UNIVERSITY OF CAGAYAN VALLEY

New Site Campus Tuguegarao City,Cagayan

SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

Photography plays a very vital role in both criminal and civil cases.
Almost every day, photography provides new evidence of its value as a powerful
weapon in the war against crime. Every police personnel realizes that even in routine
incidents, simple pictures taken with simple cameras can make an impressive
difference in court. (PNPM-CLG-NSU-8-4-15).

The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very

important. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in
the first phase of investigation but may be seen and recovered only after closed
examination of the photographs at the crime scene.

A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is always

available, especially in court presentation. In court proceeding, judges, fiscal and
defense lawyers, generally never visited the crime scene. Photographs greatly facilitate
them in interpreting the scene. Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to
obtain a NORMAL, SHARP and FREE OF DISTORTION PHOTOGRAPHS of the
crime scene.

“As a general rule take many photographs of the crime scene and select
the best”. But generally for purposes of considering the financial capability of a police
agency, one may wisely select the best shots in every sparks of the flashing system or
every press of the shutter of the camera.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

The basic principles of optics and cameras were first mentioned by

Chinese and Greek philosopher.

MOZI (4TH TO 5TH Century BC)

 The first person mentioned the basic principles behind the pinhole
camera or camera obscura. He referred this as a “collecting plate” or
“locked treasure room”.

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ARISTOTLE (347-322 BC)
 The Greek philosopher Aristotle noticed in 4th century that light from a sun
eclipse that passes through holes between the leaves, projects an image of an
eclipsed sun on the ground.

 CAMERA OBSCURA - A device used by early artists (centuries

before Christ) to display a scene on the wall of an otherwise-
darkened room so that it could be more-easily copied. In a manner
similar to the pinhole camera, a small hole placed in an opposite
wall permitted light to enter the room (the “camera”), and the
scene outside became transmitted inside, and was shown inverted
on the rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The camera obscura is
the origin of the modern camera.

ALHAZEN (965-1039)
 An Arabian who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or
shuttered window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene
outside onto the opposite wall.
 He was considered to be inventor of the camera obscura.

SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1666)

 He discovered and proved that the strongest light is “WHITE LIGHT”.
 He defended his theory by allowing white light to pass through prism thus
refracting and diffracting the light onto its component parts.
 White is consists of “ROYGIBV”

JEAN BABTISTE FORTA

 An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science Magic had made use of the
Camera Obscura and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image
brighter and sharper.
 He was the one who introduce the lens.

JOHANN HEINRICH SCHULZE

 A German scientist who discovered silver nitrate when he exposed it to light it
turned purple.
 He concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and capable of
producing images.

THOMAS WEDGEWOOD (1802)

 He discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than that of silver nitrate
and thus more capable of recording and producing images.

JOSEPH NICEPHORE NIEPCE (1816)

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  He experimented by combining photosensitive materials with Lithography to
facilitate his endeavor in printmaking.
 Achieves the first photographic image with camera obscura and he called this
as “HELIOGRAPHY” however the image required 8 hours of light exposure
and later faded.

LOUISE JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1838-1839)

 He invented the DAGUERRO TYPE in Paris.
 He continued the efforts of Niepce to perfect a photographic process.
 He invented the principle of silver nitrate photograph and using the
Daguerro type that produces one of a kind picture on metal which was
presented by French Scientific Academy.

WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT

 He is the FATHER OF MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY.
 He invented the “CALOTYPE” which produces a negative picture on paper, the
light on the image was recorded as dark and dark as night.

JOHN HERSCHEL
 He coined the word “PHOTOGRAPHY”
 He then suggested negative and positive in the following years.
 He pointed out images with a solution of hyposulfite of soda which he had
discovered in 1819.

DANIEL BARBARO
 He introduced the use of lens in the camera.

NADAR or GASPARD FELIX TOURNACHON (1858)

 He took the first “AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS” of Paris from a free balloon.

SIR WILLIAM ABNEY

 He discovered the use of “HYDROQUINONE” as developing agent in 1880 in
England.

RICHARD LEACH MADDAOX

 He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin.

GEORGE EASTMAN
 Founder of Budha Co,. He introduced the use of Kodak roll film made of
celluloid materials for use by a portable camera.

JAMES CLARK MAXWELL

 He discovered the wavelength structure of light after 20 years of research.

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ODELBERCHT (1864)
 He first advocated the used of photography for the identification of
criminals and the documentation of evidence and crime scenes.
 Meanwhile, every police force in England and in the U.S. has ROGUES
GALLERY which became an integral part in almost all police departments.

ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1882)

 He initiated anthropometric measurements of personal identification and
was also involved in various means of documentation by photography which
developed into a fine science of criminalistics when he photographed crime
scenes and formulated a technique of contact photography to
demonstrate erasures on documents.

DR. R.A REIS (1902)

 He introduced the use of photography in forensic science and established
the world’s earliest crime scene that serviced the academic community and
the Swiss police.

VICTOR BALTAZARD (1910)

 He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge
cases which act as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.

EDWIN LAND (1947)

 He introduced “POLAROID CAMERA”.

THOMAS SUTTON
 He invented the first “SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERA”.

D.A WOODWARD ((1857)

 He first constructed an enlarger. It was a cumbersome object. The sun was
collected by means of convex lens and the camera has to be turned with the
sun.
 This design became the model of “SOLAR CAMERAS”.

STEVEN SASSON
 An American Electrical Engineer who invented the “DIGITAL CAMERA”.

IMPORTANT DATES

 1800- Thomas Wedgewood and Humphey Davy produced photograms.

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  1839- Birth year of Modern Photography, the year when the science of
photography became public knowledge.

 1850- The year when photography was already well developed. It was used
as an art concerned with landscape, portraiture and architectural presentation.

 1835- The year when colored films, sensitized materials and different brands of
cameras came in different types and model sold in the market.

 1859- In the US, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was in
photography. It was used to demonstrate evidence in California Case and
enlarged photographs of a signature were presented in a court case involving
forgery.

 1890- Full corrected lens were introduced.

 1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in
equivalent shades of gray

 1907- Lummi ere color process was introduced. A panchromatic Film was
used but with blue, green and red filter.

 1935- Color process came out together with electronic flash.

 1960- LASER was invented making possible Holograms-tri-dimensional

pictures.

 1970- Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium.

 1981- Sony unveiled the first consumer to use a charge-couple device for
imaging, eliminating the need for film. The Sony Mavica saved images to
disk, the images were displayed on television and the camera was not fully
digital.

 1988- Arrival of true digital camera’s

 1990- Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital
camera’s.

PHOTOGRAPHY - The process or art of producing images of objects on

sensitized surfaces by the chemical action of light.
 The word "photography" derives from the Greek and means,
literally, “light writing.”

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  Photography" is derived from the Greek words photos ("light")
and graphein ("to draw").
 The word was first used by the scientist Sir John F.W. Herschel
in 1839. It is a method of recording images by the action of
light, or related radiation, on a sensitive material.

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.

2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside form sensitized material.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials
while all other lights must be excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the
sensitized material inside a camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately
visible in the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is depended on the
quantity and quality of the exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after
development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white side.
10.The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY VS. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Police Photography is the study of the Forensic photography is that field

general practices, methods, and steps covering the legal application of
in taking pictures of the crime scene, photography in criminal
physical thins, and other jurisprudence and criminal
circumstances that can be used as investigation.
criminal evidences or for law
enforcement purposes.

OBJECTIVES OF POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officers memory accurately as possible as to where
he find things.
3. To help in securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information
relating to the case.

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USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLICE WORK

1. Identification. This is the very first use of photography.

2. As a method of discovering, recording and preserving evidence.
3. As a way to present, in the court room, an impression of the pertinent elements
of crime and;
4. As a training and public relations medium for police programs.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the
first phase of examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on
the photograph.
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available
especially in court presentation.
3. Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the
crime scene they have investigated several months, ago, the small details and
exact locations of objects.
4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in
their effort to solve crimes.

ELEMENTS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

 Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,000

miles per second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent
based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of
the wave per second.

 Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest
or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer)
or Angstrom.
 Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to
one-millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively
smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth
part of a millimeter.

 Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either:
Reflected, Absorbed and Transmitted (RAT).

 Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.

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  Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would
allow the light to pass through its medium and;
 Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through.

 ISAAC NEWTON in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white
light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum.

 This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp

Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors
red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to
bottom). The visible light is also said of have a wavelength of
between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.

PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT

 .Red
 .Green
 .Blue

SECONDARY COLORS OF LIGHT

 Yellow
 Cyan
 Magenta

 White - is the presence of all color.

 Black - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.

TYPES OF LIGHT

 Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

a. Visible Light
- Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the
human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina
of the human eye.
b. Invisible Light
- lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite
the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

a. X-ray
 Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It
is produced by passing an electric current through a special type
of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 8

 Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of
shadow photography.
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
 Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers
designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored
background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known
as “black Light”.
c. Visible Light
 It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to
700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
 Considered as the photographic rays with the longest
wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is
designed to take photograph of over-written documents,
obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out
photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays).

SOURCES OF LIGHT

 Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention
of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
1. Bright Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the
object appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight
= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is
due to thin clouds that cover the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight
= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering
the sun.

 Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight,

under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and
cloudy dull sunlight.

 Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

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Continuous Radiation

1. Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot

light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the
object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.

2. Fluorescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves
as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is
used in photographing.

3. Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires
which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody
likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of
electrical consumptions.

Short Duration type

1. Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid

combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as
the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments
inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows
through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the
explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving
flash of tense light.

2. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in

charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The
electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It
usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because
of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the
photographs.

KINDS OF OBJECTS AS TO HOW THEY BEHAVE TO LIGHT

1. TRANSPARENT OBJECT- allows sufficiently visible light to pass through them

that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2. TRANSLUCENT OBJECT- allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently
that objects on the other side may not clearly distinguished.
3. OPAQUE OBJECT- greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the
other side is very difficult if not possible.

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PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

1. REFLECTION- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a

surface.
 Regular reflection- happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny
surface.
 Irregular reflection- occurs when lights hits a rough or uneven but
glossy object.

2. REFRACTION- the bending of light when passing from medium to another.

3. DIFFRACTION- the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque
object.
4. ABSORPTION- the nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark
surfaces.
5. TRANSMISSION- passes through an object, the light is transmitted.

CAMERA and its ACCESSORIES

 A light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking
unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized
material.
 Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as
light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.
 A camera is a device used to take pictures (usually photographs).
 A camera that takes pictures singly is sometimes called a photo camera.

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold
other parts.
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form
an image on the film.
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens
designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the
multiple or blurred image
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent
of the coverage of the given lens

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 11

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAMERA

1. BOX CAMERA

o The box camera (viewfinder) was the instrument of choice for the casual
amateur photographer. Inexpensive and simple, it was, nevertheless,
capable of excellent results under many conditions. Box cameras
were normally fitted with a single-element lens, a limited range of
aperture control, and a single-speed leaf shutter.
o It usually lacks a focusing system (fix-focus) as well as control of
aperture and shutter speeds. This makes it suitable for daylight
photography only.

2. PINHOLE CAMERA

o A pinhole camera is a camera without a lens.

o An image's light from a scene passes through this single point, and
because there is no lens, the image will be clear at all distances from the
pinhole.
o The smaller the hole, the sharper the image, but the more exposure
will be required. Also, in order to produce a reasonably clear image, the
ratio of the pinhole, or aperture, size to the distance between it and the
screen should be 1/100 or less.

3. FOLDING-ROLL FILM CAMERA

o The second in popularity only to the box camera, the folding camera was
manufactured in a variety of formats. Basically, though, it was a box
camera whose lens was incorporated into a movable bellows that
could slide back and forth on a rail, allowing the lens to change
focus.

4. RANGE FINDER CAMERA

o A rangefinder camera is a camera fitted with a range finder

o A range-finding focusing mechanism allowing the photographer to
measure the subject distance and take photographs that are in
sharp focus.
o The range finder camera allows for accurate focus, however, by using two
views of the same subject to adjust focus. In this camera there are two
images in the viewfinder. One is usually only a portion of the
viewer area and is usually slightly yellowish in color.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 12

 o The photographer adjusts the focus ring on the lens and as they do the
two images move. When both on directly on top of each other they blend
together and almost disappear signifying the camera is in focus. 
o The rangefinder is accurate and usually very quiet and very light weight.

5. REFLEX CAMERA

o A camera that has a mirror directly in the path of light traveling through
the lens that reflects the scene to a viewing screen.
Two Kinds:

 SINGLE-LENS REFLEX CAMERA

 TWIN-LENS REFLEX CAMERA

TWIN LENS REFLEX - (TLR)

 A camera having two separate lenses of the same focal length - one
for viewing and focusing; the other for exposing the film.

HOW A TWIN LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?

 It is fitted with two lenses of identical focal length, one mounted atop the
other. The lower, or taking, lens focuses its image directly on the film,
while the image produced by the upper viewing lens is reflected
through 90 degrees by a mirror, so that if the photographer brings the
scene on the focusing screen to sharp focus, the image on the film plane
will be equally sharp.   

SINGLE LENS REFLEX (SLR)

 A camera with one lens only for both viewing and picture-taking.
 The image is reflected onto a viewing screen by a moveable mirror in
the camera.
 The mirror flips out of the way just before the shutter opens,
permitting light to strike the film.

HOW A SINGLE LENS RELFEX CAMERA WORKS?

 By allowing light passing through the lens is reflected by a mirror and

brought to focus on a ground glass. The mirror causes a reversal of the
image seen on the ground glass, but the addition of a pentaprism
mounted over the ground glass allows the camera to be used at eye
level, with the image seen upright and in proper left/right orientation.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 13

  An instant before the exposure is made, the mirror swings upward, and the
shutter is activated. A single control cocks the shutter for the next
exposure, advances the film, and returns the mirror to focusing position.  
During an exposure the viewfinder is blocked

6. VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA

 A large format camera - a term that applies to cameras that produce an
individual image size of 5" X 4" or larger. It is most often found in a
studio, and is sometimes even called a "studio camera," although the
view camera can be transported and set up in the field.

7. VIEWFINDER CAMERA
 Camera with a viewfinder that is separate from the lens used in taking the
picture. A simple point-and-shoot disposable camera is an example of a
viewfinder camera, but not all viewfinder cameras are simple.

8. POLAROID CAMERA

 This camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph when
there is no requirement for enlargements.

9. UNDERWATER CAMERA

 This is designed for underwater photography

10. PANORAMIC CAMERA

 Used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a 120,
180, 360 degrees view of one exposure.

PARTS OF THE CAMERA

1. LENS- A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two spherical surfaces

capable of forming images.
2. FOCUSING RING- Moves the lens back and forth which allows the
photographer to create a sharp image of the subject.
3. DIAPHRAGM OR APERTURE- A small opening in a camera usually circular in
shape and usually varies in the form of its diaphragm that regulates the
intensity of light which passes through the lens.
4. SHUTTER SPEED DIAL- it will control the length of time when light is allowed
to strike the sensitized material.
5. SHUTTER- an adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light
reaching the film by varying the length of time light is allowed to pass through
the lens.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 14

6. SHUTTER RELASE BUTTON- a part of camera which when pressed it will keep
the shutter in open position.
7. VIEW FINDER- a viewing instrument attached to a camera, used to obtain
proper composition.
8. FILM HOLDER- it holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located
at the opposite side of the lens.
9. ACESSORY LIGHT SHOE or HOT SHOE- it is where the flash bulb is inserted
for indoor photography.
10.ISO/ASA/DIN DIAL- a camera device in which when adjusted it will conform
with the sensitivity of the film to light.
11.EXPOSURE COUNTER- a device indicating the number of exposures made.
12.DISCTANCE SCALE- a device that shows the approximate distance from the
optical center of the lens to the point of focus on the object.
13.FILM REWIND KNOB- This knob rewinds the film back into the film cassette.
14.FILM ADVANCER LEVER- Use to advance or move over each small piece of film
after the picture is taken.
15.FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM- It moves unexposed film into position for the
next picture.
16.BACK COVER RELEASE KNOB- a device used in opening the back cover for
film reloading.
17.DATA DISPLAY- often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view the
settings such as speed, exposure and shutter speed.
18.LENS LOCK RELEASE LEVER- a device used to secure the lens.
19.SPROCKET TEETH- as part of the film transport mechanism, this is where the
sprocket holes will be engaged in.
20.TAKE UP SPOOL- it pulls the film along so unexposed film can be placed
behind the shutter.
21.FLASH BUTTON- pressed with the flash down, this button releases the flash
head to pop up.
22.LIGHT METER- It determines the proper exposure under various light
conditions. It is usually connected to the diaphragm and/or shutter in such a
way that correct exposure is automatically produced when the shutter is
tripped.
23.MODE DIAL/CAMERA DIAL- it is a dial used on digital camera to change the
camera’s mode.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 15

MANUAL MODES

1. P- Program mode offers the photographer partial control over the shutter
speed and aperture.
2. A or AV- Aperture priority allows the photographer to control the aperture,
while the shutter speed and ISO sensitivity are calculated by the camera.
3. S or TV- Shutter priority AKA “time value” allows the photographer to control
the shutter speed.
4. Sv- sensitivity value allows the photographer to control the aperture and ISO.
5. M- Manual mode allows the photographer to control the shutter speed,
aperture and ISO.
6. U- User mode (like a program preset).

AUTOMATIC MODES
1. Action or sport mode increases IS0 and uses a fast shutter speed to aperture
action.
2. Landscape mode uses a small aperture to gain depth of field.
3. Portrait mode widens the aperture to throw the background out of focus. The
camera may recognize and focus on a human face.
4. Night portrait mode uses an exposure long enough to capture background
detail with fill-in flash to illuminate a nearby subject.

HOW CAMERA WORKS?

1. Turn on the camera
2. Load the film
3. Set the film speed
4. Set the aperture setting
5. Set the shutter speed selector dial.
6. Turn the shutter speed selector dial to speed desired.
7. Focus the lens and frame your picture.
8. Press the shutter release button
9. If the end of the film is reached, it will rewind automatically. However, the
photographer may rewind the film manually by pressing the film rewind lock
found at the back of the camera.

FILM LOADING
1. Open the camera back
2. Load the film by aligning the film ledger on the orange dot reference.
3. Close the camera back

Note: if the film was loaded properly, number 1 will register on the frame counter
found on the data display.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 16

HOLDING THE CAMERA

1. Hold the camera steady

2. Press down the shutter release button.

CONTROL OF CAMERAS

 Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp and normal

image and negatives after photographing. There are three important
controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting.

 FOCUSING CONTROL
 DIAPHRAGM/APERTURE CONTROL
 SHUTTER SPEED

1. FOCUSING CONTROL
o The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the
object. Adjusting the lens to form the clearest possible image is
called focusing.
o Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order
to form a sharp image.

Three Types of Focusing

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)

 Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this

type of focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is
not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will
coincide or superimposed to form a single object.
 Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or
two parts once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image
has been united then the object is already focused.

2. Ground Glass

o A focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the object distance

and the camera is out of focus or not. If the object is not well focused,
the object to be photographed will appear blurred. To make it clear and
accurate the focusing ring of the camera is adjusted on clockwise or
counter clockwise to get the desired clearness of the object.

3. Scale Bed or Focusing Scale

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 17

 o In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the object
to be photographed is calculated by means of feet or meter. There
are cameras where estimated distance from the camera to objects is
being indicated in the focusing ring.

2. DIAPHRAGM or APERTURE CONTROL (LENS OPENING)

 An adjustable mechanism device in the lens assembly which controls the

amount of light passing through the lens to the film. The diaphragm works like
the pupil of the eye. It may be enlarged or contracted. If it is enlarged, it allows
more light to enter.
 Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size
of the aperture is measured using f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as
f/numbers represent fractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the
aperture. The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, while the smallest
aperture available may be f/22.

F-NUMBER AND F-STOP

 f-NUMBER - (ƒ-number) A number that expresses a lens’ light-transmitting

ability - i.e. the size of the lens opening. Usually found on the barrel of a
lens, f-numbers indicate the size of the aperture in relation to the focal length of
the lens. A smaller number indicates a larger lens diameter. ƒ/1.4
signifies that the focal length of the lens is 1.4 times as great as the
diameter. All lenses set at the same f-number transmit the same amount of
light.

 ƒ-stop - (f-stop) A lens aperture setting calibrated to an f-number.

3. SHUTTER SPEED CONTROL

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 18

  It is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of
time, for the purpose of exposing photographic film or a light-sensitive
electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene.

The different shutter speeds are:

1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 or 1/60
sec, 125 or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250, 500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or
1/2000.

SHUTTER setting for bright and cloudy day:

APERTURE F22 F16 F11 F8 F5.6

SHUTTER 1/8 1/6 1/125 1/250 1/500

Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long
exposures:
B (for bulb ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held.
T (for time) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again.

When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds

 By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use
slower shutter speeds than usual. These allow you to use apertures
that would not otherwise be possible when using a handheld camera
and to shoot in the lowest light. Slow shutter speeds can also be
used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become
artistically blurred.

When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds

 Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter
speed than that needed to avoid camera shake. Some blur may be
welcome with action subjects, but often we want to freeze the action.
Selecting the right shutter speed depends not only on the velocity of the
subject, but also on the direction in which it is traveling.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 19

Types of Shutter

1. Central Shutters - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind
or even in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow. A
leaf mechanism is usually used.
2. Focal Plane Shutter - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a type of
photographic shutter that is positioned immediately in front of the focal
plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image
sensor.
3. Focal-Plane Shutters - Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair
of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which shield the film from light.
4. Leaf Shutters - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with
one or more pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light
through the lens onto the film, but which when triggered opens the shutter by
moving the leaves to uncover the lens for the required time to make an
exposure, then shuts.
5. Diaphragm Shutters - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin
blades which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure.

There are many factors to be considered in using this control. Some of these
factors are:

1. The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO
2. The lighting condition
3. The motion of the subjects on different angles
4. The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc.

DEPTH OF FIELD VS. DEPTH OF FOCUS

DEPTH OF FIELD

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 20

  The zone of acceptable sharpness or the area or 'zone' of a
photograph, from front to back, which is in focus or the range of
distance in a scene that appears to be in focus and will be reproduced
as being acceptably sharp in an image.
 is controlled by the lens aperture, and extends for a distance in front
of and behind the point on which the lens is focused.

DEPTH OF FOCUS
 A zone of focus in the camera. If an image is focused on a ground
glass screen in a camera, depth of focus makes it possible to move
the screen slightly backward or forward and still have the image
in acceptable focus.

FOCAL LENGTH
 The focal length of a lens is defined as the distance in mm from
the optical center of the lens to the focal point, which is located
on the sensor or film if the subject (at infinity) is "in focus". The
camera lens projects part of the scene onto the film or sensor.
 The field of view (FOV) is determined by the angle of view from the
lens out to the scene and can be measured horizontally or
vertically.

FOCAL POINT
 (1) The central or principal point of focus. (2) The optical center of a
lens when it is focused on infinity.
FILM PLANE/FOCAL PLANE
 A film plane is the area inside any camera where the individual
frame of film or digital sensor is positioned during exposure. It is
sometimes marked on camera body with the 'Φ' symbol where the
vertical bar represents the exact location.

PHOTOGRAPHIC LENS

LENS
o A true “lens” is a single piece of glass (or other transparent
substance) having one or more curved surfaces used in changing
the convergence of light rays.
o What we commonly call a photographic lens is more accurately and
technically called an “objective,” an optical device containing a
combination of lenses that receive light rays from an object and form
an image on the focal plane.
o However, dictionaries have come to accept the usage of the term
“lens” to mean the entire photographic objective itself.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 21

 o A photographic lens will always be called a lens, even though
it is not a lens, but has a lot of lenses in it.
o A camera lens collects and focuses rays of light to form an
image on film.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

1. POSITIVE OR CONVEX LENS (CONVERGING LENS) Characterized by the

fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of
bending the light together and forms the image inversely.
2. NEGATIVE OR CONCAVE LENS (DIVERGING LENS) Characterized by the
fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the
virtual image on the same side of the lens.

Classification of lens according to its focal length

 Focal lengths are usually specified in millimeters (mm), but older lenses
marked in centimeters (cm) and inches are still to be found. For a given
film or sensor size, specified by the length of the diagonal, a lens may
be classified as:

1. NORMAL LENS
 Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the
diagonal of the film format. A scene viewed through a
normal lens appears to have the same perspective as if it
was being viewed “normally” without a lens, just the way
your eye sees it.
 In 35mm photography, lenses with a focal length of 50mm
are called “normal” because they work without reduction
or magnification and create images the way we see the
scene with our naked eyes (same picture angle of 46°).

2. MACRO LENS
 A lens with the ability to focus from infinity to extremely
closely, allowing it to capture images of tiny objects in
frame-filling, larger-than-life sizes. Sometimes called a
“Close-up lens,” although a close-up lens is usually a lens
attachment for close-ups and does not generally have the
ability to focus on infinity.
 It has an angle of view narrower than 25° and focal length
longer than normal.
 These lenses are used for close-ups, e.g., for images of the
same size as the object. They usually feature a flat field as well,

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 22

 which means that the subject plane is exactly parallel with the
film plane.

3. WIDE-ANGLE LENS
 A lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a
normal lens, or that of the human eye. A wide-angle lens
has a focal length which is less than the diagonal of the
film format. Angle of view wider than 60° and focal length
shorter than normal. The 24mm lens is a WIDE-ANGLE
LENS.

4. TELEPHOTO LENS – OR LONG-FOCUS LENS

 A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal
length, the ability to magnify images, and exhibiting relatively
shallow depth of field. Examples of 35 mm camera telephoto
lenses include 85 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm lenses, to name a
few.

5. FISHEYE LENS
 Describes an extreme wide-angle lens that has an angle of
view exceeding 100° - sometimes more than 180° - and that
renders a scene as highly distorted.

6. ZOOM LENS
 Lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the
lens system.
 One in which focal length is variable. Elements inside a
variable focus lens shift their positions, enabling the lens to
change its focal length – in effect, providing one lens that has
many focal lengths.

LENS DEFECTS OR ABERRATION

1. ASTIGMATISM
 The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical
and horizontal lines on the same plane. Lines in some
directions are focused less sharply than lines in other
directions.
 It is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will
appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense
horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 23

 stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F
number).
2. COMA

Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or
lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the
lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.
3. CURVATURE OF FIELD
 The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is
caused by rays from the outer limits of the subject plane
coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays.
4. SPHERICAL ABERRATION
 Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the
lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and
blurred at the side.
5. CHROMATIC ABERRATION
 Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength.
The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than
those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to
a shorter focus than the red.
6. DISTORTION
 Misrepresentation of proportions of objects or of their
arrangement in a scene.

The two main types of lens distortion are:

(1) Barrel distortion, in which the straight lines near the edges of the view
frame appear bowed outward from the center, like a barrel-shape.
2) Pincushion distortion in which the same lines bend in towards the
center.
7. FLARE
 Flare is non-image forming light. Reduces contrast and
color saturation. Flare is caused by very bright subject areas
and produces internal reflections in the lens.

Types of Lens According to Degree of Correction

 Simple Meniscus lens – this lens is usually found in simple or box camera.
It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
 Rapid Rectilinear Lens – It is a combination of two achromatic lens with
almost the same focal length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens
defects but not on astigmatism.
 Anastigmatic lens (a.k.a. Anastigmat) - a lens designed to correct
astigmatism. A lens which is free from astigmatism and other types of lens

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 24

 defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the same
time.
 Achromatic Lens – An achromatic lens or achromat is a lens that is
designed to limit the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration.
 Process lens – a super-corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color
correction and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in the
photographs.
 Fixed Focus Lens – a lens use in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a
short focal length and greater depth of field.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTER

FILTER
o Tinted glass, gelatin or plastic discs, squares or rectangles that
modify the light passing through them.
o Filters are used in photography to change the appearance of a
scene by emphasizing, eliminating or changing color or density,
generally so that the scene can be recorded with a more natural look,
on a particular film.

PURPOSE

The purpose of photographic filters is to alter the characteristics of light

that reaches the light-sensitive emulsion. As light is transmitted through a filter, at
least one of the following alterations occurs:

1. The color of light is modified.

2. The amount of light is reduced.
3. The vibration direction of the light rays is limited.

SPECIAL- PURPOSE FILTERS

Some of the special-purpose falters you will work with include the following:

1. Neutral Density Filters

o Neutral density (ND) filters reduce the amount of light passing
through a camera lens without changing the reproduction of colors in
the scene.
2. Haze Filters
o A haze filter is any filter that absorbs atmospherically scattered
sunlight. This includes contrast and correction filters.  When
contrast   and   correction   filters   are   used   for haze penetration,
they may be considered special-purpose falters.  

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 25

 3. Polarizing  Filters
o It is an adjustable filter, with an inner ring that screws onto the lens
and an outer ring that can be rotated. Turning the outer ring reduces
or increases the filter’s effectiveness. The polarizer absorbs glare,
reducing or eliminating reflections and darkening blue skies.
4. Skylight Filter
o A skylight filter adds warmth to a scene recorded on color
transparency film   by absorbing   ultraviolet radiation.   
o A skylight filter is light pink in color.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM

FILM
o A transparent cellulose nitrate or cellulose acetate composition made
in thin, flexible strips or sheets and coated with a light-sensitive
emulsion for taking photographs.

The basic structures of a black and white film are the following:

1. Top Coating
 It is an over-coating of a thin layer of hard gelatin which helps
protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions.
2. Emulsion Layer
 It is the light-sensitive portion of a film or paper that records the
image. Composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive, but for
photographic purposes, halogens such as bromide.
3. Film base
 It is commonly made of cellulose acetate or other materials such
as paper, plastic, or glass which supports the emulsion layer and is
coated with a non-curl anti-halation backing.

4. Anti-halation backing
 It is a black dye applied on the rear surface of the film, its function is
to absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion layer, thus,
preventing it to reflect back to the emulsion (halation). The dye is
removed during processing by one of the chemical in the developer. Its
second function is to control the film from curling towards the
emulsion layer.

Basically, the structure of color film is almost the same as black and white film
except that the emulsion layer consists of three layers, stacked one on top of
the other.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 26

 1. Top layer
 It is sensitive to blue light only; green and red light passes through it
without exposing the color blind halides.
2. Yellow filter
 It is known as Carey Lea silver, suspended in gelatin is coated
between the top and second layer to absorb any penetrating blue light
but freely passes green and red light.
3. Middle layer
 It is orthochromatic, which is sensitive to blue (which cannot
reach it) and green, but not to red. So the red light passes on to the
bottom emulsion layer.
4. Bottom layer
 It is panchromatic, sensitive to blue (which cannot reach it) and
red. It is also somewhat sensitive to green light but to such a slight
degree that it is not important.

FILM TYPES ACCORDING TO COLOR SENSITIVITY:

1. NON-CHROMATIC
 It is sensitive to ultraviolet and blue-violet colors only. This film
may be used when natural rendition is not important. For example, it is
used to copy black and white originals and to photograph colorless
subjects when extreme contrast is needed.
2. ORTHOCHROMATIC
 It is sensitive to blues and greens, but not to reds. Reds are
recorded as dark tones, while greens are light tones when printed.
3. PANCHROMATIC
 It is sensitive to all colors and are further subdivided according
to their degree of sensitivity to each color. This film is most
commonly used in investigative photography because it produces the
most natural recording of colors.

4. INFRARED
 It is sensitive to blues and infrared radiation, which is beyond the
human eye’s sensitivity. It is useful in penetrating haze because of its
longer wavelengths. In investigative photography, it is useful in
laboratory analysis of questionable documents; in the discovery of old
or faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the
skin; and in the construction of camera traps.

FILM SPEED

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 27

  It is the sensitivity of the film emulsion to light, which is
measured and expressed in a numerical rating called ISO
formerly known as ASA/DIN.
 This means that the higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the film
is to light, and that pictures can be taken indoors under dim light
conditions.

The suggested uses of the following film under varying conditions are:

 ISO – 25 or lowest that condition will permit for best color and sharpness
 ISO – 100 or 200 – for general purpose
 ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
 ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions

ASA (American Standards Association)

o This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number
the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen)
o This is expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same
principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
ISO (International Standard Organization)
o This is expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.

DARKROOM TECHNIQUES

PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
 can  be  defined  simply as  a  series  of  chemical  changes
that  accomplish  the following goals:

 Develop the image

 Stop the action of development at a desired point
 Fix the visible image to make it permanent
 Wash away all traces of chemicals used
 Dry the photographic material

PHOTOGRAPHIC SOLUTIONS

Developer
 When a photographic emulsion is exposed to light, the silver halides
(usually silver bromide and/or silver chloride) in the emulsion change

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 28

 chemically. However, no noticeable change can be seen
until the film is developed.  
 The developer causes the affected silver halides to change into metallic
silver while having no effect on the unexposed silver halides. The result
is that a subject area reflecting the most light will affect the
most silver halides and will be the darkest part of the image
formed in development.

Most all modern developer contains the following ingredients:

a. Developing agent/reducer – the basic and most important ingredient in the

developing solution is the reducer, Metol-hydroquinon (M-Q) is the most
versatile and popular of all developers.
b. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, Sodium hydroxide are some of
the alkalis used to increase the rate of oxidation of the reducing agent, softens
the gelatin of the film emulsion, and speeds up solution penetration.
c. Restrainer – the chemical most commonly used as a restrainer is potassium
bromide. Without the restrainer, most developing solution act too fast and
developed unexposed silver halides near the surface of the emulsion which
causes fog, steaks, and image lacking in contrast.
d. Preservative – all organic developing agents in an alkaline sate have a strong
chemical attraction to oxygen, so, preservative such as sodium sulfite or
sodium bisulfate is added to prevent excessive oxidation thus prolonging the
useful life of the developing solution and prevents the formation of colored
oxidation products which causes stains.

Stop Bath/rinse bath

 It has become common practice to rinse  film  in running water after

development to retard development and to remove excess chemicals.
With prints, it is equally common to use an acid bath to stop the action
of the developer and prolong the life of the fixer. In either case, the
bath is referred to as a stop bath. Acetic acid diluted with water
is the most commonly used stop bath.

THREE (3) GENERAL TYPES OF RINSE BATH

 Water rinse bath- helps retard the action of the developing agent and
remove the excess developer from the film, thus preventing
contamination of the fixing bath.
 A water rinse is suitable and sufficient for most
negatives, however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if used, it

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 29

 should be followed by an acid bath. The same procedure
applies when processing prints.
 Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as a stop bath and is more
effective than a water rinse, as it instantly neutralizes the action of
the developer and stops further development.
 It also neutralizes the alkalinity of the developer and
prolongs the life of the fixing bath. To prepare an acid bath,
mix ½ oz. of 28% acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
 Hardening rinse bath – use only when it is impossible to control the
temperature of the solutions, particularly the wash water, or when
development is done in high temperature or under tropical conditions.
 A typical hardener rinse bath contain the following: 32 oz.
of water; 1 oz of potassium chrome alum; and 1 oz
sodium bisulfate (a solution containing potassium chrome
alum is very unstable and becomes exhausted quickly with
or without use).
Fixing Bath

 The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the developed image

permanent by removing all the unaffected silver salt from the
emulsion. These silver salts are still sensitive; and if they are allowed
to remain in the emulsion, light ultimately darkens them and obscure
the image, thus, making the negative useless.

Fixing Bath Ingredients:

a. Fixer or fixing agent. The fixer is sometimes called “hypo” because the
conditioners to shorten processing time or to preserve other   solutions.   The
solution commonly   found   in main ingredient of the fixer formula, sodium
thiosulfate, is also known as hyposulfate.

Typical Fixing Formula:

1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 600 ml
2. Hypo - 240 gm
3. Sodium sulfite - 15 gm(anhydrous)
4. Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml
5. Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gm
6. Potassium alum - 15 gm(fine granular
7. Water to make - 1 li

Wash

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 30

  Running water is not actually required but greatly simplifies the
removal of all the chemicals previously used.   The   wash   step   is
necessary   if   you   desire   a permanent image without stains.  Wash
films and papers with fresh running water for about five minutes.

Wetting Agent
 The  wetting  agent,  usually  called  Photo-Flo,  is  a chemical
designed  to  reduce  the  surface  tension  of water,  thus
reducing  the  possibility  of  water  spots forming on film as it dries.
Drying
 The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative which
is done in two phases. First is removal of the excess water from the
surface. Second is drying, either by evaporation or forced air.

Equipment for Film Processing

1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers)
4. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips for drying
10. glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions

Developer Formulation
Typical component:
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservative
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer
D-76 Film Developer Formula
1. Water 520 C - 750 ml
2. Elon - 2 gm
3. Hydroquinone - 5 gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 100 gm
5. Borax (granules) - 2 gm
6. Water to make - 1 li

Dektol - Paper Developer

1. Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 ml

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 31

 2. Elon - 311 gm
3. Hydroquinone - 12 gm
4. Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 gm
5. Sodium carbonate - 67.5 gm

THE POSITIVE OR PRINT

PRINT
 A photographic image printed on paper, generally a positive image
made from a negative. (Also refers to a photograph of a model that
appears in print - in a newspaper or magazine, for example.)
 After the process of producing the negative has been completed, a
positive image is produced from the negative which is a true
representation of the relative brightness of all parts of the object and is
now called print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is
coated with a light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is much the
same as the one which must be used to cover the film.

BASIC LAYERS OF PRINTING PAPER

o BASE
 Made of paper which must be chemically pure to insure that it will
not interfere with the chemical processes to which the emulsion is
subjected. Available either in a single or double weight paper.
o BARYTA LAYER
 A gelatin layer containing baryta crystal to increase the reflectivity
of the paper.
o EMULSION LAYER
 Contain minute silver halides suspended with gelatin which needs
only to reproduce the total range of negative.

Types of Photographic Printing Paper

1. Chloride Papers
o Have a slow speed emulsion containing silver chloride, fine
grain and produce deep blacks, and used for contact printing.
2. Bromide Papers
o Have faster emulsion speed than chloride paper, achieve
sensitivity through the use of bromide halides. Because of the
relatively high sensitivity to light, these emulsions are particularly
suitable for projection printing.
3. Chlorobromide Papers

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 32

 o Contain both silver chloride and silver bromide halides. Emulsion
speed lies between that of chloride and bromide papers, used for
both contact and projection printing.
4. Variable Contrast Paper
o Combines the contrast ranges in one paper, this versatility is
achieved with special chlorobromide emulsion that produces
varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light.

Equipment for Paper developing

1.Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the
   fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the
   prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4. Timers
5.Paper cutter
6.A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.

PRINTING

 In Photography, printing is the term used to describe the process

of making positive images from negatives (and, in some instances,
from film positives).
 Photographic   print  is  made  by  passing  light  through  the
negative  onto  a  piece  of  paper  that  is  coated  with  a light-
sensitive emulsion very similar to film.

Types of Printing
Contact Printing
o It is the process of making positive prints by placing a sheet of
printing paper in direct contact with the negative, emulsion to
emulsion.
o It is the quickest, simplest, and most economical method of
producing photographic prints. For making proof prints and small
volume printing, all you need for a “contact printer” is a sheet of
glass, a light source, and some sort of padding.
o “Contact printers,” consisting of a sheet of glass hinged to a metal
frame and a pad assembly, are generally known as proof printers.

Contact Print
o A print made with the negative in contact (held tightly against) the
photographic paper so that both negative and print are the same size.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 33

Projection printing
o Generally refers to enlarging.
o It is the process of making positive prints by projecting the
negative   image   onto photosensitive   paper.
o The   projected   image   may   be enlarged, the same as the   negative
image,   or reduced in size. When the print images are larger than the
negative images, the process is called enlarging.
o When the print images are smaller than the negative images,   the
process   is   called reducing.
o Because projection  printing  is  usually  used  to  make  positive prints
with images larger than the negative, projection printers  are
usually  referred  to  as  enlargers.

The advantages of projection printing are as follows:

1. CROPPING - Removal of parts of an image in order to improve the

image’s composition. Cropping occurs when an area that is smaller than
the entire image frame is printed or reproduced.
 Cropping is sometimes also used in reference to a
photographer moving closer to a subject, thereby
eliminating (cropping) unnecessary surrounding elements from
the composition.
2. Dodging or burning in. This allows you to apply local exposure control
to bring out more detail in the highlight and shadow areas.
 DODGING - Blocking a portion of the light when printing a
photograph so that an area of the print will be made lighter.
 BURNING or Burning-in - Also known as "Printing in." In a
darkroom, providing extra exposure to an area of the print to
make it darker, while blocking light from the rest of the print.
3. Local fogging with a small external light, such as a penlight, to darken
selected  areas.  For example, to darken the background of a portrait to
direct viewer attention to the face.
4. Special effects. You can change the appearance of the image by use of
diffusers or patterns between the lens and paper.
5. Image distortion correction or introduction can be done by tilting the
enlarger easel.  An easel is the device used to hold the paper during
exposure.

PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGERS
 In general, all enlargers are similar in design and operation.  They
have an enclosed light source,  some method of providing an even
distribution of light over the negative, a negative carrier, a lens,

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 34

 and a means of adjusting   the   lens-to-negative   and   lens-to-
paper distances.

 TWO TYPES OF ENLARGERS:

1. Condenser Enlarger
 It has a set of condensing lenses between the printing
light and the negative. These lenses align and project the
light rays evenly through the negative.  Since  all  features  of
the negative  are  being  enlarged,  any  flaws  also  will  be
enlarged.
2. Diffusion Enlarger
 The diffusion enlarger has a diffusing medium (usually a
ground glass) between the light source and the negative
to spread the light evenly over the entire surface of the
negative. Light emitted from the lamp,   as   well   as   that
reflected   from the parabolic reflector, strikes the diffuser,
which, in turn, scatters it in all directions.  Thus, when the
light reaches the negative, it is traveling in a no directional
pattern.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

There is no prescribed length of time it takes to photographically

document a crime scene. The amount of time spent depends on the size and
complication in the crime scene, how much there is to document and
environmental factors like weather or danger to the investigative team. It can
consist of thousands of photographs and hours of work.

Crime scene photography should not just focus on the obvious. The purpose of
crime scene photography is to document what is there and where it is in
relationship to the scene, whether it is obviously connected to the crime or not.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

 Also referred to as crime scene photography, is an activity that

records the initial appearance of the crime scene and physical
evidence, in order to provide a permanent record for the courts.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHERS

 Shall provide assistance to investigate units of the PNP, AFP and

other government investigative institutions through photography,

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 35

 sketching, facial composite, video recording and comparative
examination and photograph analysis.

CRIME SCENES

 It can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to

associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and
suspects to victims.
 A place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence
found thereat.
 This is Locard's exchange principle. It is the basic tenet of why crime
scenes should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can
be physical evidence.
 In scientific crime scene investigation, the first activities at the crime
scene are essential for the successful preservation of the physical
evidence. The first responder and ultimately the crime scene
investigator have the obligation to make the scene secure and
ensure that any further activities at the scene do not change the
evidence.
 All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime
scene: the subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the
overall forensic photographs must be shown a neutral and accurate
representation.

CRIME SCENE EVIDENCE

RULE 128 (SECTION 1 Evidence defined)

 It is the means, sanctioned by these rules, of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.

(Sec. 3. Admissibility of evidence)

 Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is not
excluded by the law of these rules.
 Crime scenes are the source of the physical evidence that is used
to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and
suspects to victims.

FORENSIC EVIDENCE

 A form of legal evidence that can be used in a court of law to

convict a person of a crime and as a category of public presentation.

ESSENTIAL 3 STEPS ON CRIME SCENE

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 36

 The first activities at the crime scene are essential for the successful
preservation of the physical evidence.

1. FIRST RESPONDERS
 The crime scene investigator is rarely the first person at a
crime scene. Most first responders work on reflex or instinct at
the scene. Their tasks are to save lives or apprehend suspects.
Unfortunately, that may mean that physical evidence may
be inadvertently altered, changed, or lost due to the
actions of a first responder. The crime scene investigator
needs to communicate with the first responders to determine if
any changes or alterations have occurred at the scene before
the scene investigator arrived.

THE SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES OF THE

FIRST RESPONDER (PNP HANDBOOK)

FIRST RESPONDER (FR)

o The first Police Officers to arrive at the crime scene are the FRs
who were dispatched by the local police station/unit concerned
after receipt of incident/flash/ alarm report;
o  Immediately, the FR shall conduct a preliminary evaluation of the
crime scene. This evaluation should include the scope of the
incident, emergency services required, scene safety concerns,
administration of life-saving measures, and establishment of
security and control of the scene;
o The FR is mandated to save and preserve life by giving the
necessary first-aid measures to the injured and their medical
evacuation as necessary.
o The FR shall likewise secure and preserve the crime scene by
cordoning off the area to prevent unauthorized entry of persons;
o The FR shall take the dying declaration of severely injured person/s,
if any. Requisites of a “Dying Declaration” are:
 That death is imminent and the declarant is conscious
of that fact;
 That the declaration refers to the cause and
surrounding circumstances of such death;
 That the declaration relates to facts which the victim is
competent to testify to;

2. CRIME SCENE SECURITY

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 37

  Locard's exchange principle is the basis for the use of
physical evidence in a criminal investigation, it is
extremely important for the crime scene to be made
secure and restrict the access to the crime scene by
nonessential people. Many agencies allow easy access to
crime scenes by anyone in the agency. Most media persons are
kept out but changes to the scene and evidence can change in
attempts to protect victims.

3. PRELIMINARY SCENE SURVEY

 The preliminary scene survey or walk-through is the crime
scene investigator’s first opportunity to view the target
area crime scene. A simple visual search for obvious
physical evidence can be accomplished at this time. It is
during this first viewing of the crime scene that the scene
investigator should note any transient or temporary items of
evidence and protect them immediately. Melting snow footwear
impression are examples of this transient evidence.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY DIVISION OF PNP CRIME

LABORATORY

1. Document the crime scene and physical evidence present through photography,
videography and sketching.
2. Conduct mug shots photography on the suspects and crime victims for personal
identification.
3. Photograph evidence submitted to this laboratory before, during and after the
examination.
4. Conduct comparative examination and photograph analysis on the standard
and questioned photographs.
5. Conduct facial composite based on the actual description of the suspects by the
victim and/or witness.
6. Ensure preservation of photographic evidence and records.
7. Present before any court of law and/or legally mandated agency the
photographic evidence, records and testimonies of the photography examiners.
8. Conduct lectures to military/police training institutions, government agencies
and public/private schools upon request.

SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION (SOCO)

 A forensic procedure performed by the trained personnel of the PNP Crime

Laboratory SOCO Team through scientific methods of investigation for the

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 38

 purpose of preserving the crime scene, gathering information, documentation,
collection, and examination of all physical and other forensic evidence.

 The SOCO Team shall not join any operations conducted by the local
police or accompany the FRs or the IOC in going to the crime scene.
They will only respond upon request through the Operations Center
and after the IOC has already made proper assessment of the crime
scene;
 Upon receipt of the Request for Conduct of SOCO, the SOCO Team
shall then conduct the scene of the crime operations.
 In case the SOCO Team needs to temporarily suspend the processing,
the Chief of Police shall be primarily responsible and accountable for
securing the crime scene.

BASIC SCENE OF THE CRIME OPERATION TEAM COMPOSITION

TEAM LEADER

1. Responsible for the safety and work performance of the individual members
of the SOCO Team at the crime and conduct initial walk-through for
purposes of crime scene assessment, making preliminary survey, evaluation
of potential evidence, and preparing a narrative description.
2. Designate command post location and ensure exchange of information
between search and investigative personnel.
3. Control access to the scene and designate a personnel to record in the
contamination log everyone who enters the crime scene for a purpose.
4. Continuously evaluate efficiency of search during the entire course of
operation.

PHOTOGRAPHER

1. Photograph entire area before it is entered.

2. Photograph victims, crowd and vehicles.
3. Photograph entire scene with general, medium, close up coverage and
extreme close up view using scale when appropriate.
4. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved. Coordinate this
effort with the sketcher, evidence custodian and evidence recovery
personnel.
5. Photograph all latent fingerprints, and other impression evidence before
lifting and casting is accomplished.
6. Photograph blueprints, maps and previous photographs of scene as
required.
7. Take final photographs to show final condition as released.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 39

SKETCH PREPARER

1. Make a diagram of the immediate area of scene. It must be oriented to the

north.
2. Indicate on sketch the pieces of evidence and coordinate evidence
nomenclature with evidence custodian and evidence collector.
3. Indicate adjacent structures, areas and other objects as necessary and
identify and label areas to be searched and inform team leader and all other
search members of nomenclature for identified areas.
4. Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and list assistants
on sketch.

THE MECHANICS OF SEACRHING THE CRIME SCENE

1. STRIP METHOD = the searchers (A, B, and C) proceed slowly at the same pace
along the path parallel to one side of the rectangle.
2. DOUBLE STRIP OR GRID METHOD = Method, the rectangle is traversed first
parallel to the bas and then parallel to the side.
3. SPIRAL METHOD = a) Inward Spiral method
b) Outward Spiral Method
4. WHEEL METHOD = the searchers shall assemble at the center of the crime scene,
then simultaneously searching the crime scene outward.
5. ZONE OR SECTOR METHOD = the area to be searched is divided into quadrants
and each searcher or a group of searcher is assigned to the quadrant.

SKETCHING THE CRIME SCENE

The General Kinds of Sketch

1. Rough Sketch is the sketch made by the investigator at the crime scene which is
full of important details but without the scale of proportion. This is used as the basis
for the finished sketch.

2. Finished sketch is the sketch with a scale of proportion and drawn by a draftsman
which can be used for court presentation. Rough and finished sketches if requested by
the court shall be presented by the draftsman to clear doubts of the jury.

PARTS OF SKETCH

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 40

 The following are parts of sketch that is usually practiced by the
Philippine National Police (PNP). This may vary depending on the sketcher and
purpose of sketch.

1. Title
2. Body
3. Compass direction
4. Nature of case
5. Location of incident
6. Date/time of incident
7. Name of victim
8. Name of suspect
9. Legend
10. Signatory
11. Date and time

EVIDENCE LOG RECORDER/CUSTODIAN

1. Prepare evidence log.

2. Coordinate evidence nomenclature with the sketcher, photographer and
evidence collector/processor.
3. Receive and record all collected evidence at the crime scene.
4. Undertake evidence packaging and preservation.
5. Maintain chain of custody of evidence.
6. Coordinate transmittal of evidence to the concerned office for appropriate
forensic laboratory examination.

DRIVER/SECURITY

1. Ensure that the vehicle is properly maintained.

2. Provide physical security to the SOCO members and equipment.
3. Account SOCO equipment before leaving the scene.

MASTER NOTE TAKER

 The one who writes down in short hand all observations at the
crime scene such as: weather condition, time of dispatch and time of
arrival at the crime scene and other relevant data that’s should be
taken down note.

MEASURER
 Makes all relevant measurements of the scene such as: the
distance of the body of the victim to the firearm used; in motor

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 41

 vehicle collision, the distances of the two vehicles to the points of
references.

EVIDENCE PROCESSOR/COLLECTOR

 This generally refers to the different crime scene technicians or forensic

specialist who by virtue of their training or specialization are necessary
to identify and collect physical evidence from the crime scene. The
services of these forensic personnel shall be attached to the SOCO team
depending on the SOCO requirements of the reported crime scene.

COLLECTING OF EVIDENCE

 In collecting firearm as evidence found in the crime scene, cautious action

should be employed. The firearm should be lifted using string or
handkerchief in its trigger guard to avoid destruction of possible latent
prints in the firearm.
 Liquid evidences such as blood, mucous, urine and other body fluid can be
collected using dropper and stored in a sealed container to maintain the
same physical nature as found in the crime scene. However, clotted blood
and other hardened evidences can be collected by scraping with the use of any
available instrument. Samples are very important for laboratory testing.

MARKING OF EVIDENCE

 As evidence is collected, it is individually marked with the initials of the

investigator. The marking tool depends upon the nature of the evidence.
If it is a hard object such as metals, the initial are scratched or engraved by
the use of sharp-pointed steel, which is called stylus.

METHODS OF MARKING SPECIFIC EVIDENCE

 Revolvers must be marked separately on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT,

CYLINDER, and STOCK. Tape should also be put around the bore and the
frame of the gun with signature of the investigator.

 Pistols must be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, BUTT, MAGAZINE,

and STOCK. Tape must also be put around the gun with signature to avoid
changing the parts of the gun that may affect the result of laboratory
examination.
 Rifles should be marked on the BARREL, FRAME, MAGAZINE, and
BOLT OR SLIDE. All magazines and accessories shall also be marked.

Fired Empty Shells, Misfired Cartridges

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 42

 Strictly regulations say they must be marked inside the mouth of fired empty
shells. It is nearly impossible to mark them inside the mouth, especially .22 caliber
shells. But they could be marked on the side of the body of the shells, not on the
base.

 BULLETS/ SLUGS/ BALLS – A bullet or slug can be marked on the

ogive or nose as well as in the base.
 Shotgun balls when collected in the crime scene should also be put
into container with tag that indicates where it was found with some
relevant measurements aside from what is sketched.
 Every collected evidence is marked. If they are of the same class or
type such as Cal 45 caliber fired empty shells, they are marked
consecutively such as: JCT 1, JCT 2, JCT 3 and so forth and so on,
depending on the initials of the investigator.

TAGGING EVIDENCE
 Evidence which by their nature could NOT BE marked on each surface such
as blood, hairs, fibers, are placed in the plastic container where that container
is then marked, we call such practice as tagging the physical evidence with the
use of card where the initials of the investigator, date and time of collection,
specific case and other information can be written.

FORENSIC SPECIALISTS

 Refers to the PNP Crime Lab personnel who by academic

preparation, series of specialized trainings, and/or occupational
exposure had acquired the required technical expertise in any of the
following PNP Crime Laboratory’s core competencies:
a. Medico Legal or any of its branches.
b. Forensic Chemistry or any of its branches.
c. Physical Identification or any its branches.
d. Firearms identification.
e. Fingerprint identification.
f. Document Examination.
g. Polygraph Examination
h. Forensic Photography.

GENERAL CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

o To record the original scene and related areas

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 43

 o To record the initial appearance of physical evidence
o It will provide investigators and others with this permanent visual
record of the scene for later use
o Photographs are also used in court trials and hearings

BASIC EQUIPMENT FOR CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Camera(s)
2. Normal lens
3. Wide angle lens
4. Close-up lenses or accessories
5. Filters
6. Electronic flash(s)
7. Remote or sync cord for electronic flash(s)
8. Extra camera and flash batteries
9. Locking cable release
10. Tripod
11. Film
12. Owner's manuals for camera and flash
13. Notebook and pen
14. Ruler
15. Gray card
16. Index cards and felt pen
17. Flashlight
18. Lenses

SEQUENTIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE CRIME SCENE

Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Show the
nature of the offense and those features that established the elements of the offense.
Other similar evidence or articles present of left at the crime scene shall be
photographed in the following manner:

1. General view of the exterior of the building/vehicle with relation to other

buildings, vehicles, roads, streets etc.
2. Medium view and close-up views of the subjects but not limited to the
following:
 Possible point of entry, outside and inside
 Possible point of exit
 Condition of the crime scene
 Articles/objects left at the scene
 Area from which valuable articles were removed
 Trace evidence (hairs, fibers, cigarette butts, etc.)

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 44

  Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks
 Fingerprints and foot prints as well as other articles on which
these prints may be found.
REMEMBER:
o The forensic photographer should begin taking photographs of the
scene as soon as possible after arriving at the area to assure that the
scene is depicted as it is observed in its original uninterrupted state.
“NOTHING SHOULD BE TOUCHED OR MOVED IN THE SCENE
UNTIL IT HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY PHOTOGRAPHED AND
DOCUMENTED”.

PROCEDURES IN PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

The case identifier shall always be clearly visible in the photographs. The
following procedure shall be done on all crime scenes in a logical manner:

GENERAL VIEW OR LONG RANGE VIEW

o General View or Long Range photographs of the overall scene

fundamentally are taken to portray the areas as if a person
viewing the scene is seeing it from the standing position. To
obtain this result, the photographer takes the photograph with the
camera at eye level.
o To establish the crime scene, photograph shall include any reference
points, such as building with signage, road street name, electric post
etc.

MEDIUM VIEW OR MID-RANGE

o Medium View or Mid-Range photographs are taken in a manner

which portrays the scene from approximately ten to twenty feet
distance from the subject matter. In order that the viewer be
permitted to associate the crime scene with separate areas of the
scene photographed, these areas should contain sufficient detail to
permit the viewer this association.

CLOSE-UP VIEW/RANGE
o Close-up Range photographs are normally taken approximately
five feet or less from the subject matter. The attention of close-up
photography is directed to objects which could not effectively be seen
in the long-range and mid-range photographs.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 45

EXTREME CLOSE-UP RANGE

 Extreme Close-up Range is intended only for capturing a photo of

a minute objects.
 Shall be taken to identify the details and the extent of damage on the
subject.

GUIDELINES IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS OF A CRIME SCENE

 ESTABLISH SHOT- this is an over-all view from extreme to the other.

 THE BUILDING- show the building in which the crime was committed.
 THE ENTRANCE- this is usually the door, maybe window.
 THE HALLWAY- the camera now shows us what we would observe immediately
after we enter the building.
 THE ROOM- this maybe a bedroom, an office or a bathroom.

THE PHOTOGRAPHERS LOG/NOTE

 The photographers log is his/her personal record to make

detailed notes that will remain fully meaningful even months
after the scene. Note should be supplemented by sketches and
photographs of the scene.

The notes shall begin with:

1. Nature of the case

2. Requesting party
3. Officer on case
4. Camera used/model
5. Lens used
6. Flash used
7. Time started photographing time ended photographing
8. Weather condition
9. Aperture and shutter speed used
10.Description of objects being photographed

IDENTIFICATION THROUGH MARKING

 Evidence tag are essential in report writing to classify cadavers from

objects found at the crime scene.

 LETTERS A, B, C, D etc. shall be used on dead body.

 NUMBERS 1,2,3,4, etc. shall be used on objects.

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 46

 PHOTOGRAPHING THE SPECIAL CRIME SCENE

1. HOMICIDE/MURDER

 When photographing a homicide/murder case, the photographer

relates what he has seen and defends it before the court during trial.
He shows the manner by which the homicide or murder occurred
through photographs he has taken and the views of the room
with all the possible points of entrance and exit.
 Photographs must show if there is any evidence of struggle and try
to show what happen inside prior to the crime.
 The circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the
body. Take close-up shots of the wounds, bruises, weapon used and
the place where it was taken.

PROCEDURE:

 OUTSIDE THE RESIDENCE

a. Body of the victim
b. Face of the victim and body wounds
c. Instrument used
d. Trace evidence (hairs, fibers and the like)
e. Signs of activity prior to the incident.
f. Evidence of struggle
 INSIDE THE RESIDENCE
a. Overlapping shots of the entire walls and move around the show
the position of the victim and any potential items of evidence.
b. Face of the victim and body wounds
c. Instrument used
d. Trace evidence
e. Signs of activity prior to the incident.
f. Evidence of struggle

2. CASES OF ALLEGED SUICIDE and OTHER FOUND DED BODY RESPONSES

a. ALLEGED SUICIDE BY SHOOTING

 Usually the hair surrounding the entrance is singeing and the skin is
burned to a reddish or grayish-brown color. If the muzzle of the firearm
is less than 20 cm. from the point of entry, smudging may be evident.
Exit wound is always larger than the diameter of the bullet.

PROCEDURE:

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 47

  Face of the victim for identification
 Medium and close-up shots on both entrance and exit of gunshot wounds with
case identifier and label.
 Photograph letter or suicide note, if any.

b. ALLEGED SUICIDE BY HANGING

 Photograph the body on its hanging position showing both ends of the rope
where it was tied- neck and ceiling with case identifier
 Close-up shots of the face of the victim, the knot and the ligature in the neck.
 Put a scale on its toe to the ground to determine the distance.
 Photograph letter or suicide note, if any.

3. ROBBERY
 Determine the robber’s possible point of entrance and exit. Robbers
may leave at the crime scene trace evidence like fingerprints,
shoeprints, tool marks, or personal items.

PROCEDURE:

 Place /area at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the evidence of being
ransacked so that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene
photographs.
 Area from which valuable articles were removed
 Personal items left by the robbers
 Traces of evidence on the damage parts of the house
 Damage locks, windows, doors, tool marks

4. TRAFFIC INCIDENTS

 When taking photographs of traffic accidents and hit and run cases,
view each drivers approaching key point of the accident and from
the point of a witness who observed the same. Consider where the
vehicles comes to rest and in what position, photographs should
show the relationship of vehicles with each other.
PROCEDURE:

1. Location with reference points

2. Vehicles in their original positions
3. Debris
4. Skid/tire marks
5. Victim/s

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 48

 6. Plate numbers of both vehicles
7. Evidence to identify hit and run vehicles

MARKINGS IN THE FIELD OF VIEW

Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks ad tape measures shall be used to

show the relative size of and distances between objects or the degree of magnification
of the enlargement. The markers shall be placed beside the object in a manner that
will not obscure any important piece of evidence.

Many times, courts object the use of rulers and marking devices that appear in
photographs of a crime scene. Therefore, photographs shall be taken in 2 ways:

a. First, without scale so as to show the original condition and so as not

tamper the evidence.
b. Second, with scale and chalk line to show its size and its continuity.

PRESERVATION OF FINGERPRINTS THROUGH PHOTOGRAPHS

When possible, fingerprints found at the crime scene shall be preserved by

photography before in attempts are made at preserving them.

The following shall be photographed with case identifier:

a. Place/object at any angle from a distance sufficient to show the fingerprints

against the background of its setting so that it can be located and referred to
in the overall crime scene photographs.
b. Fingerprints with and without scale
c. While dusting and lifting the fingerprint/s with case identifier.
d. Do not use flash

PHOTOGRAPHING IMPRESSION EVIDENCE

1. FOOTWEAR and FOOT PRINT

 Take a shots from a distance sufficient to show the object distance

against the background of its setting so that it can be located and
referred to in the over-all crime scene.
 Medium shots before and after reproductions are made by plaster
cast to clearly show - the nature of the object.
 Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics.
2. TIRE IMPRESSION

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 49

  Photographs at different angles from a distance sufficient to show the
length of the tire impression and skid marks.
 Close-up shots to clearly identify its characteristics.

BLOOD STAIN PHOTOGRAPHY

Procedure:

1. Take an orientation photograph to show where the bloodstain evidence is, so

that it can be located and referred to in the overall crime scene.
2. Take overlapping shots around the area to show the entire house/room
3. Close-up shots on the blood to clearly show its characteristics.

MEDICO LEGAL CASES

AUTOPSY

 It is also known as post-mortem examination, it is a highly

specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough
examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of
death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be
present.
 With due respect, during post mortem examination, genital organ
should be covered.
 Take the following shots before and after the body has been stripped:
a. Whole body in full length views
b. Mug shot photography
c. On an unidentified cadaver, include the identifying marks
particularly tattoos, moles, scars and the like.
d. Close-up shots on the entrance and exit wounds as well
as the external wounds inflicted or suffered by the victim.
e. Take other photographs as per instruction of the medico
legal officer.

SEX OFFENSE EXAMINATION

 The crime of rape may be taken as typical class of offense. If the

victim is minor, the photograph must be taken in the presence of
the parents and/or medico legal officer.
 The photographer should be of the same sex of the victim.

Photographs the following:

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 50

 1. Mug shots of the victim.
2. Medium and close-up shots on the wounds and bruises of the victim with scale
and case identifier as directed by the medico legal offer.

FIREARMS, BULLETS, WADS AND FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES

PROCEDURE:

1. Photograph both sides of the firearms in full view to determine the caliber,
serial number and other identifying marks or descriptions.
2. Macro photograph on the fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, bullets fragments,
shot gun shells, pellets, magazine and embedded bullet inside the barrel.

MUG SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY OF A LIVING PERSON

The subject shall be positioned in front of the height scale holding the name
tag without footwear to determine his/her exact height. Photograph the subject with
case identifier in four different angles.

1. Front view- half body

2. Left side view- half body
3. Right side view- half body
4. Front view- whole body

PREPARATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE and ITS ADMISSIBILITY

Currently, the admissibility of photographic evidence is based on two different

theories.
 Under the “Pictorial Testimony” Theory, photographic evidence is
admissible when a sponsoring witness can testify that it is a
fair and accurate representation of the subject matter. It is
important to note, this theory is based on the personal
observation(s) of the witness.
 Under the “Silent Witness” Theory, photographic evidence is
admissible if the process used to produce the photograph is
accurate and reputable. This theory speaks for itself, hence the
“silent witness” designation.

 These two theories represent a departure from earlier requirements,

which required authenticating testimony from the photographer

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 51

 and/or an expert witness regarding the reliability of the recording
process.
For example, when a defense seeks to minimize the injury to the plaintiff’s
person by showing minor injury to the vehicle via photographs, expert testimony may
be required. Thus, before photographic evidence is used at trial, the trial
attorney must consider the PURPOSE of the photographic evidence and the
need for expert testimony.

A picture offered as evidence should be faithful representation of the

subject matter from the study of photographs, the viewer should receive an
impression of the scene as object, which does not mislead him in any important
aspect.
It should be free of unusual distortion of lines of shapes and of any tone
relationship. Important subject matter should be in sharp focus.

Admissibility: Evidence photograph may be divided into two categories:

1. Those which represent objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or
a verbal description of it.
2. Those which are designed to prove a point or bearing on an issue in the case such
as a comparison photograph of evidence.

Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs Are Admissible

Develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Department Policy, or General

Order on the use of digital imaging. The SOP should include when digital imaging
is used, chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and
availability of digital images. The SOP should not apply just too digital, but should
also include film-based and video applications as well.
Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a
variety of ways including saving the image file to a hard drive or recording the
image file to a CD. Some agencies elect to use image security software.

Two court decisions regarding digital images include:

1. State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden, 1995: A homicide case was taken
through a Kelly-Frye hearing in which the defense specifically objected on the
grounds that the digital images were manipulated. The court authorized the use
of digital imaging and the defendant was found guilty. In 1998 the Appellate
Court upheld the case on appeal.
2. State of California vs. Phillip Lee Jackson, 1995: The San Diego (CA) Police
Department used digital image processing on a fingerprint in a double homicide
case. The defense asked for a Kelly-Frye hearing, but the court ruled this

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 52

 unnecessary on the argument that digital processing is a readily accepted
practice in forensics and that new information was not added to the image.

THE PHOTOGRAPHER IN COURT

In testifying, his purpose should be to EXPLAIN not to DEFEND his

photograph. His replies to queries should be directly responsive at all times. If he does
not understand the question, he should request clarification. When the nature of the
question requires that he consult his notes, he should request permission from the
judge.
QUALIFICATIONS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHER

Since photographer is giving opinion evidence, the court technically regards him
as an EXPERT WITNESS. Nevertheless, he need not be an expert photographer in the
professional sense and should not represent himself as such. He should be
presented as an experienced photographer, proficient in the TECHNIQUE THAT
WERE USED IN PRODUCING THE EVIDENCE PHOTOGRAPHS.

Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer may be asked
certain questions to establish his COMPETENCE on the basis of his experience and
training. Hence, he must be prepared to prove to the satisfaction of the court that his
training and experience have qualified him for the work related to physical evidence.

RELEVANCE AND MATERIALITY

A. TEST DETERMINING THE RELEVANCY

1. Photographs are admissible whenever they assist the court to understand the
case.
2. Photographs are admissible when they assisted witness in explaining his
testimony.
B. NECESSITY OF PRELIMINARY PROOF OF ACCURACY
- A photograph taken in ordinary way usually is an accurate record of image
cast by the lens upon the film, but as distortion is possible through the manner in
which the camera or negative is used, a photograph is admitted as evidence when
it is proven and there must always preliminary proofs that it is a correct
representation of the subject.

RELATED LAWS:
E-COMMERCE LAW [R.A. NO. 8792]

RULE 3  (ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS)

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 53

     SEC. 2. Admissibility. – An electronic document is admissible in evidence if it
complies with the rules on admissibility prescribed by the Rules of Court and
related laws and is authenticated in the manner prescribed by these Rules.
RULE 11
AUDIO, PHOTOGRAPHIC. VIDEO AND EPHEMERAL EVIDENCE

SECTION 1. Audio, video and similar evidence. – Audio, photographic and video
evidence of events, acts or transactions shall be admissible provided is shall be
shown, presented or displayed to the court and shall be identified, explained or
authenticated by the person who made the recording or by some other person
competent to testify on the accuracy thereof. 

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THE END
REFERENCES:
1. PNP Manual 2015 edition (Forensic Photography examiners manual)
2. Criminalistics review materials 2nd edition (Darlito Bernard G. Delizo)
3. Police photography, Manila Central Book Supply Inc. Garcia G.M. (2003)
4. Forensic Photography Villarba W.W. (2008)
5. Police photography; Lessons for criminology students Mandaluyong city National
bookstore Montojo F.G. (2006)
6. Unpublished notes on Forensic Photography (Mrs. Cherry Ann Avena-Cabarrubias)
7. Unpublished notes on Police Photography (Mr. Aristotle Monforte +)
8. PNP manual 2011 edition (Crime scene investigation)
9. Outline on Forensic Photography University of Carolina (Steven Staggs )
10. www.google.com.
11. www.wikipedia.com.

Victor Apil

NOTES ON FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY 54