BE8254- BASIC ELECTRICAL AND

INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
BY
VENUGOPAL R
AP/EEE
OBJECTIVES:
• To impart knowledge on
• Operation of Three phase electrical circuits and power
measurement
• Working principles of Electrical Machines
• Working principle of Various measuring instruments
UNIT I AC CIRCUITS AND POWER SYSTEMS 9
Three phase power supply – Star connection – Delta
connection – Balanced and Unbalanced Loads- Power
equation – Star Delta Conversion – Three Phase Power
Measurement - Transmission & Distribution of electrical
energy – Over head Vs Underground system – Protection of
power system – types of tariff – power factor improvement
UNIT II TRANSFORMER 9
Introduction - Ideal Transformer – Accounting For Finite
Permeability And Core Loss – Circuit Model Of Transformer –
Per Unit System – Determination Of Parameters Of Circuit
Model Of Transformer – Voltage Regulation – Name Plate
Rating – Efficiency – Three Phase Transformers - Auto
Transformers
UNIT III DC MACHINES 9

Introduction – Constructional Features– Motoring and

generation principle - EMF And Torque equation –
Circuit Model – Methods of Excitation and
magnetization characteristics – Starting and Speed
Control – Universal Motor
UNIT IV AC MACHINES 9
Principle of operation of three-phase induction motors –
Construction –Types – Equivalent circuit, Single phase
Induction motors -Construction– Types–starting and speed
control methods. Alternator- working principle–Equation of
induced EMF – Voltage regulation, Synchronous motors
working principle-starting methods -– Torque equation –
Stepper Motors – Brushless DC Motors
UNIT V MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION 9
• Type of Electrical and electronic instruments – Classification-
Types of indicating Instruments – Principles of Electrical
Instruments –Multimeters, Oscilloscopes- Static and
Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement – Errors in
Measurement – Transducers - Classification of Transducers:
Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive, Thermoelectric,
piezoelectric, photoelectric, Hall effect and Mechanical
OUTCOMES:
• At the end of the course the students will be able to
1 Understand the concept of three phase circuits and
Measurements
.2 comprehend the concept in electrical Transformer
.3 Understand the concept of Dc generator and motors
.4 Understand the concept of AC alternators and Motors
.5 study the electrical Measurements and instrumentation
.6 choose appropriate measuring instruments for given application
TEXT BOOKS:

1. D P Kothari and I.J Nagarath, “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, McGraw Hill
Education(India) Private Limited, Third Reprint ,2016
2. Giorgio Rizzoni, “Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering”, McGraw Hill
Education(India) Private Limited, 2010
3. S.K.Bhattacharya “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, Pearson India, 2011

REFERENCES:
1. Del Toro ,”Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2015.
2. Leonard S Bobrow, “ Foundations of Electrical Engineering”, Oxford University Press, 2013
3. Rajendra Prasad ,”Fundamentals of Electrical engineering”, Prentice Hall of India, 2006.
4. Mittle N., “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill Edition, 24th reprint 2016
5. A.E.Fitzgerald, David E Higginbotham and Arvin Grabel, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, McGraw
Hill Education(India) Private Limited, 2009
Basis Alternating current Direct current
Definition The direction of the current reverse The direction of the
periodically. current remain same.
Causes of flow of Rotating a coil in a uniform magnetic Constant magnetic field
electrons field or rotating a uniform magnetic across the wire
field within a stationary coil
Frequency 50 or 60 Hertz Zero
Direction of flow Bidirectional Unidirectional
of electrons.
Power Factor Lies between 0 and 1 Always 1
Obtained From Alternators Generators, battery,
solar cell, etc.
Type of load Their load is resistive, inductive or Their load is usually
capacitive. resistive in nature.
Basis Alternating current Direct current
Graphical It is represented by irregular waves like It is represented by the
Representation triangular wave, square wave, square straight line.
tooth wave, sine wave.
Transmission Can be transmitted over long distance It can be transmitted over
with some losses. very long distance with
negligible losses.
Convertible Easily convert into direct current Easily convert into
alternating current
Substation Few substation is required for More substations are
generation and transmission required for generation
and transmission
Passive Impedance Resistance
Parameter
Harazdous Dangerous Very dangerous
SINGLE PHASE TWO WIRE

V p 
SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM
• A generator connected through a pair of wire to a load
– Single Phase Two Wire.
• Vp is the magnitude of the source voltage, and  is the
phase.
SINGLE PHASE THREE WIRE

V p 

V p 
SINGLE PHASE SYSTEM
• Most common in practice: two identical sources
connected to two loads by two outer wires and the
neutral: Single Phase Three Wire.
• Terminal voltages have same magnitude and the same
phase.
POLYPHASE SYSTEM
• Circuit or system in which AC sources
operate at the same frequency but
different phases are known as
polyphase.
TWO PHASE SYSTEM THREE WIRE

V p 

V p   90
POLYPHASE SYSTEM
• Two Phase System:
• A generator consists of two coils placed perpendicular to each
other
• The voltage generated by one lags the other by 90.
POLYPHASE SYSTEM
• Three Phase System:
• A generator consists of three coils placed 120 apart.
• The voltage generated are equal in magnitude but, out of
phase by 120.
• Three phase is the most economical polyphase system.
THREE PHASE FOUR WIRE
IMPORTANCE OF THREE PHASE SYSTEM
• All electric power is generated and distributed in
three phase.
• One phase, two phase, or more than three phase input
can be taken from three phase system rather than
generated independently.
• Melting purposes need 48 phases supply.
IMPORTANCE OF THREE PHASE SYSTEM
• Uniform power transmission and less vibration of three
phase machines.
• The instantaneous power in a 3 system can be constant (not
pulsating).
• High power motors prefer a steady torque especially one
created by a rotating magnetic field.
IMPORTANCE OF THREE PHASE SYSTEM
• Three phase system is more economical than the single
phase.
• The amount of wire required for a three phase system is less
than required for an equivalent single phase system.
• Conductor: Copper, Aluminum, etc
THREE PHASE GENERATION
FARADAYS LAW
• Three things must be present in order to produce
electrical current:
a) Magnetic field
b) Conductor
c) Relative motion
• Conductor cuts lines of magnetic flux, a voltage is
induced in the conductor
• Direction and Speed are important
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to the flux.
No voltage is induced.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45 to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

S
x

N
Motion is perpendicular to flux.
Induced voltage is maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45 to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to flux.
No voltage is induced.
 GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45 to flux.
Notice current in the Induced voltage is
conductor has reversed. 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is perpendicular to flux.
Induced voltage is maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45 to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to flux.
No voltage is induced.
Ready to produce another cycle.
THREE PHASE GENERATOR
GENERATOR WORK
• The generator consists of a rotating magnet (rotor)
surrounded by a stationary winding (stator).

• Three separate windings or coils with terminals a-a’,

b-b’, and c-c’ are physically placed 120 apart around
the stator.
• As the rotor rotates, its magnetic field cuts the flux
from the three coils and induces voltages in the coils.

• The induced voltage have equal magnitude but out of

phase by 120.
GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE AC
S
x x

N
 THREE-PHASE WAVEFORM
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

120 120 120

240

Phase 2 lags phase 1 by 120. Phase 2 leads phase 3 by 120.

Phase 3 lags phase 1 by 240. Phase 1 lags phase 3 by 120.
 GENERATION OF 3 VOLTAGES
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

The
S
algebraic
sum of the x x
instantaneous
voltages of
the three
phases equals
zero.

Phase 1 is ready to go positive.

Phase 2 is going more negative. N
Phase 3 is going less positive.
 AC Circuits

Single-phase Three-Phase
Significant Features of Three-Phase AC Circuits

• Almost all ac power generation and transmission is in the form of three-

phase ac circuits
• AC power systems have a great advantage over DC systems in that their
voltage levels can be changed with transformers to reduce transmission
losses.
• Three-phase (3) ac power system consists of
• 3 ac generators
• 3 transmission lines
• 3 loads
• Advantages of having 3 power systems over 1 ones:
• More power per pound of metal of electrical machines of 3.
• Power delivered to a 3 load is constant, instead of pulsating as it
does in a 1 system.
 Generation of 3 Voltages and Currents

A 3 generator consists of three 1

generators:
- voltage of all phases are equal in
amagnitude
- differing in phase angle from each
aother by 120o.
Three-Phases of the Generator Connected to Three
identical Loads

VC

VA

VB

Phasor diagram showing the

voltages in each phase
 Currents in the Three Phases and the Neutral
Currents flowing in the three phases
V0 0
Ia   I  
Z 
V  120 0
Ib   I  120 0  
Z
V  240 0
Ic   I  240 0  
Z

It is possible to connect the negative ends of these three single phase

generators and the loads together, so that they share a common return
line, called neutral.
I N  Ia  Ib  Ic
  
 I    I  1200    I  2400   
 I
    
cos    j sin    cos  1200    j sin  1200   

   0
  0
 cos  240    j sin  240    
0
As long as the three loads are equal, the return current in the neutral is zero.
PHASE VOLTAGES and LINE VOLTAGES
• Phase voltage is measured between
the neutral and any line: line to
neutral voltage
• Line voltage is measured between any
two of the three lines: line to line
voltage.
PHASE CURRENTS and LINE CURRENTS
• Line current (IL) is the current in each line of the
source or load.

• Phase current (I) is the current in each phase of

the source or load.
Balanced Power Systems

• In a balanced power system:

• Three generators have same voltage magnitude and phase
difference is 120o.
• Three loads are equal and magnitude and angle.

• abc phase sequence: the voltages in the three phases peak in the
order a, b and c. It is possible to have acb phase sequence.
WYE CONNECTED GENERATOR
I a
a

V an
V ab
n V bn

Ib
V ca
b
V cn

V bc

Ic
c
WYE CONNECTED LOAD

OR
BALANCED Y-Y CONNECTION
PHASE VOLTAGES, V
Ia
• Phase voltage is measured a
between the neutral and any
line: line to neutral voltage VVanan
V ab
n VVbnbn

Ib V ca
b
VVcn
cn

V bc

Ic
c
PHASE VOLTAGES, V

Van  VM 0 volt

Vbn  VM   120 volt
Vcn  VM 120 volt
LINE VOLTAGES, VL
Ia
• Line voltage is measured a
between any two of the
three lines: line to line Van
V
Vabab
voltage. Vbn
n
Ib VVca
b
Vcn

V
Vbcbc

Ic
c
LINE VOLTAGES, VL
Vab  Van  Vbn
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn
Vca  Vca  Van
Vab  3VM 30
Vbc  3VM   90
Vca  3VM 150 
Van  VM 0 volt
PHASE
Vbn  VM   120 volt VOLTAGE (V)
Vcn  VM 120 volt

Vab  3 VM 30 volt

LINE
VOLTAGE Vbc  3 VM   90 volt
(VL)
Vca  3 VM 150 volt
RELATIONSHIP
1. Magnitude
BETWEEN V  and V L

VL  3 V
2. Phase
- VL LEAD their corresponding V by 30

VL  V  30

DELTA CONNECTED SOURCES
DELTA CONNECTED LOAD

OR
BALANCED -  CONNECTION
PHASE VOLTAGE AND LINE VOLTAGE
• In - system, line voltages equal to phase voltages:

VL  Vφ
PHASE CURRENTS,
• Line voltages are equalIto
 the voltages across the load
impedances.

 
PHASE CURRENTS, I
• The phase currents are obtained:

VAB VBC VCA

I AB  , I BC  , I CA 
ZΔ ZΔ ZΔ
LINE CURRENTS, IL
• The line currents are obtained from the phase currents
by applying KCL at nodes A,B, and C.

 
LINE CURRENTS, IL
I a  I AB  I CA
I b  I BC  I AB
I c  I CA  I BC I a  3 I AB   30 
I b  I a   120 
I c  I a   120 
 PHASE
CURRENTS (I)

VAB
I AB  LINE CURRENTS (IL)
ZΔ
VBC I a  3 I AB   30 
I BC 
ZΔ I b  I a   120 
VCA
I CA  I c  I a   120 
ZΔ
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN I and IL
1. Magnitude

IL  3 IF
2. Phase
- VL LAG their corresponding V by 30

I L  I F  30
 Y and Connections

Ib

+ Va Ia Z
+
- - Vb In
A connection of this sort Z
is called Wye-connection. - Z
Vc
+ Ic

Ia

Va + -
Another possible connection Vb Z Z
is delta-connection, in which - +
the generators are connected Z
head to tail. + - Ib
Vc
Ic
Voltages and Currents in a Y-Connected 3 Circuit
Phase quantities: voltages and currents in a given phase
Line quantities: voltages between lines and current in the lines

I +
- Ib
Vab
+
+ Van + V - Ia (=IL)
Resistive
bc
- - Vbn Load
n
- Vca
Vcn
+ + Ic
-

Van  V 0 0 I a  I  0 0
Vbn  V   120 0 I b  I    120 0
Vcn  V   120 0 I c  I    240 0

Vab  Van  Vbn  V00  V  1200  3V300

Voltages and Currents in a Y-Connected 3 Circuit (cont’d)

The relationship between the magnitude of the line-to-line voltage and the
line-to-neutral (phase) voltage in a Y-connected generator or load
VLL  3V

In a Y-connected generator or load, the current in any line is the same as

the current in the corresponding phase.
I L  I Vcn
Vca Vab

Van

Vbn

Vbc
Voltages and Currents in a -Connected 3 Circuit

In a delta-connected generator or load, Iab

the line-to-line voltage between any two VA + I
a
- VB
lines will be the same as the voltage in - Ic Ib +
the corresponding phase.
+ - Ibc
VC
VLL  V Ica

In a delta-connected generator or load, Ic

the relationship between the magnitudes Ica
of the line and phase currents:
I L  3I 
Iab

Ib Ia
Ibc
 Power Relationship in 3 Circuits
The 3 voltages applied to this load:
van t   2V sint 
vbn t   2V sin t  1200 
vcn t   2V sint  2400 

The 3 currents flowing in this load:

ia t   2 I sint   

ib t   2 I sin t  1200   
2 I sin t  2400   
A balanced Y-connected load.
ic t  

Instantaneous power supplied to each of the three phases:

Pa t   van t ia t   2VI sint  sint     VI cos   cos2t   
     
Pb t   vbn t ib t   2VI sin t  1200 sin t  1200    VI cos   cos 2t  2400   
Pc t   vcn t ic t   2VI sint  2400 sint  2400     VI cos   cos 2t  4800   

Total power supplied to the 3 load:

Ptotal t   P3  Pa t   Pa t   Pa t   3VI cos   3P1
3 Power Equations Involving Phase Quantities

The 1 power equations:

S1  V I 
P1  V I  cos 
Q1  V I  sin  S
Q=Ssin
 90o
The 3 power equations:
P=Scos
S3  3V I 
P3  3V I  cos 
Q3  3V I  sin 
3 Power Equations Involving Line Quantities

For a Y-connected load: I L  I  and VLL  3V

V 
P3  3V I  cos   3 LL  I L cos   3VLL I L cos 
 3

For a delta-connected load: I L  3I  and VLL  V

 IL  90o
P3  3V I  cos   3VLL   cos   3VLL I L cos 
 3 

Therefore, regardless of the connection of the load:

P3  3VLL I L cos 

Q3  3VLL I L sin 
S3  3VLL I L
 Analysis of Balanced 3 Systems

If a three-phase power system is balanced, it

is possible to determine voltages and currents
at various points in the circuit with a per
phase equivalent circuit.

• Neutral wire can be inserted, as no current

would be flowing through it, thus, system is
not affected.
• Three phases are identical except for 120o
phase shift for each phases.
• It is thus possible to analyze circuit consists
of one phase and neutral.
• Results would be valid for other two phases
as well if 120o phase shift is included.
Wye-Delta Transformation

• Above analysis if OK for Y-connected sources and loads, but no neutral

can be connected for delta-connected sources and loads.
• As a result, the standard approach is to transform the impedances by
using the delta-wye transform of elementary circuit theory.
FOUR WIRE SYSTEM
• Each phase measured separately:
THREE PHASE THREE WIRE SYSTEM

The three phase

power is the
sum of the two
watt-meters
reading

PT  PAB  PCB
THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT
For wye connected load FOR DELTA CONNECTED LOAD
THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT

Circuit diagram Phasor diagram

The voltages VRN, VYN, and VBN are electrically 1200 in phase with one other, we can observe that the current phase lags at the
“φ0 ” angle with voltage phase.
The current in wattmeter W1 is represented as

W = I …….. (1)
1 R

where IR is current
The potential difference across the wattmeter W1 coil is given as

W = ~ V = [ ~ V – ~ V ] ……… (2)
1 RB RN BN

Where V and V are voltages

RN BN

The phase difference between the voltage ‘VYB‘ and current ‘IY ‘ is given as (300 + φ )

W = V I cos ( 30 + φ ) ………….. (3)

2 YB Y
0

At balanced load condition,

I = I = I = I and ………….. (4) ;

R Y B L V = V = V = V ………… (5)
RY YB BR L

Therefore we obtain wattmeter readings as

W = V I cos( 30 – φ ) and ……………. (6)

1 L L
0

W = V I cos ( 30 + φ ) …………….. (7)

2 L L
0
 Total Power Derivation
The total wattmeter reading is given as
W + W = V I cos( 30 – φ ) + V I cos ( 30 + φ ) ………….. (8)
1 2 L L
0
L L
0

= V I [ cos( 30 – φ ) + cos ( 30 + φ ) ]
L L
0 0

= V I [ cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ + cos 30 cos φ – sin 30 sin φ ]

L L
0 0 0 0

= V I [ 2 cos 30 cos φ ]
L L
0

= V I [ (2 √3 / 2 ) cos 30 cos φ]
L L
0

= √3 [ V I cos φ ] L L ……… (9)

W1 + W2 =P ….. (10)
Where ‘P’ is the total observed power in a 3-phase balanced load condition
 Power Factor Derivation
Definition: It is the ratio between actual power observed by the load to apparent power flowing in the circuit.
The power factor of three phase balanced load condition can be determined and derived from wattmeter readings as follows

W1 + W2 = √3 V I cos φ L L

Now W1 – W2 = V I [ cos( 30 – φ ) – cos ( 30 + φ ) ]

L L
0 0

= V I [ cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ – cos 30 cos φ + sin 30 sin φ ]

L L
0 0 0 0

= 2 V I sin 30 sin φ
L L
0

W1 – W2 = V I sin φ ………….. (11)

L L

Dividing equations 11 and 9

[W1 – W2 \ W1 +W2] = V I sin φ / √3 V I cos φ L L L L

Tan φ = √3 [W1 – W2\W1 +W2]

The power factor of the load is given as
cos φ = cos tan [√3] [W1 – W2 \ W1 +W2] ………(12)
-1
 Reactive Power Derivation
Definition: It is the ratio between complex power corresponding to storage and
revival of energy rather than consumption.
To obtain reactive power, we multiply equation 11 with
√3 [W1 – W2 ]= √3 [V I sin φ] = Q
L L

P = √3 [W1 – W2 ] …………. (13)

r
•Active Power (P) = the power needed for
useful work such as turning a lathe,
providing light or pumping water,
expressed in Watt or KiloWatt (kW)

•Reactive Power (Q) = a measure of the

stored energy reflected to the source
which does not do any useful work,
expressed in var or Kilovar (kVAR)

•Apparent Power (S) = the vector sum of

active and reactive power, expressed in
Volt Amperes or in KiloVolt Amperes (kVA)
 Different Types Of Transmission Systems
Single phase AC system
1. single phase, two wires
2. single phase, two wires with midpoint earthed
3. single phase, three wires
Two phase AC system
1. two-phase, three wires
2. two-phase, four wires
Three phase AC system
1. three-phase, three wires
2. three-phase, four wires
DC system
1. DC two wires
2. DC two wires with midpoint earthed
3. DC three wires
Main Elements Of A Transmission Line
Due to the economic considerations, three-phase three-wire overhead system is widely
used for electric power transmission.
Conductors: three for a single circuit line and six for a double circuit line. Conductors
must be of proper size (i.e. cross-sectional area). This depends upon its current capacity.
Usually, ACSR (Aluminium-core Steel-reinforced) conductors are used.
Transformers: Step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level and step-
down transformers are used for stepping it down. Transformers permit power to be
transmitted at higher efficiency.
Line insulators: to mechanically support the line conductors while electrically isolating
them from the support towers.
Support towers: to support the line conductors suspending in the air overhead.
Protective devices: to protect the transmission system and to ensure reliable operation.
These include ground wires, lightening arrestors, circuit breakers, relays etc.
Voltage regulators: to keep the voltage within permissible limits at the receiving end.
Factors Affecting the Electricity Tariffs
The following factors are taken into accounts to decide the electricity tariff:

Types of Load – The load is mainly classified into three types, i.e., domestic, commercial, or industrial. The
industrial consumers use more energy for a longer time than domestic consumers, and hence the tariff for
the industrial consumers is more than the domestic consumers. The tariff of the electric energy varies
according to their requirement.
Maximum demand – The cost of the electrical energy supplied by a generating station depends on the
installed capacity of the plant and kWh generated. Increased in maximum capacity increased the installed
capacity of the generating station.
The time at which load is required – The time at which the maximum load required is also essential for the
electricity tariff. If the maximum demand coincides with the maximum demand of the consumer, then the
additional plant is required. And if the maximum demand of the consumers occurs during off-peak hours,
the load factor is improved, and no extra plant capacity is needed. Thus, the overall cost per kWh generated
is reduced.
The power factor of the load – The power factor plays a major role in the plant economics. The low power
factor increases the load current which increases the losses in the system. Thus, the regulation becomes
poor. For improving the power factor, the power factor correction equipment is installed at the generating
station. Thus, the cost of the generation increases.
The amount of energy used – The cost of electrical energy is reduced by using large amounts of energy for
longer periods.
1. Simple Tariff
In this type of tariff, a fixed rate is applied for each unit of the energy
consumed. It is also known as a uniform tariff. The rate per unit of
energy does not depend upon the quantity of energy used by a
consumer. The price per unit (1 kWh) of energy is constant. This
energy consumed by the consumer is recorded by the energy meters.
• Advantages:
Simplest method
• Easily understandable and easy to apply
• Each consumer has to pay according to his utilization
• Disadvantages
There is no discrimination according to the different types of
consumers.
• The cost per unit is high.
• There are no incentives (an attractive feature that makes the
consumers use more electricity.)
• If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular
month, the supplier cannot charge any money even though the
connection provided to the consumer has its own costs.
Application
Generally applied to tube wells used for irrigation purposes.
2. Flat Rate Tariff
In this tariff, different types of consumers are charged at
different rates of cost per unit (1kWh) of electrical energy
consumed. Different consumers are grouped under
different categories. Then, each category is charged
money at a fixed rate similar to Simple Tariff. The different
rates are decided according to the consumers, their loads
and load factors.
•Advantages
More fair to different consumers.
•Simple calculations.
•Disadvantages
A particular consumer is charged at a particular rate. But
there are no incentives for the consumer.
•Since different rates are decided according to different
loads, separate meters need to be installed for different
loads such as light loads, power loads, etc. This makes
the whole arrangement complicated and expensive.
•All the consumers in a particular “category” are charged
at the same rates. However, it is fairer if the consumers
that utilize more energy be charged at lower fixed rates.
•Application
Generally applied to domestic consumers.
3. Block Rate Tariff
In this tariff, the first block of the energy consumed
(consisting of a fixed number of units) is charged at a
given rate and the succeeding blocks of energy (each with
a predetermined number of units) are charged at
progressively reduced rates. The rate per unit in each
block is fixed.
For example, the first 50 units (1st block) may be charged
at 3 rupees per unit; the next 30 units (2nd block) at 2.50
rupees per unit and the next 30 units (3rd block) at 2
rupees per unit.
Advantages
Only 1 energy meter is required.
Incentives are provided for the consumers due to reduced
rates. Hence consumers use more energy. This improves load
factor and reduces cost of generation.
Disadvantages
If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular
month, the supplier does not charge any money even though
the connection provided to the consumer has its own costs.
Application
Generally applied to residential and small commercial
consumers.
4. Two Part Tariff
In this tariff scheme, the total costs charged to the consumers consist of two components:
fixed charges and running charges. It can be expressed as:

Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs.

Where,
A = charge per kW of max demand (i.e. A is a constant which when multiplied with max
demand (kW) gives the total fixed costs.)
B = charge per kWh of energy consumed (i.e. B is a constant which when multiplied with
units consumed (kWh), gives total running charges.)

The fixed charges will depend upon maximum demand of the consumer and the running
charge will depend upon the energy (units) consumed. The fixed charges are due to the
interest and depreciation on the capital cost of building and equipment, taxes and a part of
operating cost which is independent of energy generated. On the other hand, the running
charges are due to the operating cost which varies with variation in generated (or
supplied) energy..
Advantages
If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular month, the supplier will get the return equal to
the fixed charges.
•Disadvantages
Even if a consumer does not use any electricity, he has to pay the fixed charges regularly.
•The maximum demand of the consumer is not determined. Hence, there is error of assessment of max
demand and hence conflict between the supplier and the consumer.
•Application
Generally applied to industrial consumers with appreciable max demand

5. Maximum Demand Tariff

•In this tariff, the energy consumed is charged on the basis of maximum demand. The units (energy)
consumed by him is called maximum demand. The max demand is calculated by a maximum demand
meter. This removes any conflict between the supplier and the consumer as it were the two part tariff. It is
similar to two-part tariff.

Application
Generally applied to large industrial consumers.
6. Power Factor Tariff
In this tariff scheme, the power factor of the consumer’s load is also considered.
We know that power factor is an important parameter in power system. For optimal
operation, the pf must be high. Low pf will cause more losses and imbalance on
the system. Hence the consumers which have low pf loads will be charged more. It
can be further divided into the following types:

(I) KVA Maximum Demand Tariff

In this type of tariff, the fixed charges are made on the basis of maximum demand
in kVA instead of KW.
We know that
power factor = kW / kVA
Hence, the pf is inversely proportional to kVA demand. Hence, a consumer having
low power factor load will have to pay more fixed charges. This gives the incentive
to the consumers to operate their load at high power factor. Generally, the
suppliers ask the consumers to install power factor Correction equipment.
(II) KW And KVAR Tariff
In this tariff scheme, the active power (kW) consumption and the
reactive power (kVAR) consumption is measured separately. Of
course, a consumer having low power factor load will have to pay
more fixed charges.
(III) Sliding Scale Tariff
In this type of tariff scheme, an average power factor (generally 0.8
lagging) is taken as reference. Now, if the power factor of the
consumer’s loads is lower than the reference, he is penalized
accordingly. Hence, a consumer having low power factor load will
have to pay more fixed charges. Also, if the pf of the consumer’s
load is greater than the reference, he is awarded with a discount.
This gives incentives to the consumers. It is usually applied to
large industrial consumers.
7. Three Part Tariff
•In this scheme, the total costs are divided into 3 sections: Fixed costs, semi-
fixed costs and running costs.

Total Charges = [A + B (kW) + C (kWh)]

Where, A = fixed charges,

B = charge per kW of max demand (i.e. B is a constant which when
multiplied with max demand (kW) gives the total fixed costs.)
C = charge per kWh of energy consumed (i.e. C is a constant which
when multiplied with units consumed (kWh), gives total running charges.)

Application
This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.
Need for Power Factor Improvement

•Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. The electrical current is inversely proportional to

cosφ for transferring a given amount of power at a certain voltage. Hence higher the pf
lower will be the current flowing. A small current flow requires a less cross-sectional area
of conductors, and thus it saves conductors and money.

•From the above relation, we see having poor power factor increases the current flowing
in a conductor and thus copper loss increases. A large voltage drop occurs in
the alternator, electrical transformer and transmission and distribution lines – which gives
very poor voltage regulation.

•The KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power factor, as per the
formula:

Hence, the size and cost of the machine is also reduced.

This is why electrical power factor should be maintained close to unity – it is significantly
cheaper.
•Static Capacitor:
Power factor can be corrected by connecting a static capacitor in parallel with the load taking lagging
reactive power. As a capacitor is generator of reactive power, therefore the lagging reactive power
demand of the equipment is locally supplied by the static capacitor. Thus the p.f is improved. This
method is same as discussed in the Power Factor Improvement Principle. The advantages and
disadvantages of this method of power factor correction is discussed below.
Advantage:
1.Since capacitor do not consume any active power, this method is quite efficient.
2.It require very little to no maintenance.
3.Its installation is easy and requires less space.
Disadvantage:
1.Switching of capacitor bank requires special breaker or arrangement.
2.Their life is short of the order of 10 years.
•Synchronous Condenser:
A synchronous condenser is an over-excited synchronous motor. When a synchronous motor is
over-excited, it takes current leading by an angle of 90° from the supply voltage. This simply
means that, it behaves like a capacitor.
Power factor correction is achieved by connection synchronous condenser in parallel with the
inductive load whose p.f is to be improved.
Advantage:
1.Smooth power factor control can be achieved by varying the filed excitation of synchronous
condenser. In case of static capacitor, power factor control is not smooth rather it is in step. This
means that switching on capacitor bank will improve power factor by certain amount. If we need
to further correct the power factor, we need to add extra capacitor in the bank. But in
synchronous condenser, further power factor improvement is achieved merely by changing the
field excitation.
2.Thermal stability for short circuit current is high for motor winding.
Disadvantage:
1.This method is less efficient when compared with static capacitor method due to losses.
2.Maintenance cost is high.
3.The overall cost of this method is higher as compared to static capacitor method up to 500 kVA.
4.An auxiliary equipment is required for the starting of the synchronous condenser. This is
because of the fact that, synchronous motors are not self-starting.
•Phase Advancer:
Phase advancers are used for the power factor correction of induction motors.
We know that induction motors operate at lagging power factor. This is because the
stator winding of induction motor draws lagging excitation current from the supply
main to build air gap flux. If this excitation current can be provided by some other
means, then obviously the supply main will be relieved of delivering lagging reactive
power to the stator winding. Hence the power factor of induction motor will be
improved. This is the basic principle of Phase Advancer.

Phase Advancer is mounted on the motor shaft of induction motor and feeds
exciting ampere turns (mmf) to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. The amount of
power factor correction depends on the amount of mmf supplied by the phase
advancer. It is possible to operate an induction motor at leading power factor by
providing mmf more than the required value.
Sr.no Features Overhead system Underground system
All the conductors with high voltages are placed
All the distribution wiring is placed under the ground.
1 public safety overhead. Therefore less safer compared to underground
Therefore safer.
system

Initial cost is high due to the high cost of trenching,

2 Initial cost Initial cost is less compared to underground system
conduits, manholes, and other special equipments.
In this, the poles, wires, transformer, etc can be easily In this, the manholes, duct lines, etc are placed
3 Flexibility shifted to meet the changes in the load conditions. Thus permanently once installed and the load expansion can be
more flexible met by laying new lines only.
Fault chances are comparatively high (due to lightning’s, The chances of faults here are less since all the wiring is
4 faults
insulation failure ,etc) underground and is provided with insulation.
All the distribution lines are kept underground. So it gives
5 appearance The appearance of overhead line is not so good.
better appearance.
Generally, there are very less chances of faults in an
The conductors are visible and are accessible so the fault
6 Fault location and repairs underground system. But if at all any fault occurs, then it
can be located and repaired easily.
becomes difficult to locate it and repair.

Current carrying capacity

7 It has considerably higher current capability. It has comparatively low current capability.
and voltage drop
8 Useful life 25 years. More than 50 years
Due to the chances of faults and service interruptions in
an overhead system due to wind,ice,lighting as well as As compared to the overhead system the maintenance cost
9 Maintenance cost
from traffic hazards , the maintenance cost of overhead is comparatively less due to less chances of faults
system is high

Interference with An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference

10 In underground system there is no such interference.
communication circuits with the telephone lines.