impacts of the Project

The project has undertaken various activities and provided support to the six city administrations
achieving remarkable results and introduced changes throughout the value chain of solid waste
management; generation- collection/transportation – recycling/composting as discussed in detail in this
report.

7.2.1. Income Generation

The project has played a significant role in income generation for youth and women. More than 108 MSEs
are established along the value chain of ISWM and UGI. According to the information from
municipalities, all MSEs have a proof of existence of legal business license from concerned government
institutions. This implies that the project is contributing to government income since these MSEs are
paying annual income tax which has positive impact on the country economy growth.

According to Project Implementation Review (PIR) report for 2020 of NAMA COMPOST project, the
MSEs have generated more than 560,000.00 USD from sales of compost, recyclable waste, waste
transportation services and sales of tree seedlings.

7.2.2. Employment Generation

Based on the assessment, the project has created a direct job opportunity (both temporary and permanent)
for 38142 citizens of which 50% of are women. Assuming that 50% of these beneficiaries are head of
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households and considering average Ethiopian family size 5, the project has benefited more than 95, 355
citizens directly or indirectly. Accordingly, this project has significant role in unemployment reduction
which is one of the national challenges now a days.

7.2.3. Social Benefits

Positive social changes have been achieved since the implementation of the project. Since 50% MSEs
members are local women with less opportunity of getting other job opportunities, the project
implementation would benefit through ensuring job security for them. Urban green space, such as parks,
playgrounds, and residential greenery, can promote mental and physical health and reduce morbidity and
mortality in urban residents by providing psychological relaxation and stress alleviation, stimulating
social cohesion, supporting physical activity.

“We are now feeling the effect of trees planted by the community in their compounds, road sides, parks
and areas surrounding the city. During this season of the year, Adama used to be hot and people sleep
necked as a result. But now it is getting colder that we are now sleeping under blanket” an expert from
Adama City Administration has said. This is a good indication that the project is contributing to prevention
of extreme heat and hence enhancing urban resilience to climate change in the six cities.

Various models have been formulated to explain the relationship between green space and health. Hartiget
al. (2014) suggested four interacting pathways through which green space can affect health and well-
being: (1) improved air quality, (2) enhanced physical activity, (3) stress compensation and (4) greater
social cohesion. Lachowycz and Jones (2013) proposed physical activity, engagement with nature,
relaxation, and social interactions as major pathways to health. Villanueva et al. (2015) argued that urban
green spaces mitigate the urban heat island effect providing protection from heat-related health hazards,
improve social capital and cohesion, and enhance physical activity.

Community attitude towards economic activities related to waste management was negative as informed
by beneficiaries and staff of the municipalities. The few people working on this sector used to be with low
educational background and no other means of income. Since the start of the project however, attitudinal
changes are being observed in that youth graduates are now joining the compost and recycling. One of the
MSEs in Adama has a slogan in their shed that says “waste is money”.

In addition to job creation, the start of the recycling and composting business is reducing waste collection
and transportation related cost of the government. Derived by the income they generate from sales of
waste, the MSEs are contributing their share towards cleaning of the cities that again contributes to

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minimization of damage on infrastructure caused by waste induced flooding and hence minimization of
maintenance cost as well as reduction of community health risks.

7.2.4. Environmental Benefit

Positive environmental impacts are evident as an outcome of all these efforts exerted in the past four years.
The change seen in waste segregation and proper disposal of waste has resulted in positive environmental
impact through reducing illegal dumping of waste by households and reducing the difficulty municipalities
had to separately treat the waste according its nature.

The introduction of both composting and recycling have improved waste collection rate in the cities which
has positively impacted the environment. As explained by staff of the municipalities during focus group
discussion, PET water bottles used to be the biggest problem of the city by blocking drainage canals and
rivers causing flooding in the city. A pond formed by rain water runoff from the city which is called
“Migra” in Adama and Lake Hawassa were full of such kind of plastics. Since the start of waste recycling
business however, such type of wastes are no more a problem because the MSEs and scavengers collect
and sale them from which they are generating income.

Composting contributes to GHG emission reduction by diverting the organic fraction of waste from land
fill which otherwise would emit CH4 to pollute the air. It also protects environmental pollution by using
compost as replacement instead of chemical fertilizer. The project has achieved a total of 128,089 tons of
CO2 emission reduction so far from both the greenery and composting activities.

The compost is used for plant nursery as well as urban and peri urban land rehabilitation and
afforestation/reforestation activities. Application of compost has made the greening effort more
successful indirectly contributing to environmental protection. Compost application can improve soil
quality and productivity as well as sustainability of agricultural production by replenishing soil organic
matter and supplying nutrients. Organic matter is a vital component of a healthy soil as it plays an
important role in soil physical, chemical and biological fertility.

More than 20,000 ha of land has been afforested/ reforested with the support of the project. Part of this
was seriously degraded area and illegal damping sites as discussed in this report. Lake Hawassa of
Hawassa city, Lake Tana of Bahir Dar, rivers such as Blue Nile and Awash to which rivers from those
cliffs surrounding the cities drain were being affected by siltation as a result of soil erosion and lad slides
in these areas. The gullies and degraded areas are now rehabilitated through constructing soil and water
harvesting structures, areas closer and plantation of trees that defiantly has reduced siltation on those water
bodies caused by extreme flooding mainly during raining season.

Three new plant nursery sites have been established in three cities and seedling raising capacity of two
nursery sites have significantly increased. Moreover, the cities have been providing seedlings to the
community for free and to a recent government initiative of 10 Billion tree plantation program. This has
defiantly increased forest coverage in the cities as well as surrounding areas that contributes to
environmental protection.

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7.3. Negative Impacts of the Project
7.3.1. Impact on Soil Quality

It is very challenging to completely eliminate chemical, biological and physical pollutants in composts
made from mixed waste. Mixing up of commercial wastes are taken place during transportation of solid
wastes from transferring station to land fill and segregation of wastes are taken place in land fill in all
cities except Adama. Elemental analysis of compost quality was not assessed that implies the compost
itself can be a potential source of contaminants. The impacts of this project can therefore, poses a threat
on soil quality if the facility is not properly managed and if the produced compost does not meet the
predefined set of standards.

The soil can be significantly affected in the case of continued application of compost which is made of
waste that is not segregated at sources. Moreover, soils situated near poorly managed composting facilities
may become contaminated with natural phenolic compounds and nitrates. Chemical contaminants which
include toxic organic chemicals and heavy metals (i.e. lead, chromium, nickel, zinc, cadmium, copper and
mercury) have more adverse effects on the soil environment.

However, the consulting team has observed that the project has taken mitigation measures such as source
segregation, use of separate transportation and production of compost in confined area that made the
negative impact moderate.

7.3.2. Impact on Water Resource

Three composting sheds; Adama, Mekelle and Dire Dawa do not have leachate collection ponds. The
pipes of Bishoftu leachate collection pond are also damaged and can be potential source of soil
contaminants. Potential threats can arise when the sorting process is poorly practiced. Wastewater
generated from composting facilities is reasonably expected to contain elevated organics, nutrients, and
to a lesser degree salts, metals and microbiological organisms which need to be appropriately manage to
prevent impacts to the surface and groundwater. The major sources of potential adverse impacts on water
resources can be either leachate from feedstock loading and composting areas, contaminated runoff from
compost operation, or contaminated storm water runoff. Bishoftu, Bahir Dar and Hawassa are rich in
surface water resources and therefore, the operation activities shall be conducted safely to prevent any
impact on water quality from surface and ground water resources. Some of the leachate (Bishoftu and
Bahir Dar) drainage system of the compost shed are clogged and/or plugged. Even though the consulting
team didn’t observe outflow of leachate outside of the shades during its site visiting program, as
production increases and during rainy season when moisture of the waste increase however, there is a flow
of leachate from the composting process. Such fluid has potential negative environment impact through
contaminating surface and underground water.

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The project is producing compost in a shed with plastered basement and two of the cities (Bishoftu through
with broken pipe and Hawassa) have leachate ponds that has minimized the adverse impact on water.

7.3.3. Impact on Air Quality

Adverse impacts of the project towards air quality are related to composting process. The main operation
process, composting, is associated with the generation of by-products including heat, carbon dioxide,
water vapor, and odorous compounds. Odors have been one of the major operation challenges for compost
shed. Almost all compost sheds are constructed in and near to the land fill and the impact is cumulative.
Several compounds are commonly associated with odors at composting facilities: Hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
Thiols, Dimethyl Disulfide (DMDS), Carbon disulfide (CS), Ammonia (NH3), Amine, Indoles, Volatile
fatty acids, Terpenes, Ketones, Aldehydes, and Alcohols. The type of feedstock handled determines the
type of odors generated. For example, waste rich in protein are considered sources of volatile nitrogen
compounds (ammonia, amines and indoles) and possibly volatile sulfur compounds (organic sulfides,
mercaptans and hydrogen sulfides). Other factors may also affect the formation of odorous compounds
namely, the amount of surface area of stacked organic materials exposed to the external environment,
oxygen level, aeration, turning frequency, moisture level, bulk density and porosity, temperature,
pH…(Integrated Waste Management Board, 2007). Moreover, another concern is airborne particles or
bioaerosols (i.e. bacteria, fungi, viruses, allergens, bacterial endotoxins, antigens, toxins, mycotoxins,
glucans, pollen, plant fibers, etc.). Bioaerosols, also known as “organic dust” can cause a wide range of
adverse effects on human health (Taha et al., 2006).

7.3.4. Impact on Biological Environment

Water contamination mainly surface water as discussed above might pollute water sources such as rivers
that can affect aquatic life. Moreover, the use of immature compost can damage plants because of
excessive levels of C:N ratio, ammonium and volatile organic compounds.

7.3.5. OHS Risks

The most critical factor is the occupational health and safety hazards due to onsite odor and accidents.
Such accidents are mostly related to practices that involve cutting machinery handling and those posed by
bioaerosols, dusts, noise, and vibration. Compost is produced from organic waste segregated from mixed
waste at transfer station or land fill in all of the cities except Adama where the MSEs separately transports
segregated waste directly from households, urban farms or vegetable markets. MSEs working on Compost
shed have been segregating wastes from the landfill and workers as well face some hazards which include
tissue damage, respiratory infection, injuries from glass, razor blades and syringes, as well as parasite
infections caused by skin contact with organic pollutants. Injury of deep tissue may result in tetanus to the
workers. Though workers use protective measures such as gloves and nose masks, the chance of occurring
these impacts will be high if segregation of wastes is not conducted at household level and wastes
transported separately from households. Another occupational health concern in the operation of all
composting facilities is the presence of bioaerosols, organisms that can act as toxicants, pathogens, and
allergens when inhaled in sufficient quantities. Bioaerosols include bacteria, fungi, actinobacteria,

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arthropods, endotoxins, microbial enzymes, glucans, and mycotoxins. Fire can pose a risk to the local air
quality and human health, the facility and surrounding residential.

The project has provided continues trainings on the importance and use of Occupational Health and Safety
measures as well as provided with safety materials to minimize waste related activities impact workers
health. However, the team has observed that not all workers are adhering to the safety measures as per the
standard and procedures.

7.3.6. Impact on Utility

UGI and compost utilized significant amount of water and both facilities are dependent on public water
for its operation and this creates additional pressure on the city administration. Water received from a
public source using a shower truck is stored in water reservoirs using plastic tanks for compost piles
watering and greenery areas. Based on the assessment, each compost shed utilizes an average of 1,365 M3
of water per year. The team witnesses that as mitigation measure the project has constructed soil and water
conservation structures for the urban greenery and roof water harvesting mechanism for compost.

7.3.7. Impacts on Land-use / Land Cover Impact

Even though most of the urban greenery areas were highly degraded due to human activities such as
overgrazing and deforestation, some of the urban greenery sites used to be free grazing areas as communal
land and serve as source of fuel wood harvesting. Now due to the project, the land use pattern is changed
to greenery areas where free grazing and fuel wood collection is prohibited. But during consultation,
community representatives has shown us that they are now more benefited than before because there is
more grass and they are allowed to feed their animal using cut and carry system. However, there is still a
fear of ownership in the future and limited number of individuals might be benefited from the greenery
sites.

8. Impact Mitigation Measures

8.1. Soil Quality Impact Mitigation Measures
• Construct leachate collection ponds in Adama, Mekelle and Dire Dawa city administration,
• Segregate wastes at household level in each city administration; and
• Regular maintenance of leachate collection ponds is required particularly Bishoftu Compost shed; and
• Conduct elemental analysis (laboratory) of the compost to see the quality of it,
• If possible, Magnetic separation takes place prior to composting in order to remove heavy metals,
• Regular compost examination (one times a year) would eliminate such negative effect,
• Segregated wastes should be stored in a shed until used for composting to avoid run off during rainy
season,

8.2. Water Resource Impact Mitigation Measures

• The leachate collection pond unit should be properly operated, maintained and managed to prevent
any contamination of water quality with the storm water during the rainy season. Accordingly,

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 constructed ponds can be used to receive site runoff and reduce the impact of runoff and leachate on
nearby water courses, thus, the separation of leachate and storm water is ensured; and
• Segregated wastes should be stored in a shed until used for composting to avoid run off during rainy
season,
• The facility should store and process incoming feedstock on a low permeability liner with a 2%
minimum drainage gradient that directs wastewater to a leachate collection system, and
• Contaminated storm water runoff should be diverted and stored in leachate collection pond, if possible

8.3. Air Quality Impact Mitigation Measures

• Promote OHS specially use of face masks by MSEs engaged in compost production to prevent from
bad odor coming from landfill in all cities except Adama,
• Ensure that the areas surrounding the sheds are regularly cleaned from waste,
• Ensure the waste is dumped at the far side of the landfill to keep enough space between the shed and
accumulated waste to reduce bad odor,
• Preventing excessive odors requires consistent management of the composting process, starting with
prompt attention to incoming ingredients. Wet materials should be mixed with a porous bulking
amendment to provide the necessary pre-conditions for oxygen transport, and then must be aerated or
turned as required during the active stages of the composting process to decrease excessive odor.

8.4. Biological Environment Impact Mitigation Measures

• Proper management of composting process, in addition to monitoring and labeling of compost, can be
the remedy to biodiversity reduction,
• Regular compost examination (one times a year) would eliminate such negative effect,
• The leachate collection pond unit should be properly operated, maintained and managed to prevent
any contamination of water quality with the storm water during the rainy season, and
• Segregated wastes should be immediately processed to avoid attraction of opportunistic species.

8.5. Occupational Health and Safety Impacts Mitigation Measures

• Implement faster compaction and coverage of waste to effectively reduce the odor emissions;
• All workers of the composting and temporary waste storage sites should receive adequate training on
the types of hazardous waste that could be handled, the type of hazards and the appropriate methods
of handling,
• Awareness of hazardous waste generators regarding the sorting at source in order to avoid a mixing of
hazardous and non-hazardous waste,
• All workers in the composting and temporary waste storage sites should be provided with anti-
puncture gloves, steel-toe shoes, overalls and masks. Strict supervision on the compliance of hand
sorters to this should be practiced,
• Prepare a documented emergency response plan to any fires and injury; there should be enough tools
for fire extinguishing,

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• First aid kit should be available to all compost shed and at least two individuals from the members
should take first aid training,
• Workers shall get medical examination from the composting enterprise to the minimum once a year,
and
• Provide sufficient potable water for drinking and personal hygiene purposes,
• Prohibit smoking as well as litter or weed build-up in the area as these may pose fire risk

8.6. Impact on Utility

• Constructing roof water harvesting structures in each shed for compost production,
• Dry clean-up methods should replace wet cleaning methods whenever practical (sweeping, dust
collection vacuum, wiping…etc.).
• Promote use of rainwater harvesting such as storage vessel, constructed ponds and others in water
scarce area such as Mekelle and Dire Dawa,

8.7. Impacts on Land-use / Land Cover Impact

• Plant palatable tree species including shrubs that are fed livestock from greenery areas and protected
lands using cut and carry system as alternative source of animal feed,
• Farmers should be allowed to feed their animal using cut and carry system from UGI,
• Local community around the greenery area shall be allowed to be a member of MSEs to ensure
sustainability. In addition to this, the selection criteria for membership of MSE should be transparent
and agreed by the local community to be a member of the UGI,
• Strengthen the existing different types of administration mechanisms like community, MSEs and
organizations; securing title deed for the areas; making the local community beneficiary as well as
mobilizing stakeholders to ensure the urban and peri-urban greenery areas are rehabilitated, well
managed and sense of ownership is created.

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 9. Project Risk Assessment and Proposed Mitigation Measures
This part of the report tried to detail project risks which were identified during project appraisal and newly
identified risks of the project with their possible mitigation measures.

9.1. Risks Identified and Measures Taken by the Project during Implementation
There were about five risks rated as medium to high which are identified during project development. The
consulting team has read reports done by the project on progress these risks and conducted field level
monitoring for triangulation. The risks and respective measures taken by the project to avoid or minimize
their impact are discussed here below.

Risk 1. Loss of livelihood and economic impoverishment resulting in resistance by marginal groups to
their removal from illegally occupied public lands such as riparian corridors, peri-urban forests and urban
green spaces:

The consulting team, during its field visits, has observed that there are still number of urban and peri-
urban greenery areas occupied by illegal settlers. However, the project has avoided intervention in those
areas which even were targeted by the project and invest on areas that are not occupied by settlers. The
justification given by the project for such action is due to lack of interest from the government to relocate
people being afraid of aggravating the current country political situation. As a result, there is no any person
relocated and or whose livelihood is negatively affected duet to project intervention. There was no any
complain heard from the local community during our Key Informant Interviews nor during Focus Group
Discussion undertaken with representatives.

Risk 2. Reforestation plans of the 6 cities do not include sufficiently diverse species of vegetation to
promote the sustainable management of natural resources.

In response to this risk, the project has identified diverse tree and shrub species suitable for agro-ecology
of each city in collaboration with the support of greenery expert of the project and local forest experts.
From its field level observation to the nursery sites and afforested areas as well as discussion with staff of
the city administrations, the team has understood that cities are raising seedlings and planting trees
according to the recommendations.

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Risk 3. Areas that are to be reforested may be sensitive to climactic extremes, notably periods of extended
drought that some parts of Ethiopia (e.g. Regions in the North and East of the country) have already
experienced.

Discussion with the project team as well as people consulted during field visit have proved that this risk
is one of challenges the project has faced in all cities which is affecting survival rate planted trees
especially in Bishoftu and Mekelle. However, the team has understood that the project is fighting to
minimize the impact of water shortage in those cities through development of soil and water conservation
structures on greenery areas, procuring and installing water tanks that are regularly filled with water by
the city administrations and used for irrigating plants by MSEs and installing water pipes wherever
possible. This has increased survival rate of trees by protecting runoff and conserving rain water in the
structures and watering plants during dry season. Tree species which are drought resistant are also planted
in these areas.

Risk 4. Exposure of MSEs to waste hazards during waste handling, including waste collection, waste
transporting and composting activities.

The project is trying to minimize health related risk on MSEs engaged along the value chain of waste
management through providing training on Occupational Health and Safety Measures and providing (the
municipality also) personal safety protective materials such as gloves, cloths, safety shoes, gloves and
face masks. However, the consulting team has observed during its field mission that the MSEs are not
fully using the safety materials taking the weather condition in the cities as a reason.

Risk 5. Food contamination produced in urban agriculture due to contaminated compost.

The team has understood that compost is not being used for food crop production so far except for “chat”
farms in Bahir Dar. Major customer of the compost is the city administration for plant seedling raising
and urban greening. The MSEs are also closely working with universities and agricultural research
institutions to check its quality through laboratory test and by applying on model farms. The project as
well has supported two times laboratory tests on sample taken from all composting sheds. But the risk is
still there since there is no much source segregation and separate transportation.

9.2. Newly Identified Risks/Not Fully Addressed Risks/ and Proposed Mitigation Measures
Risks that could potentially hamper project progress were identified during project development for which
mitigation measures were proposed. The project has tried to mitigate these risks during implementation
and progress towards its targets during the past four years. Through time however, many things do not
remain the same causing new risk to appear. Project implementation therefore has to be flexible enough
to address new challenges and take advantage of new opportunities to achieve its mission.

Risk 1: Sign of Illegal Settlement in Hawassa and Dire Dawa: Towards this end the project has targeted
areas with no legal or illegal settlements in order to avoid social risk as a result of people displacement. A
number of urban and peri-urban areas designated for greenery are saved from land encroachment through
fencing, clearly demarcating and legalizing their boundaries and placing appropriate management such as

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community, MSEs or watchmen hired by the municipality. Yet expansion of illegal settlements is still
observed to some greenery areas mainly in Hawassa and Dire Dawa.

Mitigation: NAMA Compost project by itself can’t able to stop this sign of illegal settlement around the
UGI in the two cities. However, it needs to work closely with concerned government bodies by
strengthening the legal enforcement in the area. In addition to this, continuous follow up and taking
immediate measure is recommended to mitigate the challenge before the areas are occupied by more
people to make law enforcement more difficult.

Risk 2: Poor income generation from UGI: Micro and Small Enterprises engaged in forest protection
are not generating income at the moment since the fruit trees need some time to harvest, bee hives are not
yet introduced and sales of fire wood is not yet started except some fees paid by the municipality for their
labor during land rehabilitation and tree plantation. Similarly, people engaged in compost production and
recycling are not generating income enough to lead their lives due to lack of market. This has a risk on
continuation of project outcomes and results gained so far. The municipalities are therefore advised to
engage the MSEs in additional alternative income generating activities (example waste collection in
addition to composting) and support the MSEs in finding market for their products such as through
creaking linkage with governmental or non-government organizations that support urban agriculture, rural
farming and forest development. MSEs engaged in recycling business can also be supported to start the
next level of production than collecting and selling the waste as it is.

Mitigation: Improve access to loan to UGI and MSE in collaboration with MFI. Link the project with
other key stakeholders, micro finance institutions and potential buyers to enhance income generating
ability of the MSE engaged on compost production. As a best experience, Adama city administration tried
to link the urban greenery infrastructures with national and international NGOs to contribute their stake
which makes the infrastructure very effective. One organization constructed the different facilities such
as houses, gravel road, and toilet and related infrastructures, the other provided startup capital in the form
of grant for MSE working in the UGI centers, and NAMA COMPOST project undertake all the greening
works in collaboration with municipality. This can be taken as a good exemplary to sustain the project
results in one way and to resolve major financial constraints of the MSEs. In addition to this, MSE can
access loan from micro finance institutions to expand their business. However, they need collateral to get
the loan from such institutions.

Risk 3: Poor demand and Market for Compost: According to the information obtained from key
informants and FGD participants, even though MSE produced compost, there is no or very little demand
for their product at local market level. Because of this, members of the MSE frustrated for the continuation
of their business. So far only municipality of the respective city and some very few organizations purchase
their product for urban greenery and homestead garden purpose. Due to this income generated from sale
of compost will not able to cover even monthly expense of the business (salary, maintenance and other
costs).

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Mitigation: Potential Market search and promotion to increase number of potential buyers at local market
in each respective city will reduce the problem. Many of the cities have a number of industries and other
factories, Agricultural research institutes, and other potential buyers for greenery and other purposes. In
addition to this, there should be strong promotion for farming families to use organic fertilizers which
sustains the businesses. According to the information gathered from KII and FGD participants, almost all
compost producing MSE requested loan from different microfinance institutions. However, due to
collateral obtained loan except loan for vehicle purchase. Therefore, it will be good if loan access to these
MSE facilitated by the government.

Lack of market, there is also additional factor that can potentially hinder continuation of the composting
business. The first factor is health of people involved along the value chain of composting might be
affected because they are not following Occupational Health and Safety procedures during waste
segregation, transportation and turning of windrows.

Mitigation: Following OHS procedures at all time in the process of waste collection and transportation
as well compost preparation must be a pre requisition for all MSE members. In addition to this, training
and workshops should be organized on OHS and related issues to bring behavioral change on this practice.

Risk 5:Weak Segregation and separate transportation of waste: The other factor is since source
segregation of and separate transportation of organic waste is not yet introduced, except in Adama and to
some extent Bishoftu, there is more likely for the compost to be contaminated that will lead to bad
customer attitude.

Mitigation: The proposal is for the municipality to emplace mechanism to ensure source segregation of
waste and introduce separate transportation system (Adma’s practice discussed in this document can be
taken as good practice in this regard). Moreover, undertaking laboratory chemical analysis on the compost
and promoting the result is recommended.

10. Environmental Management Plan

Environmental management plans for the significant negative impacts (Medium and Sever) identified on
the previous sections has been proposed for both compost and UGI. Efforts have been made to associate
the impacts identified, mitigation measures proposed and associate costs including management and
monitoring. The principal stakeholders responsible for implementation of the mitigation measures and
monitoring are included in the activity schedule. Therefore, this development process obeys and is
committed to the proper implementation of the environmental policy, legal rules and regulations related
to solid waste management and UGI.

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 Table 15: Environmental management plans for compost and UGI

Project Impacts Major Mitigation Measures Residual impacts Institutional Cost

Phase responsibility Estimation ($)
Operation Impact on • Promote segregation of wastes at household • Possible • MSEs 50,000
Soil level in each city administration and use contamination of • all city in all city
Quality magnetic separation method when possible soil and water administrations
• Conduct elemental analysis (laboratory) of • Possible • City administrations 30,000
the compost contamination of
soil and water
• Separate transport of organic waste from • Possible • All five-city 200,000
transferring station to compost shed except contamination of administrator
Adama soil and water • MSEs
Water • Construct leachate collection ponds and • Negative Public • Construction 95,000
Resource maintain regularly health implication (Mekelle, Bahir
Impact • Degradation of Dar, Dire Dawa and
water and soil Adama)
quality • Maintenance, All
city administrations
• Construct leachate and storm water • Degradation of • All city 60,000
separation structure water and soil administrations
quality • MSE

Operation • Promote use of OHS specially face mask by Health impact • City administrations 12,000
MSEs • MSEs,

• Ensure that the areas surrounding the Degradation of water • City administrations -
sheds are regularly cleaned from waste, and soil quality • MSEs,

• Ensure the waste is dumped at the far • Health hazards • City administrations -
side of the landfill to keep enough space • Fire hazards • MSEs,

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 Project Impacts Major Mitigation Measures Residual impacts Institutional Cost
Phase responsibility Estimation ($)
Air between the shed and accumulated • Air quality
Quality waste to reduce bad odor, deterioration
Impact • Frequently turning the wind to improve • •
aeration
Operation Biological • Regular compost examination (one times a • Disturbance of the • MSE Include above
Environm year) would eliminate such negative effect, surrounding • City Administration
ent Impact environment
• The leachate collection pond unit should be • Disturbance of the • City Administration Include above
properly operated, maintained surrounding • MSEs
environment
• Segregated wastes should be immediately • Disturbance of the • MSEs, -
processing to avoid attraction of surrounding • City Administration
opportunistic species, environment
OHS • Implement faster compaction and coverage • Health problems • MSEs, -
impacts of waste
• All workers of the composting and • Injuries or other • City Administration 50,000
temporary waste storage sites should health related • MSE
receive adequate training on the types of problems
hazardous waste that could be handled, the
type of hazards and the appropriate methods
of handling,
• Awareness of hazardous waste generators
regarding the sorting at source in order to
avoid a mixing of hazardous and non-
hazardous waste
• All workers in the composting and Injuries or other • City Administration 10,000
temporary waste storage sites and UGI health related
should be provided with anti-puncture problems
gloves, steel-toe shoes, overalls and masks.

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 Project Impacts Major Mitigation Measures Residual impacts Institutional Cost
Phase responsibility Estimation ($)
Strict supervision on the compliance of
hand sorters to this should be practiced,

OHS • Prepare a documented emergency response Injuries or other • City Administration 500
impacts plan to any fires and injury; there should be health related
enough tools for fire extinguishing, problems

• First aid kit should be available to all Injuries or other • City Administration 10,000
compost shed and UGI and at least two health related • UNDP
individuals from the members from MSEs problems
should take first aid training,

Operation OHS • Workers shall get medical examination Injuries or other • City Administration 12,000
impacts from the composting enterprise to the health related • MSEs
minimum once a year, and problems

• Provide sufficient potable water for health related • City Administration 300
drinking and personal hygiene purposes, problems

• Prohibit smoking as well as litter or weed Fire risk MSEs -

build-up in the area as these may pose fire
risk

Impact on • Constructing roof water harvesting Increase water assess City administration 6000
structures in each shed for compost except Bishoftu
Utility
production

• Dry clean-up methods should replace wet • Excessive

cleaning methods whenever practical consumption of
(sweeping, dust collection vacuum, water
wiping…etc.).

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Project Impacts Major Mitigation Measures Residual impacts Institutional Cost
Phase responsibility Estimation ($)
• Promote use of rainwater harvesting • Excessive • City Administration 12,000
such as storage vessel, constructed consumption of -
ponds and others in water scarce area water
such as Mekelle and Dire Dawa,
Land-use / • Plant palatable tree species including • Displacement • City Administration 24,000
Land shrubs that are fed livestock from from grazing land • MSE
Cover greenery areas and protected lands • Job security
using cut and carry system as alternative
source of animal feed,
• Farmers should be allowed to feed their
animal using cut and carry system from
UGI,
• Local community around the greenery • Displacement • City Administration -
area shall be allowed to be a member of from grazing land • MSE
MSEs to ensure sustainability. In • Job security
addition to this, the selection criteria for
membership of MSE should be
transparent and agreed by the local
community to be a member of the UGI,
• Strengthen the existing different types
of administration mechanisms like
community, MSEs and organizations;
securing title deed for the areas; making
the local community beneficiary as well
as mobilizing stakeholders to ensure the
urban and peri-urban greenery areas are
rehabilitated, well managed and sense
of ownership is created.
Total 571,800.00

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 11. Monitoring Plan
Environmental monitoring is one of the most important parts of an efficient and compatible operation of
a project. All environmental requirements and restrictions from authorities, project owners and local
communities are interlinked. Implementation of environmental techniques and modalities became a
common ground for all involved parties as it commonly serves in the execution and operation of the
project. It is important to note that the assessment of all proposed measures is imperative to ensure their
proper implementation and the optimal operation of the project. Monitoring aims at optimizing the process
design and provides quantitative and qualitative data that help in accurately communicating the
performance of the project with regulators, the public or other stakeholders. Monitoring is ideally
performed along the execution of the project: before, during and after construction.

The overall objective of environmental monitoring is to ensure that mitigation measures are implemented
and that they are effective. Monitoring involves the observation, review, and assessment of onsite
activities (including parameters) to ensure adherence to regulatory standards and the suggestions made to
lessen negative impacts.

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 Table 16: Environmental and social impact monitoring plan

Impacts Mitigation Measure Indicators MOV Frequency Responsible body Monitoring

Cost ($)
Soil Quality • Promote segregation of wastes at household level in • Soil chemical Report, Every six • EPA 150
Impact each city administration and use magnetic level, PO month • UNDP
separation method when possible • pH • CA
• LCP
• Conduct elemental analysis (laboratory) of the • Undamaged LCP • Report Every year • All city 300
compost • PO administration
(CA)
• MSEs
• Separate transport of organic waste from Low heavy metal •Report, Every three • MSEs 1,200
transferring station to compost shed except Adama content, •Physical month • CA
observat
ion (PO)
Water Resource Construct leachate collection ponds and maintain • BOD,COD, pH, Report Every year • UNDP 450
Impact regularly Soil chemical • EPA
level, • CA

Construct leachate and storm water separation structure Undamaged LCP • Report Every year • All city 300
• PO administration
(CA)
• MSEs
• EPA
Air Quality • Promote use of OHS specially face mask by MSEs Presence of odor • Report Every three • EPA 1,800
Impact • Ensure that the areas surrounding the sheds are • PO month • CA
regularly cleaned from waste, • UNDP
• Ensure the waste is dumped at the far side of the
landfill to keep enough space between the shed and
accumulated waste to reduce bad odor,
• Frequently turning the wind to improve aeration

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Impacts Mitigation Measure Indicators MOV Frequency Responsible body Monitoring
Cost ($)
Biological Regular compost examination (one times a year) would BOD,COD, pH, Soil Report Every year • UNDP 450
Environment eliminate such negative effect, chemical level, • EPA
Impact • CA

The leachate collection pond unit should be properly Undamaged LCP • Report Every year • CA 300
operated, maintained • PO • EPA
Segregated wastes should be immediately processing to Absence of PO every six • EPA 300
avoid attraction of opportunistic species, opportunistic species month
for three days
OHS impacts Implement faster compaction and coverage of waste Absence of odor • Report Every year • UNDP 450
complain • PO • EPA
• CA

• All workers of the composting and temporary waste No of accident • Report Every year • UNDP 450
storage sites should receive adequate training on the occurred • EPA
types of hazardous waste that could be handled, the • CA
type of hazards and the appropriate methods of
handling,

Awareness of hazardous waste generators regarding the Availability of PPE • Report Every six • UNDP 900
sorting at source in order to avoid a mixing of hazardous • PO month • EPA
and non-hazardous waste • CA

All workers in the composting and temporary waste • Presence of ERP • Report Every year • UNDP 450
storage sites and UGI should be provided with anti- and • PO • EPA
puncture gloves, steel-toe shoes, overalls and masks. Fire extinguisher • CA
Strict supervision on the compliance of hand sorters to
this should be practiced,
Prepare a documented emergency response plan to any Availability of • Report Every year • UNDP 450
fires and injury; there should be enough tools for fire emergency response • PO • EPA
extinguishing, plan • CA

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Impacts Mitigation Measure Indicators MOV Frequency Responsible body Monitoring
Cost ($)
First aid kit should be available to all compost shed and Availability of FAK • Report • UNDP 500
UGI and at least two individuals from the members from • PO • EPA
MSEs should take first aid training,
• CA
OHS impacts Workers shall get medical examination from the No of cases • Report Every year • UNDP 450
composting enterprise to the minimum once a year, and • EPA
• CA

Provide sufficient potable water for drinking and No of complaint • Report Every three • UNDP 1,800
personal hygiene purposes, • PO month • EPA
• CA
Prohibit smoking as well as litter or weed build-up in Presence of sign • Report Every year • UNDP 1,800
the area as these may pose fire risk • PO • EPA
• CA
Impact on Constructing roof water harvesting structures in Presence of ground • Report Every year • UNDP 1,800
Utility each shed for compost production water • PO • EPA
• CA

Dry clean-up methods should replace wet cleaning Presence of sweeping • Report Every year • UNDP 300
methods whenever practical (sweeping, dust collection material • PO • CA
vacuum, wiping…etc.).
Promote use of rainwater harvesting such as Presence of storage • Report Every year • UNDP 450
storage vessel, constructed ponds and others in vessel • PO • EPA
water scarce area such as Mekelle and Dire Dawa, • CA
Constructing roof water harvesting structures in No of complaint • Report Every year • CA 550
each shed for compost production • PO

Land-use / • Plant palatable tree species including shrubs • No of complaint • Report Every year • UNDP 450
Land Cover that are fed livestock from greenery areas and • Type & no of • PO • EPA
protected lands using cut and carry system as plants • CA
alternative source of animal feed,

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Impacts Mitigation Measure Indicators MOV Frequency Responsible body Monitoring
Cost ($)
• Farmers should be allowed to feed their animal
using cut and carry system from UGI,
• Local community around the greenery area • No of complaints • Report Every year • UNDP 450
shall be allowed to be a member of MSEs to • Number of local • EPA
ensure sustainability. In addition to this, the residents PO
selection criteria for membership of MSE participated CA
should be transparent and agreed by the local
community to be a member of the UGI,
• Strengthen the existing different types of
administration mechanisms like community,
MSEs and organizations; securing title deed for
the areas; making the local community
beneficiary as well as mobilizing stakeholders
to ensure the urban and peri-urban greenery
areas are rehabilitated, well managed and sense
of ownership is created.
Total 16,500

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 12. Public and Stakeholder Consultation Views
Since the project sustainability depends on participation of the concerned stakeholders, interested and
affected community. We have conducted stakeholder meeting and consultation with Composting workers,
city administrators and residents around the project site. The meetings were relevant to identify the main
issues and concerns of the workers related to occupational health and safety practice and NAMA:
COMPOST project management.

12.1. Workers View and Concern

Consultation of workers in compost and green area revealed that they appreciate the implementation of
the project as it creates significant amount of job to local citizens throughout the value chain of compost
and Urban greenery and nursery sites. They have appreciated the positive impacts of the project to the
environment by increasing soil productivity and decreasing surface by flooding in all cities.

In addition to the job created by NAMA: COMPOST project, UGI in the project has been building the
soil and water conservation structures on hill sides and tree plantation activities which have been under
taking by daily laborers who are paid according to payment regulation of the city administrations.
Moreover, security guards are employed to protect the greenery areas and people are supported to form
MSEs on seedling raising business, provision of cafeteria services in the parks, fire wood plantation and
use forest products such as grass from the greenery areas. As a result, it is expected that temporary and
permanent jobs created for more than 36,280 people.

The major concern for MSEs working on compost in all city administrations e is market linkage. The most
preferable purpose of compost usage is for: environmental beautification, coffee plantation and, nearby
farmers use as substitute of inorganic chemical fertilizers (Henok Dongto, a leading speaker). However,
there have been gaps to maximize compost production and earn the potential profits. This mainly is
because of poor market linkage and incentive mechanisms, in that the MSEs by their own effort observed
an increasing awareness level of potential buyers.

Other concerns include mixing up of household wastes with commercial wastes, at the transferring station
and during transportation in all cities except Mekele. Separate transportation of segregated wastes from
the household is very important to improve the quality of compost and avoid re-segregation of wastes at
the landfill and related occupational health and safety impacts.

12.2 Stakeholder Consultation with City Administrators

The field team conducted consultation with city administration environmental protection office, City
Beautification and Greening Bureau, health office and social affairs office and all shares the same views
related to the project achievements in the Urban Infrastructure and have observable positive socio-
economic and environmental impacts of the project.

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• Flooding caused by surface runoff is decreasing in the cities as a result of the water and soil
conservation structures built on the cliffs surround the cities and the increase in vegetation resulting
from areas closure and tree plantations. City Beautification and Greening Bureau Team Lead of
Adama has said “we have nerve experienced heavy rain as was last summer. But there was no much
flooding in the city. Prior to the start of project intervention, small rain was enough to create huge
flood on roads and slum areas in our city”. This has reduced damages on city infrastructure such as
roads, ditches and water lines as well as houses caused by flooding which ultimately has reduced
maintenance costs of the government and negative consequences on community livelihood. The
same vies have also raised in Dire Dawa city administration. The cities are now experiencing low
flooding and colder weather as compared to pre-project intervention as a result of the urban and peri-
urban afforestation and trees planted on road sides, parks and individual compounds as discussed
previously in this report. This is a good indicator that the project is contributing to resilience capacity
of the urban community in the six cities to extreme weather condition such as flooding and high heat
cause by climate change.
• As a result of intervention by NAMA COMPOST project, vegetation cover and rehabilitated land in
the six cities is increasing from time to time. From such progress, they conclude that underground
water is increasing and hence availability of fresh water for household use, livestock and urban
agriculture is improving.
• Following establishment of three new plant nursery sites and increase in seedling raising capacity of
two nursery sites, the city administrations have been providing seedlings to the community for free.
Moreover, selected model villages in the six cities have been supported to green their neighborhood
and some urban greenery areas have been given to the community for administration and use. All
these project efforts have contributed towards community attitudinal change and enhancing
community understanding on benefits of greening the environment that has resulted in actual
observable changes in these cities; green compound and surroundings.
• The soil and water conservation structures built on hill sides and tree plantation activities were under
taken by daily laborers who are paid according to payment regulation of the city administrations.
Moreover, security guards are employed to protect the greenery areas and people are supported to
form MSEs on seedling raising business, provision of cafeteria services in the parks, fire wood
plantation and use forest products such as grass from the greenery areas. As a result, temporary and
permanent jobs created for more than 36,280 people and livelihood of the fittest ones has improved.
• As a result of establishment of plant nursery sites in the cities and start of MSEs in the seedling
raising business, government cost of urban greenery mainly amounts of money used to be spend for
buying and transportation of seedling has reduced.
• Some of the rehabilitated areas and areas given to the MSEs for plant nursery were illegal waste
dumping sites and two of them were open landfills that people used avoid passing through and living
closer to these places. After rehabilitation however, these places are no more health treats rather are
used by the community to conduct special occasions such as wedding and graduation ceremony and
value of land and rental price of houses close to these areas has increased.

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12.2. Public Consultation
The field team conducted public consultation with residents live around compost shed and UGI sites
in five city administrations (Hawassa, Dire Dawa, Bahir Dar, Bishoftu, and Adama) to see their views
and concerns about the project. The NAMA: COMPOST project in all six cities didn’t dislocate the
community and lose of livelihood. As a result, there was no significant negative social or economic
impact associated with project interventions in the six cities. Some of the areas were under use for
livestock grazing by the local community. Most of the concerns raised were related to the land fill
which is out of the scope of the study. But our discussion with community representatives about
NAMA COMPOST and UGI has shown us that they are now more beneficiary than before because
there is more grass and are allowed to feed their animal using cut and carry system. And significant
amount of jobs are created throughout the compost value chain and daily laborers during making of
conservation structures built on hill sides and tree plantation activities. Moreover, security guards are
employed to protect the greenery areas and people are supported to form MSEs on seedling raising
business, provision of cafeteria services in the parks, fire wood plantation and use forest products such
as grass from the greenery areas.
The only concern is that, only limited number of local residents is participated in MSEs and a concern
about dislocation from their grazing land use of fire wood. Therefore, the city administration should
consider the local community and affected residents during formation of MSEs in UGI and the
community should also involve in the management of the parks.

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 13. Conclusion and Recommendation
13.1. Conclusion
The consulting team has used three types of source of information to construct the environmental and
socio-economic baseline condition of the intervention areas prior to project intervention so as to analyze
the positive and negative impacts imposed on the area as a result of undertaking various activities. Our
major source of information is the project document that has clearly indicated solid waste practices as well
as greenery management of the six cities and potential impact on the environment, society and the
economy. The second source of information is the community, micro and small enterprises, project staff
and people from the municipality who gave the team clear information on conditions of the intervention
areas such as how those areas were affecting the community (health, living condition, livelihood etc.),
efficiency and effectiveness of solid waste management practice of the municipalities, livelihood of
members of the MSEs and environmental condition of the greenery and composting areas prior to project
intervention. The third source of information as regard of baseline establishment were satellite image and
photographs that shows how the environmental condition of the intervention sites mainly of the greenery
areas were.

Having a clear baseline information of intervention sites, the team then has observed sites where project
activities are being undertaken to understand physical condition of the areas, conducted focus group
discussion and key informant interview with community representatives, beneficiaries and implementers
to gain their perspective on how they are positively or negatively affected by the project; observe working
environment and how the MSEs do their job to understand impact of the economic activity on their health
and read all project performance reports produced by the implementer. The information gained from all
these sources is compared with the baseline information to understand the changes observed as a result of
project intervention and how these changes have impacted or could likely impact the environment, the
society and the economy. Similarly, the team has also tried to analyze to what extent risks foreseen during
project development have materialized as well as any newly developed risks that could affect project
sustainability.

Accordingly, the team has concluded that as a result of project ISWM and UGI development related
interventions in the six cities, there are a number of positive currently observed and potential impacts on
the environment, water, infrastructure, community, air and economy. The rehabilitated and
afforested/reforested peri-urban areas have reduced rapid runoff of rain water preventing soil erosion that
protected damage on infrastructure, reduced flooding of residential areas and its impact on community
livelihood, serve as wind break, its cooling effect on the weather and contributing to climate change
mitigation efforts through sequestration of CO2. Moreover, the rehabilitated illegal waste dumping sites
have reduced health risk on people living around and passing through those areas while at the same time
increase land value the surrounding places.

The awareness raising efforts, distribution of plant seedlings for free and enhancing seedling raising
capacity of the cities has brought attitudinal change and enhanced greening practice of the municipalities
and the community. As a result, private and business compounds, neighborhoods, peri-urban areas, city

93
parks, road medians and city peripheral areas in the six cities are now greener as compared to four years
back. People are witnessing change in weather condition as a result in the six cities expressed as cooler
and less windy compared to previous years.

Efforts done towards improvement of waste management practices of the cities, community awareness
raising on waste handling, introduction of waste recycling and composting business and trainings of staff
and leadership of the municipalities including exposure to well advanced cities has resulted in better waste
management in the six cities. This lowers environmental pollution including water, reduces GHG emission
from landfill and results in better community health and satisfaction. Permanent and temporary jobs
created in seedling raising, land rehabilitation, afforestation and reforestation activities, along the value
chain of waste management, composting, waste recycling and other economic activities has contributed
to livelihood improvement of people engaged in these businesses.

Since the project is phasing out within a year, the team has also tried to analyze existence of risks that
could potentially reverse improvements seen in ISWM and UGI as a result of project intervention. There
are conditions observed by the team based on which to conclude project results and outcomes will
continue. The government owns the composting sheds and greenery areas and has co-financed the
investment that implies high sense of ownership. There is no doubt on continuation of the composting and
recycling business as long as the MSEs earn enough income out of it. Moreover, the project has introduced
mechanisms like entitlement of clear and legal boundary, introduction of different management system
such as community, government, companies and MSEs, fencing and introducing community benefit
schemes to the greenery areas to ensure better protection and sustainability of the sites.

Despite of the positive impacts realized as discussed above, the team has tried to uncover existing and
potential unintended negative environmental and socio-economic impacts of project intervention in the
six cities as well as specific sites. As informed by the project manager, the project has used different
strategies to minimize potential negative impacts during implementation such as intervening in areas
where there are settlements to avoid displacement of people, construct the sheds within landfills for which
EIA is already conducted to avoid environmental impact of composting, provide OHS trainings and
materials to MSEs engaged in economic activities along the value chain of waste management and
introduce waste segregation practices, undertake laboratory check on compost as well as use it only for
plant nursery and urban greenery to avoid health impact. The team, from its onsite observation and
discussion with people, as well has understood that the project had no significant negative impact during
implementation; no person is displaced or livelihood affected as a result of project activities, the
composting and recycling business does not have much residue to pollute underground or surface water,
no person has been reported seriously ill caused by his/her engagement in the waste management or
recycling activities and all the project activities have no emissions to pollute air.

However, as compost production increases and its application on farming starts, there is possibility to
affect community health and pollute surface and underground water for which we have recommended to
construct leachate ponds according to the standard (Adama, Dire Dawa, Bahir Dar and Mekelle), enforce
waste segregation at source and separate transportation and continuous laboratory taste on compost.

94
Moreover, the team has also understood that the MSEs engaged in solid waste management, composting,
and recycling are not adhering to the OHS measures that could potentially affect their health. The
recommendation is for the city administration to take measure on those who are not obedient to the safety
rule.

The team has understood that the project is using different mechanisms to sustain project outcomes.
However, there are still risks that could reverse the results gained so far. The MSEs engaged in composting
and recycling business are not generating enough income to support their life due to lack market for their
product and hence have doubt to stay in the business. The municipalities, who are going to take over the
activities following project phase out, are advised to continue helping the MSEs in finding more market
mainly by creating linkage with urban/rural agriculture and environmental protection agencies.
Trespassing legal boundary of some greenery areas, mainly in Hawassa and Dire Dawa by illegal settlers
is observed and government is not taking measure to reverse the situation being afraid of social unrest.
The team would like to advises the municipalities to regularly check and enforce the law before more and
more people entered the greenery areas that might worsen the situation.

The positive impacts of the project are associated with employment generation, social benefits, economic
impacts, and environmental benefits. The major significant negative impacts of the project include soil
quality impacts, water resource impacts, air quality impacts, visual impacts, impact on biological
environment, OHS impacts and impact on land use and land cover.

The major risks related to the project are illegal land grabbing related to UGI, limited supply of diverse
vegetation for UGI, extended drought in Mekelle, Adama and Dire Dawa, health related risks to waste
handling and processing, sustainability due to poor income generation of UGI, market problem for
compost and risk of contamination during transportation.

Based on the social impact assessment, and stakeholder consultation, most residents welcome the project
and appreciate the positive impacts. Analysis indicated that all impacts are within the range from low to
sever significance. Impacts with medium impact significance include soil quality impacts, visual impacts,
impact on biological environment and utility impact. Impacts with severe impact significance include
water resource impacts, air quality impacts, impact on land use land cover, and OHS impacts.

The main mitigation and monitoring measures to minimize or reduce the environmental and social impacts
especially for those with medium and sever level impacts will be implemented based on the project
mitigation and management plans. Similarly, implementation of the mitigation measures will be verified
through environmental social monitoring plan using the specified budget.
In summary, the team has concluded that environmental and socio-economic impact of the project in the
past four years is significantly positive and if project outcomes are sustained, it will continue to benefit
the community, the economy and the environment. The foreseen risk and negative impacts can be
minimized with minimum investment and efforts by the municipalities as recommended in this document.

95
 13.2. Recommendation
Finally, it is important to point out some of the critical recommendations which the project management
group should follow. Implement environmental monitoring during operation, Implement an environmental
management system which ensures environmental responsibility at all levels, Maximum safety and health
procedures should be followed in compost shed during collection, segregation and process of compost.
Special attention should be given to the primary collection system being the most visible part of the service
and wastes should be segregated at house level in all city administrations and separate transport services
should be arranged in Mekelle, Hawasa, Bishoftu, Dire Dawa and Bahir Dar.
Elemental Analysis of compost quality in all compost sheds should be done to determine the actual risk
of compost.
Market linkage and demand of organic fertilizer is the major challenge for project sustainability.
Assessment of the effects of substituting equal amounts of mineral fertilizer with organic compost should
be done in the farmers land on the yield, dry matter (DM), and nitrogen (N) uptake of spring and on the
mineral N (Nmin) distribution in the soil profile and productivity in general. Therefore, the farmers can
have confidence to use organic fertilizer based on the result obtained from the assessment.
In general, the consulting team recommends the following major recommendations.

• There is some interest conflict especially in and around greenery areas where most of them were
communal lands. Therefore, strengthen title deed and promoting cut and carry feeding system can
help to reduce the interest conflict
• The project in collaboration with key stakeholders shall give due attention protecting the intention
of illegal settlement in some project sites by legal enforcement
• UGI are not yet able to generate income for members thus to sustain the project in general and
UGI in particular there should be some mechanism to diversify income sources of members as
well as enhance access to loan and other financial services for MSE
• Promote organic fertilizer in collaboration with Agriculture office and agricultural research
institutions to create demand for compost which is directly linked with market and sales income
from it.
• Promote Segregation and separate transportation of waste at household level by providing and/or
promoting incentivize to encourage households for enhanced solid waste management
• Capacitate local implementing partners and private solid waste collectors to sustain the project
results

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14. Reference

• Environmental Impact assessment Proclamation (No. 299/2002);

http://www.addisababa.gov.et/web/guest/-/--9-30?inheritRedirect=true
• ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY OF ETHIOPIA (1989); Available at:
http://www.addisababa.gov.et/web/guest/-/environment-policy-of-ethiopia?inheritRedirect=true
• Environmental Pollution control proclamation (NO:300/2002); Available at:
http://www.addisababa.gov.et/web/guest/-/--9 31? inheritRedirect =true&redirect=
%2Fde%2Fweb% 2Fguest%2F-23
• Ethiopia NAMA: Creating opportunity for Municipalities to Produce and Operationalise Solid waste
Transformation (COMPOST) risk Analysis documents,
• Ethiopian NAMA: Creating Opportunities for Municipalities to Produce and Operationalise Solid
Waste Transformation (COMPOST), Mid Term Review, August 2019.
• Ethiopian NAMA: Creating Opportunities for Municipalities to Produce and Operationalise Solid
Waste Transformation (COMPOST), Project Implementation Review, 2020.
• European commission-DG Environment. (2011). Assessment of impacts of options to reduce the use
of single-use plastic carrier bags.
• Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; Health Policy of Ethiopia (1993); Available at:
file:///C:/Users/semaw/AppData/Local/Temp/Ethiopian%20Health%20Policy-1993.pdf
• Hartig T, Mitchell R, De Vries S, Frumkin H (2014) Nature and health. Annu Rev Public Health
35:207–228.
• Integrated Waste Management Board (2007). Comprehensive Compost Odor Response Project.
Retrieved from http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/publications/Documents/Organics%5C44207001.pdf;
Accessed date: 01/01/2021.
• Investment Proclamation (NO:769/2012); Available at: http://www.motin.gov.et/am/by-category/-
/asset_publisher/jzCt7vgBnStr/content/proclamation-no-769-2012-investment-
proclamation?inheritRedirect=false,
• Labour Proclamation (No:1156/2019); Available at:
https://www.mtalawoffice.com/images/upload/Labour-Proclamation-No_-1156-2019.pdf
• Lachowycz K, Jones AP (2013). Towards a better understanding of the relationship between green
space and health: development of a theoretical framework. Landsc Urban Plan 118:62–69.
• Solid waste management proclamation (No.513/2007); Available at: www.phe-
ethiopia.org/pdf/Solid%20Waste%20Management%20Proclamation%202.pdf
• Taha, M. P. M., Drew, G. H., Longhurst, P. J., Smith, R., & Pollard, S. J. (2006). Bioaerosol releases
from compost facilities: Evaluating passive and active source terms at a green waste facility
for improved risk assessments. Atmospheric environment, 40(6), 1159-1169.
• Villanueva K, Badland H, Hooper P, Koohsari MJ, Mavoa S, Davern M, Roberts R, Goldfeld S,
Giles-Corti B (2015) Developing indicators of public open space to promote health and
wellbeing in communities. ApplGeogr 57:112–119.

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 15. Annexes
15.1. Sample Maps of Urban Greenery Infatuation

Figure 21: Dire Dawa Urban Greenery Sites

98
Figure 22: Map showing Bahir Dar Urban Greenery Sites

99
Figure 23: Map showing Mekelle Urban Greenery Sites

100
15.2. Sample Title Deed Certificates for UGI

Figure 24: Magra Greenery Area Title Deed Certificate, Adama

101
15.3. Signed FGD minutes and List of People Contacted

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104
105
106