What is a Part of Speech?

Parts of speech are among the first grammar topics we learn when we are in school or when
we start our English language learning process. Parts of speech can be defined as words that
perform different roles in a sentence. Some parts of speech can perform the functions of other
parts of speech too.

THE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

NOUNS
VERBS
ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES
PRONOUNS
PREPOSITIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
INTERJECTIONS

 NOUNS
Nouns are naming words, they are the names of people, places, and things.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are the general names of people, places, and things. They are groups or
classes on their own, rather than specific types of people, places, or things such as we find in
proper nouns.
Common nouns can be further classified as abstract or concrete – more on this shortly!
People: teacher, author, engineer, artist, singer.
-Places: country, city, town, house, garden.
Things: language, trophy, magazine, movie, book.

Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are the specific names for people, places, and things. Unlike common nouns,
which are always lowercase, proper nouns are capitalized. This makes them easy to identify in
a text.
Where possible, using proper nouns in place of common nouns helps bring precision to a
student’s writing.
People: Mrs Casey, J.K. Rowling, Nikola Tesla, Pablo Picasso, Billie Eilish.
Places: Australia, San Francisco, Llandovery, The White House, Gardens of Versailles.
Things: Bulgarian, The World Cup, Rolling Stone, The Lion King, The Hunger Games.
As mentioned, all common and proper nouns can be further classified as
either concrete or abstract.

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is any noun that can be experienced through one of the five senses. In other
words, if you can see, smell, hear, taste, or touch it, then it’s a concrete noun.
Some examples of concrete nouns include:Perfume , lemon, tornado etc.

Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns refer to those things that can’t be experienced or identified through the five
senses. They are not physical things we can perceive but, instead, intangible concepts and
ideas, qualities and states.
Some examples of abstract nouns include: Freedom, Courage, Beauty, Wellbeing, Love

Collective Nouns
A collective noun is the name of a group of people or things. That is, a collective noun always
refers to more than one of something.
Some examples of collective nouns include:
People: a board of directors, a team of football players, a cast of actors, a band of musicians,
a class of students, team , committee, clergy, enemy, group, family etc.
Places: a range of mountains, a suite of rooms, a union of states, a chain of islands, company,
Things: a bale of hay(paca de heno ), a constellation of stars, a bag of sweets, a flock of
seagulls (bandada de gaviotas).

Countable Nouns
Countable Nouns are nouns that refer to things that can be counted. They come in two
flavors: singular and plural.
In their singular form, countable nouns are often preceded by the article, e.g. a, an, or, the.
In their plural form, countable nouns are often preceded by a number. They can also be used
in conjunction with quantifiers such as a few and many.
Some examples of countable nouns include:
Uncountable Nouns
Also known as mass nouns, uncountable nouns are, as their name suggests, impossible to
count. Abstract ideas such as bravery and compassion are uncountable, as are things
like liquid and bread.
These types of nouns are always treated in the singular and usually do not have a plural form. 
They can stand alone or be used in conjunction with words and phrases such as any, some, a
little, a lot of, and much.
Some examples of uncountable nouns include:
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS EXAMPLES: advice, money, baggage, danger, milk etc.
What are Definite and Indefinite Articles?
Articles are teensy words that tell if a noun is specific or general. Because they modify nouns,
articles are adjectives, too. In fact, they are the most commonly used adjectives. The two
articles of the English language are: the and a/an. They are known as definite and indefinite
articles.

Also called the definite article, the refers to specific or particular nouns. In contrast, a/an or

the indefinite article refers to non-specific or general nouns. Here’s an example of their use:

 Mark bought the bike. 
The definite article the implies that Mark bought one specific bike that the speaker
and Mark know about.

 Mark bought a bike.
Here, the indefinite article a refers to any bike in general; no specifics implied. 
Let’s delve into these two articles more. 

The Definite Article: The

The is the definite article. It is used to point to a specific or particular noun. For instance, in
the sentence, “Please hand me the remote,” the speaker is talking about a particular remote
that is probably near the listener. There can be many remotes around them, but the speaker is
referring to that one remote. 

The definite article the modifies specific (particular) singular and plural nouns. In

short, the denotes that the noun is definite. Here are a few examples:

 We never saw the kind lady who looks like granny again. [The sentence refers to a
particular kind lady who looks like granny.]
 The rowdy kindergartners are running toward the playground. [Even if we don’t
know where that playground is and who those kids are, we know that the sentence
refers to a specific group of rowdy kindergartners and a particular playground.]

The Definite Article with Noncount Nouns

Besides singular and plural nouns, the is also used with noncount nouns – items, ideas, or
qualities that cannot be counted. Examples of noncount nouns are intangible things (e.g. love,
pollution, health), liquid (e.g. juice, water), food (e.g. butter, meat), and things that are
impossible to count (e.g. pepper, sugar, sand). Here are some sentences using the with
specific noncount nouns (italicized). 

 She always prays for the health and safety of her family. [This sentence talks about
specific count nouns which are health and safety. Thus, the is used.]
 He drank the coffee from last night. [Some specific coffee]
 He drinks more coffee than water. [This talks about coffee and water in general; no
need for articles]

NOTE: As in the last example above, do not use the if you’re talking about a count noun in
general. For instance, “Health is wealth” doesn’t need the in front of health.

The Definite Article with Proper Nouns

Use the definite article the in most specific nouns, such as:

 Names of rivers, oceans, and seas: The Atlantic Ocean, The Yellow

River, The Dead Sea
 Countries that have plural names; states; kingdoms: The Philippines, The United
Arab Emirates, The Bahamas, The Maldives, The United States
 Names of newspapers: The New York Times, The Guardian
 Names of famous places, artworks, monuments: The Statue of Liberty, The Starry
Night, The White House

The Indefinite Article: A/An

The indefinite article a/an defines non-specific, singular nouns. It says that the noun
is indefinite. A is used with nouns that begin with a vowel sound, while an is used with nouns
that begin with a consonant sound. Here are a few examples:

 An animal should not be caged in a zoo. [This sentence talks about any animal.]

 She is painting about a dream she had years ago. [This refers to a non-specific
dream she had years ago. She’s had many dreams, but this non-particular one is
what she paints about.]

A vs. An: When to Use

The use of a/an depends on the sound of the noun’s beginning sound when pronounced, not
its first letter. The same rule applies to acronyms and initialisms. 

 It’s an honor to be your friend. [honor begins with h, but the word is pronounced
beginning with an “o” sound.]
 He rented a helicopter for the trip. [Here, helicopter is pronounced as spelled.]
 Coco wants a ukulele for Christmas. [Ukulele begins with a “yoo” sound, so a is
used.]

More examples: a unicycle; an hour; a uniform; an MBA diploma; a U.S. citizen; a Unicorn.

When another word precedes the noun (e.g. adjective), the article a/an should depend on the
sound of that word. For instance: a sweet apple; a lightning rod; an obvious lie; an honest
man.

The Indefinite Article with Noncount Nouns

The indefinite article a/an can only be used with singular count nouns – nouns that can be
counted. Unlike the, a/an cannot be used with noncount nouns.

Wrong: I need a water. 
Instead of joining the indefinite article with noncount nouns, use words like some, bottle, glass,
bag, etc. to define noncount nouns.
Correct: I need a glass of water.

Here are more sentences with the indefinite article describing noncount nouns (italicized) using
countable units (boldened).

 He left a bag of money at the restaurant. [non-specific bag of money]

 We need a piece of equipment to fix the roof. [non-specific equipment]

When Definite and Indefinite Articles are Not Needed

Here are some nouns that do not need an article:

 Abstract ideas or noncount nouns: excellence, perseverance, creativity, breakfast,

education, war, information, poverty, research

NOTE: Use the definite article with abstract nouns when you’re referring to one specific
concept, for example: “Poor children don’t get the education they deserve.” Otherwise, don’t
use any article with abstract ideas. 

 Names of sports: golf, swimming, badminton, soccer, basketball

 Academic subjects: Mathematics, Physics, History, Literature
 Names of most countries, cities, continents, streets: New York City, South Africa,
Baker Street, Taiwan, Singapore, Elm Street, Chicago
 Names of languages and nationalities: Canadian, English, Irish, Filipino, Chinese

NOTE: When you’re referring to the people of the nation, use the definite article, for instance:
“The Chinese believe in Yin Yang.”

Exercise: Definite and Indefinite Articles

Fill in each blank with the correct article (the, a/an).

1. We watched ___ horrific movie last weekend. [non-specific]

2. ___ Sputnik V is ___ Covid-19 vaccine developed in Russia. It gives 92% protection
against ___ virus. 
3. Is ___ pint of beer enough for both of us? 
4. She is ___ ADHD patient in my daughter’s clinic. 
5. Our teacher gave us ___ oral exam without ___ heads-up. She said ___ scores will
be posted later.
Answers. 
1. We watched a horrific movie last weekend.
2. The Sputnik V is a Covid-19 vaccine developed in Russia. It gives 92% protection
against the virus. 
3. Is a pint of beer enough for both of us? 
4. She is an ADHD patient in my daughter’s clinic. 
5. Our teacher gave us an oral exam without a heads-up. She said the scores will be
posted later.

 VERBS
Without a verb, there is no sentence! Verbs are the words we use to represent both
internal and external actions or states of being. Without a verb, nothing happens.
There are many different types of verbs:
Dynamic verb is a type of verb that shows whether the demonstrations still continue or will
continue in the future. The dynamic verb is the opposite of a static verb.
Example Sentences
Elissa is having lunch with her boyfriend at the moment.
Medicanis having a shower now.

Stative Verbs
Stative verbs refer to states of being, conditions, or mental processes. Generally, we can
classify stative verbs into four types:
Senses, Emotions/Thoughts, Being, Possession
.
Each verb can be classified as being either an action or a stative verb.

Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs, also known as ‘helping’ verbs, work with other verbs to affect the meaning of a
sentence. They do this by combining with a main verb to alter the sentence’s tense, mood, or
voice.
Auxiliary verbs will frequently use not in the negative.
There are relatively few auxiliary verbs in English. Here is a list of the main ones:
be (am, are, is, was, were, being)
do (did, does, doing)
have (had, has, having)
Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs (in bold) in action alongside a main verb
(underlined).
She is working as hard as she can.

Martial art reading

-Some martial arts are designed to train the mind and body. Some are used as exercise or for growth in mind.
And some are designed to kill.
Silat
Malaysia may not be the first place you think of when
talking about martial arts, but their unique form of
fighting- Silat- is one of the most dangerous martial art
in the world. Unlike some martial arts that focus on
mind or self-protection, Silat is all about one thing:
violence. Silat is an ancient art with no clear beginning,
though some masters believe it was created by
watching the movements of animals. This makes sense because the fighting style is all about using weaknesses
of your enemy and knock them as quickly as possible. Another theory, proposed by "The Malay Art of Self-
Defense," is that Silat grew out of a combination of Chinese and Indian martial arts. Speed and disabling moves
are the basis for Silat. In the modern days, this fighting style is a sport like many others. It's hard to make the
regulations in a match, because this martial art is designed to kill and break people’s bones.

Muay Thai
Muay Thai comes from Thailand, also known as The Art of Eight
Limbs. Yes, eight. This fighting relies on elbows and knees, which
the Thai count as limbs. Hard, fast knee strikes form the style of
this deadly fighting style. Muay Thai was used in wars and the
strongest fighter won people’s respect in the ancient time. Though
it is an ancient form of fighting, Muay Thai is a popular sport in
modern Thailand. It is, however, still really dangerous. Boxing
gloves don't give much protection or soften the blow from a knee
to the ribs. In a lot of competition right now, using elbows and
knees is against the rules, since people may die from these attacks.
In recent years, there’s a famous movie star called Tony Jaa, who
plays in a lot of famous movies. He said that he was not allowed to
fight in a movie when he first started acting, because the martial art he uses is Muay Thai, and he could
accidently kill other actors and actress when acting.
Video resource: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YnDSDjfsHzA

Unique (adj.) 獨特的 Form (n.) 形成 Violence (n.) 暴力 ancient (adj.) 古老的 master (n.) 大師

create (v.) 創造 makes sense (phr.) 合理 weakness (n.) 弱點 combination (n.) 組合 Speed (n.) 速度
Regulation (n.) 規定 Match (n.) 比賽 Limb (n.) 四肢 Rely (v.) 依靠 deadly(adj.) 致命的

protect (v.) 保護 rib (n.) 肋 against (prep.) 靠; 違反 modern (adj.) 現在的

Karate
Japan is the home of Karate, one of the most
popular martial arts today. Unlike other forms
that focus on a single body part, Karate
incorporates the whole body. Punching, kicking,
elbows, throws, and open handed "knife strikes"
are all important in this martial art. Karate is
actually one of the youngest fighting styles on
this list. This martial art became popular among
Japan's military in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Karate is also unusual because it is one of the
few martial arts on this list to truly focus on the
mind as much as the body. With a focused mind,
and a fully trained body, Karate can easily become one of the most unstoppable fighting forms out there.

Krav Maga
Israelis are no strangers to fighting, and so perhaps it is not
surprising that Israel has its own martial art - one of the
deadliest in the world. Krav Maga was designed by the
Israeli military and is taught worldwide. There is no spiritual
journey, no harmony in Krav Maga. This fighting form was
designed with one thing in mind: destroying your enemies.
The unofficial slogan of the style, according to the New York
Times, is "Hurt them real bad and then get away."
Punch (v.) 打擊 Kick (v.) 踢擊 Military (n.) 軍隊 worldwide (adj.) (adv.) 全世界

spiritual (adj.) 精神上的 harmony (n.) 和諧 destroy (v.) 摧毀 slogan (n.) 標語

unofficial (adj.) 非正式的

1. which martial art do you think is the strongest?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Have you learnt any martial art before? Would you like to learn some?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why do people create martial arts?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eq6QLy88n-4

text source: https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/worlds-deadliest-martial-arts/18/

 ADVERBS
Traditionally, adverbs are defined as those words that modify verbs, but they do so much
more than that. They can be used not only to describe how verbs are performed but also
to modify adjectives, other adverbs, clauses, prepositions, or entire sentences.
With such a broad range of tasks at the feet of the humble adverb, it would be impossible to
cover every possibility in this article alone. However, there are five main types of adverbs our
students should familiarize themselves with. These are:
1. Adverbs of time:

The adverb of time gives us more details about the time of the verb in a sentence. It usually
comes in a sentence either in the beginning or at the end by the importance it is used to
express about the moment.

Ex. Sometimes, always, during, always, soon, yet, usually, never, just, recently, before,
constantly, eventually, frequently, daily, immediately, hourly, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.

Examples of adverb of time are in sentences.

1. Sometimes, I used to go out for refreshments.

2. He recently purchased a costly Diamond necklace.
3. He caught eating his tiffin during the lectures.
4. He went to New York, and after that, he never came back.
5. The dinner is ready just before you come home.
2. Adverbs of place:

An adverb of the place is used to express more about the place of the verb in the sentence.
These adverbs are used after the main verb or at the end of the sentence with an object.

Ex: Everywhere, nowhere, here, there, above, below, inside, outside, into, etc.

Examples of adverb of place are in sentences.

1. We went to the hospital, and there were a lot of patients everywhere!

2. He jumped into the river to save a little girl.
3. An aeroplane is flying above the clouds.
4. Your birthday present is placed inside the box.
5. Many of the people are below the poverty line.

3. Adverbs of manner:

Adverbs of manner is an adverb that expresses some behaviour, action, and a manner. 

This kind of adverb is present at the end of a sentence which gives some more details of a
noun and has a suffix -ly.

Ex: Dangerously, softly, quickly, gently, beautifully, neatly, calmly, slowly, sadly, loudly, kindly,
politely, etc.

Examples of adverb of manner are in sentences.

1. The barber trimmed his hair and beard gently.

2. He handled the situation so cleverly without any fight.
3. She ran quickly into the room after looking at her teacher, coming to her home.
4. There is a fragile material, handle it carefully.
5. The teacher explained all the essential topics so clearly that each student had
understood it.

4. Adverbs of Degree:

An Adverbs of Degree are used to describe the degree or the strength of an adjective, or
another adverb present in a sentence.
Ex: Entirely, slightly, highly, totally, almost, just, nearly, hardly, too, etc.

Examples types of adverb of degree are in sentences.

1. Today’s climate is extremely hot.

2. My project work is almost completed.
3. This liquid is highly inflammable.
4. My office location is nearly half an hour away from my residence.
5. She lost her train just a couple of minutes ago.
6. I hardly noticed her when she walked into the room.
7. The little girl had almost finished her homework.
8. The job was completely finished.
9. I was so delighted to hear the good news.
10. Jack was totally delighted to see Diane after all these years.

5. Adverbs of Frequency:

Adverbs of frequency explain how frequently something can occur without any specification of
time. It is used before the main verb in a sentence.

Ex: Constantly, occasionally, periodically, regularly, always, never, frequently, rarely, etc.

Examples types of adverb of frequency are in sentences.

1. I always go to the gym for a workout, even in the rainy season too.
2. He likes to do shopping occasionally.
3. She regularly waters the plants.
4. They are constantly checking the time watch in the running match.
5. He rarely joins any parties to enjoy.

AND
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
+ LY
Tell us about a noun (something or Tell us about a verb (how somebody
somebody) does something or how something
happens)
a) Adjective before a noun.
Irregular adverbs
b) Adjective after copulative a) Adverb after a verb
verbs: be, look, seem, feel, Good well b) Adverb before an adjective
Fast fast
a) It rained heavily
Hard hard
John drove carefully
a) We didn’t go because of the heavy rain.
Late late

John is a careful driver

b) I’m terribly sorry
b) This cake tastes good He was seriously injured
It sounds great.
- 1 - USE THE ADJECTIVE IN BRACKETS OR MAKE AN ADVERB (ADJ+LY) AS NECESSARY

1. (careful) You must read the instructions _______________ before you use the machine.
2. (noisy) Children are always very _______________
3. (angry) Something had happened to him. He had an _______________ look.
4. (beautiful) Don’t you think she paints _______________ ?
5. (free) She will understand anything you tell her. You can talk to her _______________
6. (clear) It’s important that you write all the details _______________
7. (hungry/economical) The population in many African countries are _______________ because they
have a lot of _______________ problems.
8. (good) He plays tennis very _______________
9. (quiet) The boys were so _______________ that I thought they were planning something.
10. (sure) I was _______________ that I had left the camera on the table.
11. (slow) I have to buy a new car. This one is very _______________
12. (warm) They gave us a very _______________ welcome.
13. (comfortable) When I arrived he was sitting _______________ in an armchair.
14. (hard) We worked _______________ all day.
15. (fast) Don’t drive so _______________! It’s dangerous.
16. (easy) It wasn’t _______________ to find their house in the middle of the night.
17. Can I use your phone, please? / (certain) Yes, _______________
18. (happy) When I gave him the present, he looked at me _______________

- 2 - CHOOSE THE CORRECT CHOICE

1.- Our team lost the march because we played (bad/badly)

I feel (bad/badly) about losing the match.

2.- I didn’t any problem to find lodging. I found a flat (easy/easily)

This is too (easy/easily) . I need something more challenging.

3.- Your proposal sounds a bit (selfish/selfishly)

You behaved (selfish/selfishly)

4.- The house was (terrible/terribly) damaged by the hurricane.

That’s (terrible/terribly)!

5.- There was a (sudden/suddenly) change in the weather.

The weather has changed (sudden/suddenly)

6.- Everybody at the party was (colourful/colourfully) dressed.

Everybody was wearing (colourful/colourfully) clothes.

7.- I hurt myself (bad/badly) with that edge.

The firm wasn’t successful because it was (bad/badly) managed.

8.- Don’t stand on that stool. It doesn’t look (safe/safely)

Fortunately he sheltered (safe/safely) at home during the storm.

9.- we waited (impatient/impatiently) until they arrived.

She sounded (impatient/impatiently) on the phone.
10.- She speaks French (good/well)
She speak (good/well) French.

- 3 – CHOOSE TWO WORDS (ONE FROM EACH BOX TO COMPLETE THE SENTENCES

Absolutely reasonably badly Changed enormous ill

Seriously slightly unusually Planned cheap damaged

unnecessarily Completely
Quiet long
1.- The party
went wrong because it was _______________ __________________

2.- I thought it would be expensive but it was _________________ _________________

3- My grandmother is ______________ __________________ in hospital.

4.- What a huge ship! It is ______________ ________________

5.- Fortunately, my car was only ______________ ______________ in the accident.

6.- My dog is always barking but today it is ______________ _______________

7.- After the redecoration, my flat was _______________ _______________ It looked new!

8.- Don’t make their wait ___________________ _________________ . They’re so impatient!

1. Circle five adjectives: 2. Circle six adverbs: 3. Circle four words which are
both adjectives and adverbs
a) Slowly a) Carefully a) Bad
b) Polite b) Bad b) Good
c) Bad c) Likely c) Hard
d) Suddenly d) Good d) Sudden
e) Good e) Badly e) Fast
f) Friendly f) Dangerously f) Quickly
g) Hardly g) Hardly g) Well
h) Easily h) Easily h) Late
i) Sudden i) Friendly i) Friendly
j) Badly j) Slowly j) Hardly

4. Complete the sentences below with a correct adverb of manner.

1. I got up _____________ (late) because I had nothing to do.

2. When you see the teacher, make sure you ask her ___________ (polite) if you can go home early.

3. I think if I study ______________ (hard), I will pass the exam.

4. Robert ____________ (easy) passed the exam. He had no problems.

5. We were watching TV, when _______________ (sudden) we heard a terrible noise.

6. I did the exam ______________ (bad). I'm sure I failed.

7. You are driving too ___________ (fast). Please, slow down!

8. Rachel explained very ______________ (careful) what she was doing.

9. Mary was ________________ (complete) absorbed in her thoughts.

10. Elliott always argues ________________ (convincing).

11. Daniel ________________ (eventual) matured and quietened down.

12. Scott waited ______________ (patient) for his girlfriend to finish.

5. Choose the correct word in italics to complete the sentences below. Use adverbs of manner.

1. She was late so she had to dress quick / quicker / quickly. 

2. The hero hit the crocodile hard / hardly / hardily on its nose, and escaped.

3. You play the piano beautiful / beautifully / beauty.

4. George stood up and walked slow /slowly /slower  out of the room.

5. I did bad / badly / worse in my exams. I’m sure I will have to repeat a year.

6. They ran fast / fastily /fastly but they couldn’t catch the criminal.

7. He drives danger / dangerously / dangerous. One day he will have an accident.

8. She has painted her room really good / goodly / well. It looks brilliant!

 ADJECTIVES
the job of an adjective is to modify a noun or a pronoun. it does this by
describing, quantifying, or identifying the noun or pronoun. adjectives
help to make writing more interesting and specific. usually, the adjective
is placed before the word it modifies.
 ADJECTIVES COMPARATIVE SUPPERLATIVE
awesome more awesome than the most awesome
bad worse than the worst
big bigger than the biggest
cool cooler than the coolest
crazy crazier the craziest
disgusting more disgusting than the most disgusting
dumb dumber the dumbest
exciting more exciting than the most exciting
far farther/further than the farthest/the furthest
fast faster than the fastest
fat fatter than the fattest
funny funnier than the funniest
good better than the best
happy happier than the happiest
hard harder than the hardest
heavy heavier than the heaviest
hot hotter than the hottest
interesting more interesting than the most interesting
little less/littler than The least/littlest
noisy noisier than the noisiest
old older than the oldest
pretty prettier than the prettiest
scary scarier than the scariest
short shorter than the shortest
slow slower than the slowest
smart smarter than the smartest
thin thinner than the thinnest
thrilling more thrilling than the most thrilling
weird weirder than the weirdest
wet wetter than the wettest
pretty prettier than the prettiest
Underline the correct word.

1. Football is more/the most exciting than baseball.

2. Winter is a cold/the colder season.
3. Apples are more/ the most useful than cakes.
4. My sister is heavier/the heaviest than me, but my father is heavier/the heaviest in my family.
5. Adam is better/ the best than Sam at tennis, but John is better/the best tennis player in our class.
6. The weather yesterday was worse/bad than last week, but the weather today is the worse/the worst weather
this year.
7. Bicycles are the cheapest/cheaper form of transport, but they are also the slowest/ slower than cars and
planes.
  PRONOUNS
Pronouns are used in place of a specific noun used earlier in a sentence. They are
helpful when the writer wants to avoid repetitive use of a particular noun such as a
name. 

➣I love my cat ➣He tolerates me ➣I tell myself that he is mine

➣You love your cat ➣He tolerates you ➣You tell yourself that he
➣He loves his cat ➣He tolerates him is yours
➣She loves her cat ➣He tolerates her ➣He tells himself that he is his
➣We love our cat ➣He tolerates us ➣She tells herself that he
➣You both love your cat ➣He tolerates you all is hers
➣They love their cat ➣He tolerates them ➣We tell ourselves that he
is ours
➣You tell yourselves that he
is yours
➣They tell themselves that he
is theirs

WHAT IS A PRONOUN?
Pronouns are some of the most useful words in the English language. They are used in the
place of a noun to avoid it having to be named twice.
DEFINITION OF PRONOUN
In English, the part of speech used as a substitute for an antecedent noun that is clearly
understood, and with which it agrees in person, number, and gender.

PRONOUNS ARE CLASSIFIED AS

➫Personal  or  Subject Pronouns  ➭used before the verb

I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they

➢I am a vegan

➫Object Pronouns  ➭used after a verb or a preposition

me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them

➢Look at me

➫Possessive Adjectives  ➭always used with a noun

my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their

➢That is my salad

➫Possessive Pronouns  ➭replace the noun

mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs

➢This coffee is mine

➫Reflexive Pronouns  ➭the subject and the object of the verb are the same
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

➢I ask myself how you can do that

➫Demonstratives ➭point to the object according to the distance

this, these, that, those

➫Relatives ➭add information and relate back to what was previously mentioned
that, which, who, whom, whose, when, where, why
➢The teacher that/who speaks Russian is from Spain
➢The teacher whose parents speak Russian is from Spain
➢This is where I was born

➫Interrogatives ➭used to ask questions

what, who, which, when, where, why, how, whose, whom
➢What are you eating?
➢Why do they put birds in a cage?

 What  ➮qué 🠾asks about a thing

 Who  ➮quién 🠾asks about a person
 Which  ➮cuál 🠾asks about a choice
 When  ➮cuándo 🠾asks about a time
 Where  ➮dónde 🠾asks about a place
 Why  ➮por qué 🠾asks about a reason
 How  ➮cómo 🠾asks about a manner
 Whose ➮de quién 🠾asks about ownership
 Whom ➮a quién 🠾formal

 How many cats are here?

 How much does it cost?
 How often do you see her?
 How long is the film?
 How old are you?
 How far is Madrid?
 How fast can you run?
 How big/tall/high is it?
 How wide/deep is the well?
Reflexive pronouns are used in instances where the object and the subject are the same. For
example, in the sentence, she did it herself, the words she and herself refer to the same
person.
Here are a few more examples of reflexive pronouns at work:
I told myself that numerous times.
He got himself a new computer with his wages.
We will go there ourselves.
You must do it yourself.
The only thing to fear is fear itself.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to form questions. They are the typical question words that
come at the start of questions, with a question mark coming at the end. The interrogative
pronouns are:
Who
Whom
What
Which
Whose
Putting them into sentences looks like this:
What is the name of your best friend?
Which of these is your favourite?
Who goes to the market with you?
Whom do you think will win?
Whose is that?

To understand how to use "who," "whom," and "whose," you first have to understand the
difference between subjects, objects, and possessive forms.

Subjects do an action: Objects receive an action:

He loves chocolate.  The teachers like him.
She goes to school.
 My brother knows her.
 The singer smiled at us.
We enjoy Italian food.

"Who" is a Subject Pronoun like "he," "she" and "we" in the examples above. We use "who" to
ask which person does an action or which person is something /a certain way.
Who made the birthday cake?
Who is in the kitchen?
Who is going to wash the dishes?
"Whom" is an Object Pronoun like "him," "her" and "us." We use "whom" to ask which person
receives an action. (FORMAL ENGLISH most used in Literary writing, not commonly used
when speaking.)
Whom are you going to invite?
Whom did he blame for the accident?
Whom did he hire to do the job?
"Whose" is a Possessive Pronoun like "his," "her" and "our." We use "whose" to find out which
person something belongs to.
Whose book is this?
Whose dog is barking outside?
Whose cellphone is ringing?

Complete the sentences with: who, whom and whose.

1. ______________ wrote this book?

2. ______________ are you going to recommend?
3. ______________ dictionary is on the table?
4. It doesn't look like this is the right address. ______________ did you ask for directions?
5. We have two extra tickets for the concert. ______________ wants to go with us?
6. It wasn't me! I have no idea ______________ left the oven on.
7. ______________ car is parked in the handicapped parking space? If someone doesn't
move it, it's going to be towed.
8. The police have called in an expert to identify ______________ handwriting is actually on
the ransom letter.
9. Do you remember ______________ received the Academy Award for best actress that
year? Was it Nicole Kidman?
10. Melanie couldn't remember the name of the student ______________ science project
received the $100,000 prize.

A. Fill in the blanks with suitable pronouns.

1. The photograph album belongs to me. It is___mine______________.
2. The twins invited us to_____their____________ birthday party. We
bought_____them___________________ a musical box each.
3. My wife and I both work in a restaurant. _____She ___ doesn’t let me buy expensive
things like these because _______we______ don’t have much money. These are
___my_________ favourite things. _____I_________ like most.
Now_____they_________ belong to ____me___________.

 PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions of Place
of us
Prepositions of Place:

EXAMPLES:
Put students in pairs and have them read the examples out loud.
The bookstore is beside the coffee shop.
The movie theater is next to the library.
The bus stop is near the school.
The bakery is to the left of the supermarket.
The pharmacy is to the right of the laundromat.
The parking lot is behind the mall.
The newsstand is in front of the subway station.
The park is across from the school.
The coffee shop is kitty-corner to the bank.
The convenience store is around the corner from my house.
My office is on Main Street.
The doctor’s office is on the 8th floor.
I live at 415 Main Street.
Giving Directions:

EXAMPLES:
Put students in pairs and have them take turns asking a question and reading an example
answer out loud. Continue until they’ve gone through all the answers—the goal is to get them
familiar with the many different ways we can give directions in English, and increase their
awareness of all the little details (articles, prepositions, etc.) used in each sentence.

Asking for directions:

Where is the bank?
Excuse me. Can you tell me where the bank is?
Hi. Do you know where the bank is?
Sorry to bother you, but I’m looking for the bank.
Where’s the closest bank?
Giving directions:
Walk two blocks. It’s at 405 41st Avenue.
Go one block down Main Street. It’s next to the Starbucks.
Walk down Main Street to the stoplights. It’s on your right.
Just go down Main Street. You can’t miss it!
Walk up 41st Avenue. It’s across from the movie theater.
Go up 41st Avenue for three blocks. It’s between the bakery and the laundromat.
Walk along Main Street. It’s only a few minutes from here.
Go along Main Street until you see the mall. It’s right next to the mall.
Walk straight down 41st Avenue. There’s a bus stop in front of the bank.
Go straight up Main Street until you get to the corner. It’s just across the street.
Walk two blocks. Turn left on Main Street. It’s right around the corner.
When you get to 41st Avenue, turn right and go one more block. You’ll see it.
Head down Main Street. You’ll see it on your left.
Head up 41st Avenue until you get to the park. It’s kitty-corner to the park.
Make a left on Main Street and go two blocks. It’s between the supermarket and the library.
Walk one block, then make a right on Main Street. It’s near the mall.
Head down 41st Avenue, then turn the corner and you’ll see it on your right.
Walk two blocks. Go around the corner. It’s the first building on the right.

Prepositions of direction
LOST IN A CITY (How to ask and give directions)
Asking for directions:
- Excuse me, where is the bank, please?
- Excuse me, is there a bank near here?
- Excuse me, can you tell me where the bank is, please?
- Excume me, how can I get to the bank, please?

Giving directions:
- Go straight on. - Go through the park
- Go straight ahead. - Go to the end of the street.
- Go along this street. / Go along - It’s on your right / left.
Oxford street. - It’s next to …
- Turn left / right (at the traffic light, at - It’s opposite the…
the zebra crossing, …). - It’s not very far from here.
- Turn first (second, …) left / right. - You can´t miss it.
- Take the first (second) turning on the - It’s quite far from here. You should
left / right. take a bus (taxi, …).
- Go past the supermarket… - I’m sorry. I’m no from here
- Go across the bridge or Cross the
bridge.
 Giving
directions

Turn left Turn right (at…) Go straight on Turn second left

(at…) Go along... Take the 2nd turning on the left

Go past … Go through Cross the road Turn second right

1) Exercise: Where are you? Read, look at the map on the previous page and answer.

1) Go straight on. Turn first left and then turn second right. It’s on your left.
I’m at the ___________________________
2) Go straight on. Go across the bridge and turn first right. Go till the end of the street. =>
I’m at the ________________________
3) Go straight on. Go across the bridge and go straight ahead. Turn left at the end. Go past
the information office. It’s on your left. I’m at the ________________

2) Exercise: Complete the dialogues:

1) How to get to the supermarket:

A: Excuse me, can you tell me how _________ to the nearer supermarket?
B: Yes. Go _____________ and turn first right. Go past the ________________ and
turn second right. The supermarket is on the _______________. You can’t miss it.
A: Thank you very much.
B: That’s all right. Bye
A: Bye, bye

2) How to get to the taxi rank

A: Excuse me, is there a _____ _______________ near here?
B: Yes. Go _____________ and turn first _______. Go past the ________________
and turn ________ left. The taxi right is on your _______________. You can’t miss it.
A: Thank you very much.
B: _________________. Bye
A: Bye, bye

3) Exercise: Write new dialogues:

 Now, write more dialogues to go to some of these places:

 The public toilet

 The hospital
 The train station
 The Starlight Disco
1) A: Excuse me, ________________________________________?
B: ___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
A:_____________________________________________
B:_____________________________________________
A:_____________________________________________

 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses. There are three
main types of conjunction that are used to join different parts of sentences.
Coordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to join sentence components that are equal such as two
words, two phrases, or two clauses. In English, there are seven of these that can be
memorized using the mnemonic FANBOYS:
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
For The usage areas of the connector are as follows:
 To specify a time
 To approve
 To talk about the function of something
 Do something for someone
 Giving a reason
 Talking about harms and benefits
And
 We use the conjunction “and” to combine two or more pieces of information or
sentences.

Nor
 This conjunction is used to make a negative sentence about two or more things
at the same time.

But
 The conjunction “but” is used to show two opposite information.

Or
 We use the conjunction “or” when there is a choice with two or more alternatives.

Yet
 This conjunction is generally used at the end of negative and interrogative
sentences and adds temporal meaning to the sentence.
 So
 It is used to indicate the result of a sentence. With this feature, we can say that
the conjunction “because” has the opposite structure. A concluding sentence
must come after the conjunction “so”.

Here are a few example sentences employing coordinating conjunctions:

FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH APPROPRIATE CONJUNCTIONS

1. Elizabeth works hard, and Jane is lazy.

(a) and (b) or
(c) because (d) but
2. thought he is poor, he is contented.
(a) unless (b) until
(c) though (d) yet
3. I trust her because she always speaks the truth.
(a) hence (b) thus
(c) because (d) but
4. Wait for me till I return.
(a) if (b) so
 (c) till (d) as
5. I rang the bell but no one answered.
(a) and (b) but
(c) so (d) if
6. He failed in the examination _________ he did not work hard.
(a) but (b) although
(c) because (d) therefore
7. You must not tell lies or your mother will punish you.
(a) or (b) but
(c) and (d) unless
8. Don’t go there ________ you are called.
(a) since (b) therefore
(c) unless (d) because

 INTERJECTIONS
Interjections focus on feelings and are generally grammatically unrelated to the
rest of the sentence or sentences around them. They convey thoughts and
feelings and are common in our speech. They are often followed by exclamation
marks in writing. Interjections include expressions such as:
Aah
Err
Eww
Oh
Ouch
Uh-Oh
Yeah
Whoops
Wow
Here’s what they look like in sentences:
Eww! That is so gross!
Oh, I don’t know. I’ve never used one before.
That’s very…err…generous of you, I suppose.
Wow! That is fantastic news!
Uh-Oh! I don’t have any more left.
Interjection Teaching Activity: Create a scenario
Once students clearly understand what interjections are, brainstorm as a class as many
as possible.
Write a master list of interjections on the whiteboard.
Organize students into Talking Pairs.
Partner A suggests an interjection word or phrase to Partner B.
Partner B must create a fictional scenario where this interjection would be used
appropriately.