Lecture No.

12 Flow of Compressible Fluids in Pipe

Prof. Dr Thamer J.Mohammed

If the pressure of the gas does change in pipe by more than about 10 per cent, it is
usually satisfactory to treat the gas as an compressible fluid with consider change in
temperature & density or specific volume due to change in pressure. When
compressibility is taken into account, the equations of flow become very much more
complex than they are for an incompressible fluid, even if the simplest possible
equation of state (the ideal gas law)𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is used to describe their behaviour.
Two limiting cases of particular interest of flow in pipe are:
i. Isothermal and
ii. Adiabatic condition.

Sonic Velocity in Fluids

The speed u w with which a small pressure wave propagates through a fluid can be
shown [Shapiro (1953) to be related to the compressibility (ε) of the fluid 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 by
the following Eq.

Assuming that the pressure wave propagates through the fluid polytropically, then the
equation of state is

But v=1/ρ then

The propagation speed u w of the pressure wave is therefore given by

where P, V, are the local pressure and specific volume of the fluid through which the wave is
propagating. Note that u, is relative to the gas. If the wave were to propagate isothermally, then
k=1 and velocity of sound or sonic velocity becomes: 𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 = √𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

If isentropically or adiabatic conditions above Eq. becomes:

𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 = �𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 where 𝛾𝛾 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 /𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣

It is common practice to state gas velocities relative to the sonic velocity as shown in:
𝑈𝑈
𝑁𝑁𝑀𝑀 = 𝑈𝑈
𝑤𝑤
N M is defines as dimensionless Mach number and classified as N M >1 the fluid is
called supersonic flow. If N M < 1 the fluid is called subsonic flow and if N M =1,
the fluid is called sonic flow.
General Equation for Flow of Ideal Gas in pipes

The general energy equation for the flow of any type of fluid through a pipe (as
shown in Fig.1) has been expressed in the form (see Ch. Incompressible fluid in
Lecture):

-----------------------(1)

Assume length dl of pipe of constant A

W S =0
Fig.1
Flow of Compressible fluid through pipe
--------------(2) Sub. in Eq.(1)

--------------(3)
This equation (3) cannot be integrated directly because the velocity u increases as the
pressure falls and is, therefore, a function of / (Figure 1). It is, therefore, convenient to
work in terms of the mass velocity flow G=m/A or =ρu which remains constant
throughout the length of pipe. Hence Eq.3 becomes (for turbulent flow) α=1:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑑𝑑
= 0 − − − − − (4)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣 ++ 𝑣𝑣 + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − − − − − −(5)
Now the friction factor J f a function of the Reynolds number Re and the relative
roughness e/d of the pipe surface which will normally be constant along a given pipe.
Then R e =Gd/µ . Since G is constant over the length of the pipe, Re varies only as a result of
changes in the viscosity µ. Although ^ is a function of temperature, and to some extent of
pressure, it is not likely to vary widely over the length of the pipe. Furthermore, the friction factor
J f is only a weak function of Reynolds number when Re is high, and little error will therefore arise
from regarding it as constant.

Thus the integration Eq. 5 over a length l of pipe to give general Eq. for compressible fluid flow:

𝑣𝑣 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣2 + ∫𝑃𝑃 2 𝑣𝑣
+ 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − −(6)
1 1
This term will be defined by Isothermal or Adiabatic

The integral will depend on the P-v relationship during the expansion of the gas in the
pipe, and several cases are now considered (Isothermal or Adiabatic flow):

For Isothermal Flow of an Ideal Gas in Horizontal pipe:

𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑃𝑃22 −𝑃𝑃12

For isothermal changes in an ideal gas: ∫𝑃𝑃 2 𝑣𝑣
= − − − −(7) Sub in Eq.6
1 2𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1
 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃22 −𝑃𝑃12 𝑙𝑙
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑃1 + + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑑𝑑 = 0----------------(8)
2 2𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1
Eq.8 can be written in term v m , the specific volume at the mean pressure in the pipe,
is given as:

𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃2 −𝑃𝑃1 𝑙𝑙
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑃𝑃1 + + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑑𝑑 = 0------------------------(9)
2 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚
Eq.9 used if the if the pressure drop in the pipe is a small proportion of the inlet pressure, the
first term is negligible and the fluid may be treated as an incompressible fluid at the mean pressure
in the pipe.

Note:1- It is sometimes convenient to substitute RT/M for P\v\ in equation 8 to give:

𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃22 − 𝑃𝑃12 𝑙𝑙

𝐺𝐺 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝐺𝐺 2 = 0 − − − − − (10)
𝑃𝑃2 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅/𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑

2-Equations 8 and 10 are the most convenient for the calculation of gas flowrate as a
function of P 1 and P 2 under isothermal conditions. Some additional refinement can be
added if a compressibility factor is introduced as defined by the relation Pv = ZRT/M,
for conditions where there are significant deviations from the ideal gas law.

EX.1Over a 30 m length of a 150 mm vacuum line carrying air at 295 K, the pressure
falls from 0.4 kN/m2 to 0.13 kN/m2. If the relative roughness e/d is 0.003 what is the
approximate flowrate? (See sol. P.144 Vol.1 5ed.).

EX.2 A flow of 50 m3/s methane, measured at 288 K and 101.3 kN/m2, has to be
delivered along a 0.6 m diameter line, 3.0 km long with a relative roughness of
0.0001, linking a compressor and a processing unit. The methane is to be discharged
at the plant at 288 K and 170 kN/m2 and it leaves the compressor at 297 K. What
pressure must be developed at the compressor in order to achieve this flowrate? (see
sol. P.145 Vol.1 5ed).

Problems: 4.1,2,3,4,5,9,10,11,12

Maximum flow for Isothermal condition:

Equation 8 P 2 the down stream pressure for given upstream pressure P 1 , if

P 1 =P 2 , gives G=0 , also if P 2 =0, gives G=0..Thus for intermediate value assume
P 2 =P w , where 0<P w <P 1 , the flowrate or G must be maximum.

𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃22 −𝑃𝑃12 𝑙𝑙
( 2) +
Eq.8 dividing by G2 to give the following: −ln⁡ + 4𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑 = 0-------(11)
𝑃𝑃1 2𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝐺𝐺 2
Differentiating w.r.t P 2 for constant value of P 1 :

𝑃𝑃2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑃𝑃22 − 𝑃𝑃12 1

2
− 3
� �� � − = 0 − − − (12)
𝑃𝑃1 𝑣𝑣1 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃2 2𝑃𝑃1 𝑣𝑣1 𝑃𝑃2

The rate of flow is a maximum when d G 2 /d P 2 =0 , denoting conditions at the

downstream end of the pipe by suffix w, when the flow is a maximum:
 𝑃𝑃 2
For this case Eq.12 can be written as:𝐺𝐺𝑤𝑤2 = 𝑃𝑃 𝑤𝑤𝑣𝑣 − − − −(12)
1 1
Since the maximum mass flowrate G s or G w =ρ s u s =u s /v s and for isothermal
conditions:

𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − − − −(13)

Eq.12 can be written as:
𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 = �𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 ---------(14)
Since for isothermal conditions:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 − − − −(15), 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸. 14 & 15 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 the sonic velocity as
𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 = √𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − − − −(17)𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Supersonic velocities cannot be attained in a pipe of constant cross-sectional flow

area.

Fig. Maximum flow conditions (see notes in vol.1 p. 139)

EX.3 (Holland 2ed. P.198) Hydrogen is to be pumped from one vessel through a pipe
of length 400 m to a second vessel, which is at a pressure of 20 bar absolute. The
required flow rate is 0.2 kg/s and the allowable pressure at the pipe inlet is 25 bar. The
flow conditions are isothermal and the gas temperature is 25°C. If the friction factor
may be assumed to have a value of 0.005, what diameter of pipe is required?

Adiabatic flow of an Ideal Gas in a Horizontal pipe:

For a fluid flowing under turbulent conditions in a pipe, W s =0 and :

------------(1)

In an adiabatic process, 8q = 0, and the equation may then be written for the flow in
a pipe of constant cross-sectional area A to give:

𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 − − − − − (2)

Now 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Substituting this value of dH in equation 2 and writing g dz = 0 for a horizontal pipe:

𝛾𝛾
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 +𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = 0 − − − −(3)
𝛾𝛾 − 1
Integrating, a relation between P and v for adiabatic flow in a horizontal pipe obtained
to give the following Eq. calculate downstream pressure P 2 :

𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝛾𝛾 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣12 𝛾𝛾
+ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = + 𝑃𝑃1𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝐾 − − − −(4)
2 𝛾𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾𝛾 − 1
This Eq.4 it is used to calculate downstream pressure P 2 in term of G, it can be
written in term velocities u as following:

𝛾𝛾 (𝑢𝑢22 − 𝑢𝑢12 )
(𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 ) + = 0 − − − (5)
𝛾𝛾 − 1 2 2 2
Eq. 4 or 5 can be derived to calculate v 2 downstream specific volume at the end
of the pipe, (Note see derivation in Vol.1 p.147 5ed.) , then written as following:

𝑙𝑙 𝛾𝛾 − 1 𝑃𝑃1 𝑣𝑣1 2 𝛾𝛾 + 1 𝑣𝑣2

8𝐽𝐽𝑓𝑓 =� + � �1 − ( ) � − 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − − − (6)
𝑑𝑑 2𝛾𝛾 𝑣𝑣1 𝐺𝐺 2 𝑣𝑣2 𝛾𝛾 𝑣𝑣1

For adiabatic conditions, sonic velocity calculate as shown above equation (u w or u s ):

𝑢𝑢𝑤𝑤 = �𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

Ex. Problem 4.6 (vol.1) Nitrogen at 12 MN/m2 pressure is fed through a 25 mm

diameter mild steel pipe to a synthetic ammonia plant at the rate of 0.4 kg/s. What will
be the drop in pressure over a 30 m length of pipe assuming isothermal expansion of
the gas at 300 K? What is the average quantity of heat per unit area of pipe surface
that must pass through the walls in order to maintain isothermal conditions? What
would be the pressure drop in the pipe if it were perfectly lagged?

Note: see problems in Vol.1 5ed. 4.7

Converging-Diverging Nozzles for Gas Flow (Laval Nozzles):

Converging-diverging nozzles, as shown in Figure, sometimes known as Laval

nozzles, are used for the expansion of gases where the pressure drop is large. Because
the flow rate is large for high-pressure differentials, there is little time for heat transfer
to take place between the gas and surroundings and the expansion is effectively
isentropic. The specific volume V2 at a downstream pressure P2, is given by:

If gas flows under turbulent conditions from a reservoir at a pressure PI, through a
horizontal nozzle, the velocity of flow u-2, at the pressure PI is given by:
 𝑚𝑚
Since :𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶. 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −
2 𝑢𝑢 2
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Sonic

Subsonic

Supersonic flow

Note: See notes in Vol.1 p.132 more explanation for this flow.

The pressure and area for flow:

The area required at any point depends upon the ratio of the downstream to the
upstream pressure P 2 /P 1 and it is helpful to establish the minimum value of A 2 . A 2
may be expressed in terms of P 2 and w[= (P 2 /P 1 )] using above equations.

2
−
𝐺𝐺 2 𝑉𝑉 (𝛾𝛾−1) 𝑊𝑊 𝛾𝛾
𝐴𝐴22 = 1 𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾 −1
2𝑃𝑃1 1
1−𝑊𝑊 𝛾𝛾
For a given rate of flow m, A 2 decreases from an effectively infinite value at pressure
p 1 at the inlet a minimum value given by:
Eqn. of A 2 can be written in terms as following:

G2

And the value of flowrate can be shown to have a maximum value of Gmax.=�𝛾𝛾𝑝𝑝2 𝑣𝑣2

Ex.(se Holland Textbook p.125) Nitrogen contained in a large tank at a pressure P = 200000
Pa and atemperature of 300 K flows steadily under adiabatic conditions into a second tank
through a converging nozzle with a throat diameter of 15 mm. The pressure in the second tank
and at the throat of the nozzle is P, = 140000 Pa. Calculate the mass flow rate, M, of nitrogen
assuming frictionless flow and ideal gas behaviour. Also calculate the gas speed at the nozzle and
establish that the flow is subsonic. The relative molecular mass of nitrogen is 28.02 and the ratio
of the specific heat capacities y is 1.39.

Gas Compression and Compressors:

U

Compressors are devices for supplying energy or pressure head to a gas. For the most
part, compressors like pumps can be classified into:
Centrifugal
U

and Positive displacement types.

U

Centrifugal compressors impart a high velocity to the gas and the resultant
U

kinetic energy provides the work for compression. Positive displacement compressors
U

include rotary and reciprocating compressors although the latter are the most
important for high pressure applications.

the shaft work of compression W required to compress unit mass of gas from pressure
P1 to pressure P2

When ideal gases are compressed under reversible adiabatic conditions they obey
equation 6.32, which can be written as

𝛾𝛾
𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾
This Eqn gives theoretical adiabatic work of compression from pressures P 1 to P 2 .

Compression is often done in several stages with the gas being cooled between stages.
For two-stage compression from P1 to Pz to P3, with the gas cooled to the initial
temperature T1 at constant pressure, above Eqn Becomes:

In the case of compression from pressure P1 to pressure Pz through n stages each

having the same pressure ratio (P2/Pl)1/n, the compression work is given by

When ideal gases are compressed under reversible adiabatic conditions the temperature rise from
T1 to T2 is given by equation

Note: If the compression gas under isothermal condition for an ideal, then the
work done per cycle is given as following:

𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝑾𝑾 = 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏

The relation between pressure and volume of gas under compression for single stage
as shown in following Figures (Note Ch.8 in vol.1 p.312):
Point 1 represents the initial condition of the gas (P\ and V\).
Line 1-2 represents the compression of gas to pressure P2, volume V2.
Line 2-3 represents the expulsion of the gas at a constant pressure P2.
Line 3-4 represents a sudden reduction in the pressure in the cylinder from PI to
PI. As the whole of the gas has been expelled, this can be regarded as taking
place instantaneously.
Line 4-1 represents the suction stroke of the piston, during which a volume V\ of gas
is admitted at constant pressure, .P 1 .

Clearance volume through Compression Gas & Find Work:

The theoretical work of compressor is less than actual work, because clearance of gas. In practice,
it is not possible to expel the whole of the gas from the cylinder at the end of the
compression; the volume remaining in the cylinder after the forward stroke of the
piston is termed the clearance volume. The volume displaced by the piston is termed
the swept volume, and therefore the total volume of the cylinder is made up of the
clearance volume plus the swept volume. The clearance c is defined as the ratio of the
clearance volume to the swept volume. A typical cycle for a compressor with
clearance is shown in Fig.

Line 1 -2 represents the compression of the gas to a pressure P2 and volume V2.
Line 2-3 represents the expulsion of gas at constant pressure PI, so that the volume
remaining in the cylinder is V 3 .
Line 3-4 represents an expansion of this residual gas to the lower pressure P 1 and
volume V 4 during the return stroke.

Line 4-1 represents the introduction of fresh gas into the cylinder at constant pressure
P 1 The work done on the gas during each stage of the cycle is as follows.

The total work done during the cycle is equal to the sum of these four
components, is given as following:

Thus, theoretically, the clearance volume does not affect the work done per unit mass
of gas, since V 1 — V 4 is the volume admitted per cycle.V 4 can be calculated in terms
V 3 as following:

Now (V1 — V3) is the swept volume, Vs, say; and V3/(V1 — V3) is the clearance c.

Therefore the total work done on the fluid per cycle is:

The factor [1 + c — c(P2/P1)1/γ is called the theoretical volumetric efficiency and is

a measure of the effect of the clearance on an isentropic compression. The actual
volumetric efficiency will be affected, in addition, by the inertia of the valves and
leakage past the piston.

Temperature increase through compression gas, therefore it is required cooling

between stages as shown in Fig.(see Vol.1 p.317, 5ed):

Ex.(Holland p.130)
Compressor efficiencies

The efficiency quoted for a compressor is usually either an isothermal efficiency

or an isentropic efficiency.
1-The isothermal efficiency is the ratio of the work required for an ideal
isothermal compression to the energy actually expended in the compressor.
2-The isentropic efficiency is defined in a corresponding manner on the
assumption that the whole compression is carried out in a single cylinder.
Since the energy expended in an isentropic compression is greater than that for an
isothermal compression, the isentropic efficiency is always the greater of the two.
Clearly the efficiencies will depend on the heat transfer between the gas undergoing
compression and the surroundings and on how closely the process approaches a
reversible compression.

Ex. (Vol.1 P.319)

Ex (Vol.1 P.320)
 Tutorial No.12

Flow of Compressible Fluids in Pipe

Vol.1 5ed ( Ch.4+Ch.8)