FUNDAMENTALS OF RAILWAY ENGINEERING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The history of railways is closely linked with civilization. As the necessity arose,
human beings developed various methods of transporting goods from one place to another.
In the primitive days goods were carried as head loads or in carts drawn by men or animals.

5.2 TOPICS OUTLINE

a. Railways Historical Development

b. Philippine Railway System
c. Railways versus Road Transport
d. Tract Components

5.3 RAILWAYS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

The efforts were made to replace animal power with mechanical power. In 1769,
Nicolas Carnot, a Frenchman, carried out the pioneering work of developing steam energy.
This work had very limited success and it was only in the year 1804 that Richard Trevithick
designed and constructed a steam locomotive. This locomotive, however, could be used for
traction on roads only. The credit of perfecting the design goes to George Stephenson, who
in 1814 produced the first steam locomotive used for traction in railways.

The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27 September 1825
between Stockton and Darlington in the UK. Simultaneously, other countries in Europe also
developed such railway systems, most introduced trains for carriage of passenger traffic
during that time. The first railway in Germany was opened from Nuremberg to Furth in 1835.
The USA opened its first railway line between Mohawk and Hudson in 1833.

5.4 PHILIPPINE RAILWAY DEVELOMENT

Below are the listed Philippine National Railways historical highlights.

• June 25, 1875 - King ALFONSO XII of Spain promulgates the Royal Decree directing
the Office of the Inspector of Public Works of the Philippines to submit a general plan
of railroad in Luzon
• February 5, 1876 - Don Eduardo Lopez Navarro of Public Works submits his Memoria
Sobre el Plan General de Ferrocarilles en Isla de Luzon, a very comprehensive and
detailed study of railroad exploitation
• November 1, 1883 – the study of the first railroad project between Manila and
Dagupandone by Antonio Dela Cámara disapproved
• January 1, 1887 – Royal Decree grants Mr. Edmund Syker the concession to the
original plan as approved
• July 8, 1887 – the concession is transferred to Don Carlos E. Bertodano representing
the Manila Railroad Company (MRRCo)
• July 31, 1887 – construction of the Manila-Dagupan railroad is started
• March 24, 1891 – the first section of the railroad from Manila to Bagbag (about 45
kms) is completed and put to commercial operations
• November 24, 1892 – the entire line from Manila to Dagupan, with a total length of
195.4 kms, is completed and put into commercial operations
• November 1896 – the Philippine revolution against the Spanish Government breaks
out, interrupting railroad traffic at various points
• August 13, 1898 – the railway operations is resumed only to be interrupted again one
year after when the Philippine-American War breaks out
• April 20, 1900 – the US military authorities returned the railroad to its owner
• July 1, 1902 – the US Congress authorizes the Philippine Government to grant
franchise and concession for the construction of public utilities and services
• December 8, 1902 – the first Railroad Legislation Act (Philippine Commission Act No.
554) is passed granting the MRRCo the right to construct branch lines
• July 7, 1906 – Philippine Commission Act No. 1510 is enacted giving the concession
of the railway to Speyer and Co. with Mr. Horace Higgins as General Manager
• February 4,1916 – By authority of Philippine Legislature Act No. 2574, former
Governor General Harrison negotiates the acquisition of the MRRCo by the Philippine
Government
• January 1917 – the acquisition of the MRRCoby the Philippine Government is
consummated, and the final transfer of ownership effected
• January 31, 1938 – the first Bicol train is put into operation
• May 8, 1938 – the unified system of railroad from San Fernando, La Union in the North
to Legazpi in the South is formally inaugurated
• 1942 – 1945 – the railway comes under the control of the Imperial Japanese Army
• February 1, 1946 – the US Army restores the control of the railway to the
Commonwealth Government
• 1954 – 1956 – Dieselization period of the railroad
• June 20, 1964 – Republic Act No. 4156 is enacted. It changes the corporate name of
MRRCo to Philippine National Railways (PNR)
• August 20, 1971 – Republic Act No. 6366 is passed amending the PNR Charter
• January 26, 1973 – PNR is placed under the Civil Service Commission by virtue of PD
No. 110
• July 3, 1975 – PD 741 is issued, providing for the strengthening of the financial
structure of the PNR and expanding its role and participation in the total economic
and social development of the country
• July 23, 1979 – by Executive Order No. 546, PNR becomes one of the attached agencies
of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, now DOTC
• August 23, 1989 – the Tutuban Station and part of the railroad yard is leased out for
shopping mall development. PNR Management Center transfers to its Training
Center site in Caloocan City and PNR Operations Center transfers to its railway station
in Paco, Manila.
• February 2, 1992 – PNR inaugurates its first modern maintenance workshop in
Caloocan. The workshop can accommodate 88 diesel rail car units at any given time
• February 22, 1992 – PNR acquires six (6) new DEL units from Japan thru the OECF
loan
• June 1992 – the rehabilitation of the Main Line South Project funded by the OECF of
Japan starts
• June 26, 1992 – PNR acquires an additional ten (10) new DEL units from Japan thru
the OECF loan
• February 21, 1994 – President Fidel Ramos lays the cornerstone for the new Tutuban
Terminal Building
• November 30, 1995 – Super typhoon Rosing heavily damages the tracks and bridges
between Lucena and Naga, suspending train operations. The line is restored after one
year.
• September 28, 2006 – Typhoon Milenyo damages San Cristobal Bridge and other PNR
infrastructure in Quezon and Camarines Sur, resulting in the closure of line to long
distance train operations
• November 30, 2006 – Typhoon Reming further damages the railroad infrastructure,
particularly Travesia Bridge in the Ligao-Guinobatan section, and most of the station
buildings and communication facilities
• December 22, 2008 – efforts start in the Reopening of the Bicol Line Project
• June 15, 2010 – President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo launches the opening of San
Cristobal Bridge
• June 29, 2010 – Train coming from Manila reaches Naga Station
RAILWAY NETWORK IN THE PHILIPPINES
Before series of wars engulfed Philippines, more than a thousand route-kilometers
were built. Only 452 km were operational after the war. Only 129 km remain operational
(2021). The government aims to expand railway network to 1900 km by 2022

Figure 5.4.1 Railway Network in the Philippines

5.5 PHILIPPINE RAILWAY SYSTEM

Greater Manila Railway Networks

Here is the transit map for the railway networks in Manila. The green route is for
LRT 1, blue route is for LRT 2, yellow route is for MRT 3, and orange route is for PNR.

Figure 5.5.1 Transit Map

• LRT 1 (Light Rail Transit 1)

The LRT Line 1 began construction in 1981 with the first LRVs arriving in
1982. By December 1984, a portion of LRT1 was opened to the public and in 1985,
the original LRT1 line from Baclaran, Pasay City to Monumento in Caloocan City,
approximately 13.95km in length, became fully operational. LRT1 was one of the
pioneer PPP projects in the Philippines as the operations and maintenance of the
facility was contracted out to METRO, Inc., a subsidiary of the Manila Electric
Company, for 16 years under an operations and maintenance (O&M) agreement with
the LRTA. On 31 July 2000, the O&M contract with METRO expired. LRTA decided not
to renew the agreement or retender it and took over the operations of LRT 1 which it
has been managing up to the present. The Light Rail Transit 1 (LRT 1) have 20
stations.

Table 5.5.1 LRT 1 Stations

Station No. Station Location
1 Baclaran Station Sto. Niño, Pasay
2 EDSA Station San Rafael, Pasay
3 Libertad Station Santa Clara, Pasay
4 Gil Puyat Station San Isidro, Pasay
5 Vito Cruz Station Malate, Manila
6 Quirino Avenue Station Malate, Manila
7 Pedro Gil Station Ermita, Manila
8 United Nations Station Ermita, Manila
9 Central Station Ermita, Manila
10 Carriedo Station Santa Cruz, Manila
11 Doroteo Jose Station Santa Cruz, Manila
12 Bambang station Santa Cruz, Manila
13 Tayuman Station Santa Cruz, Manila
14 Blumentritt Station Santa Cruz, Manila
15 Abad Santos Station Tondo, Manila
16 R. Papa Station Tondo, Manila
17 5 Avenue Station
th Grace Park, Caloocan City
18 Monumento Station Grace Park, Caloocan City
19 Balintawak Station Balintawak, Quezon City
20 Roosevelt Station Bago Bantay, Quezon City
• LRT 2 (Light Rail Transit 2)

For a number of decades, no rail system served the areas once operating the
so-called "tranvia." In accordance with the recommendations made by the World
Bank in 1977 (the MMetroplan), seven lines were proposed for construction to
accommodate the increasing demand of what is now Metro Manila. However, to this
day, only three lines were completed. One of these system lines would be Manila Light
Rail Transit System Line 2 (locally known as LRT Line 2 or LRT-2). Despite its name,
LRT-2 is the third line to be completed. In addition, despite being named "Light Rail
Transit," LRT-2 is a heavy rail transit. Thus, it has the distinction of being capable to
operate larger trains than the two other lines. Nevertheless, it has the lowest amount
of ridership. As of 2011, LRT-2 posted a daily average of 199,000. The Light Rail
Transit 2 (LRT 2) have 11 stations.

Table 5.5.2 LRT 2 Stations

Station No. Station Location
1 Recto Station Manila
2 Legarda Station Manila
3 Pureza Station Manila
4 V. Mapa Station Manila
5 J. Ruiz station San Juan
6 Gimore Station Quezon City
7 Betty Go-Belmonte Station Quezon City
8 Araneta Center-Cubao Station Quezon City
9 Anonas Station Quezon City
10 Katipunan Station Quezon City
11 Santolan Station Marikina City

• MRT 3 (Metro Rail Transit 3)

The Metro Rail Transit 3 (MRT-3) is the cornerstone of the Department of

Transportation & Communication's integrated strategy to alleviate the chronic traffic
congestion experience along the EDSA corridor. The Metro Rail system is designed to
carry more than 23,000 passengers per hour per direction, initially, and is expandable
to accommodate 48,000 passengers per hour, per direction.

The DOTC awarded a contract to Metro Rail Transit Corporation (MRTC) to

build, lease and transfer the Metro Rail Transit System, under the BOT laws of the
Republic of the Philippines. The scheme required the DOTC to hold the franchise and
run the system particularly the operation and the collection of fares. The MRTC built
 the system, maintain the same as to guarantee the availability of the trains at specified
headway at specified hours, as well as to procure the required spare parts, the DOTC
pays MRTC monthly fees for a certain number of years. The Metro rail Transit 3 have
13 stations.

Table 5.5.3 MRT 3 Stations

Station No. Station Location
1 North Avenue Station Diliman, Quezon City
2 Quezon Avenue Station Diliman, Quezon City
3 GMA – Kamuning Station Diliman, Quezon City
4 Araneta Center- Cubao Station Cubao, Quezon City
5 Santolan – Annapolis Station Camp Aguinaldo, Quezon City
6 Ortigas Station Wack-Wack Greenhills,
Mandaluyong
7 Shaw Boulevard Station Wack-Wack Greenhills,
Mandaluyong
8 Boni Station Barangka Ilaya, Mandaluyong
9 Guadalupe Station Guadalupe Nuevo, Makati
10 Buendia Station Urdaneta, Makati
11 Ayala Stations San Lorenzo, Makati
12 Magallanes Station Magallanes, Makati
13 Taft Avenue Station San Rafael, Pasay

• PNR (Philippine National Railways)

PNR officially began operations on November 24, 1892, as the Ferrocarril de

Manila-Dagupan, during the Spanish colonial period, and later becoming the Manila
Railroad Company (MRR) during the American colonial period. It became the
Philippine National Railways on June 20, 1964, by virtue of Republic Act No. 4156.
The PNR is an attached agency under the Department of Transportation and
Communications.
 Figure 5.5.2 PNR Stations

ONGOING RAIL PROJECTS

The ongoing rail projects in the Philippines are the following:

• LRT 1 Cavite Extensions

With the Cavite Extension project, the total number of LRT-1 stations will
increase from 20 to 28, covering several major cities including Quezon City, Caloocan,
Manila, Pasay, and Paranaque, all the way to Bacoor, Cavite. It will add 11 kms to the
existing railway system and is expected to service up to 800,000 passengers per day.
It is also expected to increase and enhance commercial development around the rail
stations.

Figure 5.5.3 LRT 1 Cavite Extensions

• LRT 2 East Extensions

LRT-2 opened its East Extension adding 4 km to the pre-existing 13.8-km line
and introducing Marikina and Antipolo stations.

In a keynote speech at the July 1 inauguration rites, President Duterte called

the project “one of the hallmarks of the administration’s firm commitment to provide
a better transportation system for all” that “will improve mobility and ensure
transportation connectivity in the busy part of Metro Manila.”

The LRT-2 East Extension is part of the government’s “Build, Build, Build”
agenda that seeks to improve lives by energizing economies with infrastructure
spending.

Figure 5.5.4 LRT 2 East Extension

• MRT 7

MRT-7 runs from North Avenue, Quezon City to San Jose del Monte in Bulacan. It
aims to accommodate up to 300,000 passengers in its first year of operation.

The 24.7-kilometer rail and road project that starts from North Avenue in Quezon
City will unlock the potential of tracts of land along the route as they become easily
more accessible to Metro Manila’s business districts and other places of work.

Figure 5.5.5 MRT 7

• Metro Manila Subway Project

The Metro Manila subway, which is designed to have 17 stations, will connect
Valenzuela City to Pasay City. It is expected to serve more than 370,000 passengers
daily once operational. In June, the first tunnel boring machine (TBM) for the project
had broken ground, thereby beginning the underground work.

Figure 5.5.6 Metro Manila Subway Proposed Stops

• North South Commuter Rail Project
The project will support the construction of the 54.6-kilometer (km)
Blumentritt-Calamba section of the North-South Commuter Railway connecting
Metro Manila and Calamba, located in Laguna Province around 50 km south of Manila.
The project will provide improved connectivity in the public transport network by
connecting with all existing LRT/MRT-lines in Metro Manila, including a connecting
tunnel to allow the operation of direct trains from Calamba to stations on the future
Metro Manila Subway system.

Figure 5.5.7 North South Commuter Rail Project

 • Mindanao Railway System

The proposed Mindanao Railway Project (MRP) is one of the major projects of the
National Philippine Railway infrastructure program. The 1,544-kilometer Mindanao-
wide Railway System will connect cities like Davao, General Santos, Cagayan de Oro,
Iligan, Cotabato, Zamboanga, Butuan, Surigao, and Malaybalay.

The first phase of the MRP is the Tagum-Davao-Digos (TDD) segment, which is
100.2 kilometers long and covers six (6) locations in the Provinces of Davao del Norte
and Davao del Sur; from north to south, these are: (1) Tagum City, (2) Carmen
Municipality, (3) Panabo City, (4) Davao City, (5) Sta. Cruz Municipality and (6) Digos
City.

Figure 5.5.8 Mindanao Railway System

5.6 RAILWAYS VERSUS ROAD TRANSPORT

There are two modes of land transport, railways, and roads, and each has its relative
advantages and disadvantages.

Rail transport Owing to the heavy expenditure on the basic infrastructure required,
rail transport is best suited for carrying bulk commodities and many passengers over long
distances. Hence, road transport Owing to flexibility of operation and the ability to provide
door to-door service, road transport is ideally suited for carrying light commodities and a
small number of passengers over short distances.
 Table 5.6.1 Rail Transport versus Road Transport
Feature Rail Transport Road Transport
The movement of steel
wheels on steel rails has the The tractive resistance of a
basic advantage of low pneumatic tire on paved
Tractive resistance rolling resistance. This roads is almost five times
reduces haulage costs compared to that of wheels
because of low tractive on rails
resistance.
A railway track is defined on
two rails and is within Roads, though having well
protected limits. Trains defined limits, can be used
work as per prescribed by any vehicular traffic and
Right of Way
schedule and no other even by pedestrians they are
vehicle has the right of way open to all.
except at specified level
crossings.
Owing to the heavy
The cost of construction and
infrastructure and
maintenance of roads is
Cost of Analysis equipment, the initial as
comparatively cheaper
well as maintenance cost of
a railway line is high
Roads are constructed
The gradients of railways
normally with steeper
tracks are flatter (normally
gradients of up to 1 in 30
Gradients and Curves not more than 1 in 100), and
and relatively much sharper
curves are limited up to only
curves.
10° on broad gauge.

Due to the defined routes

Road transports have much
and facilities required for
more flexibility in
the reception and dispatch
Flexibility of Movement movement and can provide
of trains, railways can be
door-to-door services.
used only between fixed
points.
Railways have minimum Road transport creates
Environment Pollution adverse effects on the comparatively greater
environment. pollution than the railways.
 Barring member state
Railways are government
government transport, road
Organization and Control undertakings, with their
transport is managed by the
own organization.
private sector.
Road transport is best suited
Railways are best suited for
for carrying lighter goods
carrying heavy goods and
Suitability and smaller numbers of
large numbers of passengers
passengers over shorter
over long distances.
distances.

5.7.1 TRACK COMPONENTS

The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. It consists of two
parallel rails fastened to sleepers with a specified distance between them. The sleepers are
embedded in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over level ground known as
formation. The ballast provides a uniform level surface and drainage and transfers the load
to a larger area of the formation. The rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts, and
these are fastened to the sleepers with various types of fittings. The sleepers are spaced at a
specified distance and are held in position by the ballast. Each component of the track has a
specific function to perform. The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load of trains to
the sleepers. The sleepers hold the rails in their proper positions, provide a correct gauge
with the help of fittings and fastenings, and transfer the load to the ballast. The formation
takes the total load of the track as well as of the trains moving on it. The permanent way or
track, therefore, consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings, the ballast, and the
formation as shown in Fig. 5.7.1.

Figure 5.7.1 Various components of a track

5.7.2 Requirements of a Good Track

A permanent way or track should provide a comfortable and safe ride at the maximum
permissible speed with minimum maintenance cost. To achieve these objectives, a sound
permanent way should have the following characteristics.

a. The gauge should be correct and uniform.

b. The rails should have perfect cross levels. In curves, the outer rail should have a
proper superelevation to consider the centrifugal force.
c. The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case of curves, a proper
transition should be provided between the straight track and the curve.
d. The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient
should be followed by a proper vertical curve to provide a smooth ride.
e. The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb the shocks and vibrations
of running trains.
f. The track should have a good drainage system so that the stability of the track is not
affected by waterlogging.
g. The track should have good lateral strength so that it can maintain its stability despite
variations in temperature and other such factors.
h. There should be provisions for easy replacement and renewal of the various track
components.
i. The track should have such a structure that not only is its initial cost low, but also its
maintenance cost is minimum.

5.8.1 Rails

Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an
unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to
withstand stresses, they are made of high-carbon steel.

5.8.2 Functions of Rails

Rails are similar to steel girders. These are provided to perform the following
functions in a track.
a. Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
b. Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction
between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction
between the pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.
c. Rails serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
 d. Rails bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them
through axles and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal
forces.
e. Rails carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the
formation through sleepers and the ballast.

5.8.3 Types of Rails

The first rails used were double headed (DH) and made of an I or dumb-bell
section (Fig. 5.8.3 (a)). The idea was that once the head wore out during service, the
rail could be inverted and reused. Experience, however, showed that while in service
the bottom table of the rail was dented to such an extent because of long and
continuous contact with the chairs that it was not possible to reuse it. This led to the
development of the bull headed (BH) rail, which had an almost similar shape but with
more metal in the head to better withstand wear and tear (Fig. 5.8.3 (b)). This rail
section had the major drawback that chairs were required for fixing it to the sleepers.
A flat-footed rail, also called a vignole rail (Fig. 5.8.3 (c)), with an inverted T-type
cross section of inverted T- type was, therefore, developed, which could be fixed
directly to the sleepers with the help of spikes. Another advantage of the flat-footed
rail is that it is a more economical design, giving greater strength and lateral stability
to the track as compared to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional area.

Figure 5.8.3 (a) Double headed rail

Figure 5.8.3 (b) Bull headed rail

 Figure 5.8.3 (c) Flat-footed rail
5.8.4 Requirements for an Ideal Rail Station
The requirements for an ideal rail section are as follows.
a. The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength,
stiffness, and durability. Head Fishing angle Foot Web Height Rails 83.
b. The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the
mid-height of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
are equal.
c. A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be an
economical and balanced distribution of metal in its various components so
that each of them can fulfil its requirements properly. The requirements, as
well as the main considerations, for the design of these rail components are as
follows.
Head: The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for vertical
wear. The rail head should also be sufficiently wide so that not only is a wider
running surface available, but also the rail has the desired lateral stiffness. Web:
The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand the stresses arising due
to the loads bone by it, after allowing for normal corrosion.
Foot: The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to withstand vertical
and horizontal forces after allowing for loss due to corrosion. The foot should
be wide enough for stability against overturning. The design of the foot should
be such that it can be economically and efficiently rolled. Fishing angles: Fishing
angles must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to the fish
plates. The fishing angles should be such that the tightening of the plate does
not produce any excessive stress on the web of the rail.
Height of the rail: The height of the rail should be adequate.
5.8.5 Rail Gauge
Gauge is defined as the minimum distance between two rails. Indian Railways
follows this standard practice, and the gauge is measured as the clear minimum
distance between the running faces of the two rails as shown in Fig. 5.8.5.

Figure 5.8.5 Gauge

5.8.6 Gauge on World Railways

Various gauges have been adopted by different railways in the world due to
historical and other considerations. In British Railways, a gauge of 1525 mm (5 feet)
was initially adopted, but the wheel flanges at that time were on the outside of the
rails. Subsequently, in order to guide the wheels better, the flanges were made inside
the rails. The gauge then became 1435 mm (4' 8.5"), as at that time the width of the
rail at the top was 45 mm (1.75"). The 1435-mm gauge became the standard gauge in
most European Railways. The approximate proportions of various gauges on world
railways are given in Table 5.8.6

Table 5.8.6 Various Gauge on World Railways

Type of Gauge Gauge Gauge % of total Countries
(mm) (feet) length
England, USA, Canada,
Standard gauge 1435 4’8.5” 62
Turkey, Persia, and China
India, Pakistan, Ceylon,
Broad gauge 1676 5’6” 6
Brazil, Argentina
Broad gauge 1524 5’0” 9 Russia, Finland
Africa, Japan, Java,
Cape gauge 1067 3’6” 8 Australia, and New
Zealand
India, France, Switzerland,
Metre gauge 1000 3’3.5” 9
and Argentina
23 various Different Different
6 Various Countries
other gauges gauges gauges
5.8.7 Different Gauges on Indian Railways

The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge of 1435 mm in India
also. This proposal was, however, challenged by Mr W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to the
Government of India, who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm (5' 6"). The Court of
Directors of the East India Company decided to adopt Mr Simms’s recommendation and 5'
6" finally became the Indian standard gauge. In 1871, the Government of India wanted to
construct cheaper railways for the development of the country and the 1000-mm metre
gauge was introduced. In due course of time, two more gauges with widths of 762 mm (2'
6") and 610 mm (2' 0") were introduced for thinly populated areas, mountain railways, and
other miscellaneous purposes.

The details of the various gauges existing on Indian Railways are given in Table 5.8.7.

Table 5.8.7 Various Gauge on Indian Railways

Name of Gauge Width Width Route % of route
(mm) (feet) kilometers kilometers
Broad gauge (BG) 1676 5’6” 39,612 63.2
Metre gauge (MG) 1000 3’3.37” 19,210 30.7
Narrow gauge (NG) 762 2’6” 3,838 6.1
610 2’0”
Total - - 62,660 100

5.8.9 Rail Specifications

Every rail has a brand on its web, which is repeated at intervals

IRS-52kg – 710 – TISCO – II 1991 –> OB

a. IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, i.e., 52 kg

b. 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880
c. TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g., Tata Iron and Steel Co.
d. II 1991: Month and year of manufacture (February 1991)
e. ->: An arrow showing the direction of the top of the ingot
f. OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open hearth basic (OB)

5.9 Sleepers

Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an
important role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.
5.9.1 Functions and Requirements of Sleepers

The main functions of sleepers are as follows.

a. Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment.

b. Giving a firm and even support to the rails.
c. Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast.
d. Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads.
e. Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way.
f. Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life.

Apart from performing these functions the ideal sleeper should normally fulfil the
following requirements.

a. The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.

b. The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
c. The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix
and remove the rails easily.
d. The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not
crushed.
e. The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge
properly.
f. The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing.
g. The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.

5.9.2 Sleeper Density and Spacing of Sleepers

Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as M +

x or N + x, where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that
varies according to factors such as (a) axle load and speed, (b) type and section of
rails, (c) type and strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
(e) nature of formation. If the sleeper density is M + 7 on a broad-gauge route and
the length of the rail is 13 m, it means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail
on that route. The number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating
the number of sleepers per kilometre of the track. For example, 1540 sleepers/km.
This specification becomes more relevant particularly in cases where rails are
welded, and the length of the rail does not have much bearing on the number of
sleepers required.
 The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing
is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of
the weakness of the joints and impact of moving loads on them. There is, however, a
limitation to the close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space is required for working
the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers.

5.9 Ballast
The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any other granular
material placed and packed below and around sleepers for distributing load from the
sleepers to the formation. It provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral
stability to the track.

5.10.1 Functions of Ballast

The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.

• Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on. l Holds the sleepers in
position during the passage of trains.
• Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the formation.
• Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
• Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
• Provides effective drainage to the track.
• Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of the track.

5.10.2 Types of Ballast

The different types of ballast used on Indian Railways are described in the following.

s
a. Sand ballast

Sand ballast is used primarily for cast iron (CI) pots. It is also used with wooden
and steel trough sleepers in areas where traffic density is very low. Coarse sand is
preferred in comparison to fine sand. It has good drainage properties but has the
drawback of blowing off because of being light. It also causes excessive wear of the rail
top and the moving parts of the rolling stock.

Figure 5.10.2 (a) Sand ballast

b. Moorum ballast

The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It is red, and

sometimes yellow, in colour. The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in
new constructions and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the
formation, it is also used as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.

Figure 5.10.2 (b) Moorum ballast

 c. Coal ash or cinder

This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial ballast in new
constructions since it is very cheap and easily available. It is harmful for steel sleepers and
fittings because of its corrosive action.

Figure 5.10.2 (c) Coal ash ballast

d. Broken stone ballast

This type of ballast is used the most on Indian Railways. A good stone ballast is generally
procured from hard stones such as granite, quartzite, and hard trap. The quality of stone
should be such that neither is it porous nor does it flake off due to the vagaries of weather.
Good quality hard stone is normally used for high-speed tracks. This type of ballast works
out to be economical in the long run.

Figure 5.10.2 (d) Broken stone ballast

e. Other types of ballast

There are other types of ballast also such as the brickbat ballast, gravel ballast,
kankar stone ballast, and even earth ballast. These types of ballast are used only in
special circumstances.

5.10.3 Sizes of Ballast

Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom sleepers such
as concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5") ballasts were specified for metal
 sleepers such as CST-9 and trough sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2")
ballasts have been adopted universally for all type of sleepers.

As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are subjected to heavy
blows of moving loads and are maintained to a higher degree of precision. A small
sized, 25-mm (1") ballast is, therefore, preferable because of its fineness for slight
adjustments, better compaction, and increased frictional area of the ballast.

5.10.4 Requirements of a Good Ballast

Ballast material should possess the following properties.

a. It should be tough and wear resistant.

b. It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under the moving loads.
c. It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
d. It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.
e. It should resist both attrition and abrasion.
f. It should be durable and should not get pulverized or disintegrated under adverse
weather conditions.
g. It should allow for good drainage of water.
h. It should be cheap and economical.

5.10.5 Size and Gradation

The ballast should satisfy the size and gradation requirements given in Table 5.10.5.

Table 5.10.5 Ballast gradation

Size of sieve % retained

65 mm 5% maximum
40 mm 40% to 60%
20 mm Not less than 98% for machine crushed and not less than
95% for hand broken

5.10 Track Fittings and Fastenings

The purpose of providing fittings and fastenings in railway tracks is to hold the rails
in their proper position to ensure the smooth running of trains. These fittings and
fastenings are used for joining rails together as well as fixing them to the sleepers, and
they serve their purpose so well that the level, alignment, and gauge of the railway track
 are maintained within permissible limits even during the passage of trains. The
important fittings and fastenings commonly used in India are listed in Table 5.10.

Table 5.10 Types of Track Fittings

Purpose and Type Details of Fittings and Fastenings
Joining rail to rail Fish plates, combination fish plates, bolts,
and nuts
Joining rail to wooden sleepers Dog spikes, fang bolts, screw spikes, and
bearing plates
Joining rail to steel through sleepers Loose jaws, keys, and liners
Joining rail to cast iron sleepers Tie bars and cotters
Elastic fastenings to be used with concrete, Elastic or Pandrol clip, IRN 202 clip, HM
steel, and wooden sleepers fastening, MSI insert, rubber pads, and
nylon liners

References

http://www.metromaniladirections.com/2010/04/light-rail-transit-line-2-lrt-2.html

https://history-ph.blogspot.com/2017/04/lrt-2-names.html

https://arpwe.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Ebook-Railway-Engineering-.pdf

https://pnr.gov.ph/about-contact-us/who-we-are/pnr-in-philippine-history/24-
history/126-pnr-historical-highlights

https://stalucialand.com.ph/news_press/lrt-2-east-extension-allows-for-east-travel-seen-
to-proper-growth/

https://www.bworldonline.com/property/2022/10/04/478141/mrt-7-completion-to-
boost-property-values-along-its-route/

https://www.adb.org/countries/philippines/south-commuter-railway-project