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515 views488 pages

Principles of Mechanics - Fundamental University Physics

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series/ 15883
Salma Alrasheed

Principles of Mechanics
Fundamental University Physics
Salma Alrasheed
Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

ISSN 2522-8714 e-ISSN 2522-8722


Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
ISBN 978-3-030-15194-2 e-ISBN 978-3-030-15195-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019934801

This book is an open access publication.


© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
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Preface
This book is aimed at taking the reader step by step through the
beautiful concepts of mechanics in a clear and detailed manner.
Mechanics is considered to be the core of physics and a deep
understanding of the concepts is essential for all branches of physics.
Many proofs and examples are included to help the reader grasp the
fundamentals fully, paving the way to deal with more advanced topics.
This book is useful for undergraduate students majoring in physics or
other science and engineering disciplines. It can also be used as a
reference for more advanced levels.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to my parents
Abdulkareem Alrasheed and Mona Alzamil for their encouragement
and support. I am grateful to all of those who have contributed to this
book and made its completion possible. In particular, I would like to
thank Khalid Alzamil, Dr. Laila Babsail, and Abbie Clifford for their
efforts in revising the book. My sincere thanks are also extended to
Ardel Flavier and Rodolfo Rodriguez for their assistance in creating the
igures and illustrations. Finally to my daughter Layla, words can’t
express my appreciation to you.
Dr. Salma Alrasheed
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
January 2019
Contents
1 Units and Vectors
1. 1 Introduction
1. 2 The SI Units
1. 3 Conversion Factors
1. 4 Dimension Analysis
1. 5 Vectors
1. 6 Vector Algebra
1. 6. 1 Equality of Two Vectors
1. 6. 2 Addition
1. 6. 3 Negative of a Vector
1. 6. 4 The Zero Vector
1. 6. 5 Subtraction of Vectors
1. 6. 6 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar
1. 6. 7 Some Properties
1. 6. 8 The Unit Vector
1. 6. 9 The Scalar (Dot) Product
1. 6. 10 The Vector (Cross) Product
1. 7 Coordinate Systems
1. 8 Vectors in Terms of Components
1. 8. 1 Rectangular Unit Vectors
1. 8. 2 Component Method
1. 9 Derivatives of Vectors
1. 9. 1 Some Rules
1. 9. 2 Gradient, Divergence, and Curl
1. 10 Integrals of Vectors
1. 10. 1 Line Integrals
1. 10. 2 Independence of Path
2 Kinematics
2. 1 Introduction
2. 2 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
2. 2. 1 Displacement
2. 2. 2 Average Speed
2. 2. 3 Velocity
2. 2. 4 Speed
2. 2. 5 Acceleration
2. 3 Motion in Three Dimensions
2. 3. 1 Normal and Tangential Components of Acceleration
2. 4 Some Applications
2. 4. 1 One-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration
2. 4. 2 Free-Falling Objects
2. 4. 3 Motion in Two Dimensions with Constant Acceleration
2. 4. 4 Projectile Motion
2. 4. 5 Uniform Circular Motion
2. 4. 6 Nonuniform Circular Motion
2. 5 Relative Velocity
2. 6 Motion in a Plane Using Polar Coordinates
3 Newton’s Laws
3. 1 Introduction
3. 1. 1 The Concept of Force
3. 1. 2 The Fundamental Forces in Nature
3. 2 Newton’s Laws
3. 2. 1 Newton’s First Law
3. 2. 2 The Principle of Invariance
3. 2. 3 Mass
3. 2. 4 Newton’s Second Law
3. 2. 5 Newton’s Third Law
3. 3 Some Particular Forces
3. 3. 1 Weight
3. 3. 2 The Normal Force
3. 3. 3 Tension
3. 3. 4 Friction
3. 3. 5 The Drag Force
3. 4 Applying Newton’s Laws
3. 4. 1 Uniform Circular Motion
3. 4. 2 Nonuniform Circular Motion
4 Work and Energy
4. 1 Introduction
4. 2 Work
4. 2. 1 Work Done by a Constant Force
4. 2. 2 Work Done by Several Forces
4. 2. 3 Work Done by a Varying Force
4. 3 Kinetic Energy (KE) and the Work–Energy Theorem
4. 3. 1 Work Done by a Spring Force
4. 3. 2 Work Done by the Gravitational Force (Weight)
4. 3. 3 Power
4. 4 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
4. 4. 1 Potential Energy
4. 5 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
4. 5. 1 Changes of the Mechanical Energy of a System due to
External Nonconservative Forces
4. 5. 2 Friction
4. 5. 3 Changes in Mechanical Energy due to Internal
Nonconservative Forces
4. 5. 4 Changes in Mechanical Energy due to All Forces
4. 5. 5 Power
4. 5. 6 Energy Diagrams
4. 5. 7 Turning Points
4. 5. 8 Equilibrium Points
4. 5. 9 Positions of Stable Equilibrium
4. 5. 10 Positions of Unstable Equilibrium
4. 5. 11 Positions of Neutral Equilibrium
5 Impulse, Momentum, and Collisions
5. 1 Linear Momentum and Collisions
5. 2 Conservation of Linear Momentum
5. 3 Impulse and Momentum
5. 4 Collisions
5. 4. 1 Elastic Collisions
5. 4. 2 Inelastic Collisions
5. 4. 3 Elastic Collision in One Dimension
5. 4. 4 Inelastic Collision in One Dimension
5. 4. 5 Coef icient of Restitution
5. 4. 6 Collision in Two Dimension
5. 5 Torque
5. 6 Angular Momentum
5. 6. 1 Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form
5. 6. 2 Conservation of Angular Momentum
6 System of Particles
6. 1 System of Particles
6. 2 Discrete and Continuous System of Particles
6. 2. 1 Discrete System of Particles
6. 2. 2 Continuous System of Particles
6. 3 The Center of Mass of a System of Particles
6. 3. 1 Two Particle System
6. 3. 2 Discrete System of Particles
6. 3. 3 Continuous System of Particles (Extended Object)
6. 3. 4 Elastic and Rigid Bodies
6. 3. 5 Velocity of the Center of Mass
6. 3. 6 Momentum of a System of Particles
6. 3. 7 Motion of a System of Particles
6. 3. 8 Conservation of Momentum
6. 3. 9 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles
6. 3. 10 The Total Torque on a System
6. 3. 11 The Angular Momentum and the Total External
Torque
6. 3. 12 Conservation of Angular Momentum
6. 3. 13 Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles
6. 3. 14 Work
6. 3. 15 Work–Energy Theorem
6. 3. 16 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy of a
System of Particles
6. 3. 17 Impulse
6. 4 Motion Relative to the Center of Mass
6. 4. 1 The Total Linear Momentum of a System of Particles
Relative to the Center of Mass
6. 4. 2 The Total Angular Momentum About the Center of
Mass
6. 4. 3 The Total Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles About
the Center of Mass
6. 4. 4 Total Torque on a System of Particles About the Center
of Mass of the System
6. 4. 5 Collisions and the Center of Mass Frame of Reference
7 Rotation of Rigid Bodies
7. 1 Rotational Motion
7. 2 The Plane Motion of a Rigid Body
7. 2. 1 The Rotational Variables
7. 3 Rotational Motion with Constant Acceleration
7. 4 Vector Relationship Between Angular and Linear Variables
7. 5 Rotational Energy
7. 6 The Parallel-Axis Theorem
7. 7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating about a Fixed
Axis
7. 8 Conservation of Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body
Rotating About a Fixed Axis
7. 9 Work and Rotational Energy
7. 10 Power
8 Rolling and Static Equilibrium
8. 1 Rolling Motion
8. 2 Rolling Without Slipping
8. 3 Static Equilibrium
8. 4 The Center of Gravity
9 Central Force Motion
9. 1 Motion in a Central Force Field
9. 1. 1 Properties of a Central Force
9. 1. 2 Equations of Motion in a Central Force Field
9. 1. 3 Potential Energy of a Central Force
9. 1. 4 The Total Energy
9. 2 The Law of Gravity
9. 2. 1 The Gravitational Force Between a Particle and a
Uniform Spherical Shell
9. 2. 2 The Gravitational Force between a Particle and a
Uniform Solid Sphere
9. 2. 3 Weight and Gravitational Force
9. 2. 4 The Gravitational Field
9. 3 Conic Sections
9. 3. 1 The Polar Equation of a Conic Section
9. 3. 2 Motion in a Gravitational Force Field
9. 3. 3 The Gravitational Potential Energy
9. 3. 4 Energy in a Gravitational Force Field
9. 4 Kepler’s Laws
9. 4. 1 Kepler’s First Law
9. 4. 2 Kepler’s Second Law
9. 4. 3 Kepler’s Third Law
9. 5 Circular Orbits
9. 6 Elliptical Orbits
9. 7 The Escape Speed
10 Oscillatory Motion
10. 1 Oscillatory Motion
10. 2 Free Vibrations
10. 3 Free Undamped Vibrations
10. 3. 1 Mass Attached to a Spring
10. 3. 2 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular
Motion
10. 3. 3 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator
10. 3. 4 The Simple Pendulum
10. 3. 5 The Physical Pendulum
10. 3. 6 The Torsional Pendulum
10. 4 Damped Free Vibrations
10.4.1 Light Damping (Under-Damped)

10.4.2 Critically Damped Motion

10.4.3 Over Damped Motion (Heavy Damping)

10. 4. 4 Energy Decay


10. 5 Forced Vibrations
References
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_1

1. Units and Vectors


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

1.1 Introduction
Physics is an exciting adventure that is concerned with unraveling the
secrets of nature based on observations and measurements and also on
intuition and imagination. Its beauty lies in having few fundamental
principles being able to reach out to incorporate many phenomena from the
atomic to the cosmic scale. It is a science that depends heavily on
mathematics to prove and express theories and laws and is considered to be
the most fundamental of physical sciences. Astronomy, geology, and
chemistry all involve applications of physics’ principles and concepts.
Physics doesn’t only provide theories, but it also provides techniques that
are used in every area of life. Modern physical techniques were the major
contributors to the wealth of mankind’s knowledge in the past century.
A simple law in physics can be used to explain a wide range of complex
phenomena that may appear to be not related. When studying a complex
physical system, a simpli ied model of the system is usually used, where the
minor effects are neglected and the main features of the system are
concentrated upon. For example, when dealing with an object falling near
the earth’s surface, air resistance can be neglected. In addition, the earth is
usually assumed to be spherical and homogeneous. However, in reality, the
earth is an ellipsoid and is not homogeneous. The difference between the
calculations of these different models can be assumed to be insigni icant.
Physics can be divided into two branches namely: classical physics and
modern physics. This book focuses on mechanics, which is a branch of
classical physics. Other branches of classical physics are: light and optics,
sound, electromagnetism, and thermodynamics. Mechanics is the science of
motion of objects and is the core of classical physics. On the other hand,
modern branches of physics include theories that have been developed
during the past twentieth century. Two main theories are the theory of
relativity and the theory of quantum mechanics. Modern physics explains
many physical phenomena that cannot be explained by classical physics.

1.2 The SI Units


A physical quantity is a quantitative description of a physical phenomenon.
For a precise description, one has to measure the physical quantity and
represent this measurement by a number. Such a measurement is made by
comparing the quantity with a standard; this standard is called a unit. For
example, mass is a physical quantity that refers to the quantity of matter
contained in an object. The unit kilogram is one of the units used to
measure mass and is de ined as the mass of a speci ic platinum–iridium
alloy cylinder, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Therefore, when we say that a block’s mass is 300 kg, we mean that it is 300
times the mass of the cylindrical platinum–iridium alloy. All units chosen
should obey certain properties such as being accurate, accessible, and
should remain stable under varied environmental conditions or time.
In 1960, the International System of units (SI) (formally known as the
Metric System MKS) was established. The abbreviation is derived from the
French phrase “System International”. As shown in Table 1.1, the SI system
consists of seven base fundamental units, each representing a quantity
assumed to be naturally independent. The system also includes two
supplementary units, the radian which is a unit of the plane angle, and the
steradian which is a unit of the solid angle. All other quantities in physics
are derived from these base quantities. For example, mechanical quantities
such as force, velocity, volume, and energy can be derived from the
fundamental quantities length, mass, and time. Furthermore, the powers of
ten are used to represent the larger and smaller values for a certain physical
quantity as listed in Table 1.2. The most recent de initions of the units of
length, mass, and time in the SI system are as follows:
The Meter: The distance that light travels in vacuum during a time of
1/299792458 s.
The Kilogram: The mass of a speci ic platinum–iridium alloy cylinder,
which is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
The Second: 9192631770 periods of the radiation from cesium-133
atoms.
Table 1.1 The SI system consists of seven base fundamental units, each representing a quantity
assumed to be naturally independent

Quantity Unit name Unit symbol


Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol

Table 1.2 Pre ixes for Powers of Ten

Factor Pre ix Symbol


yocto y

zepto z

atto a

femto f

pico p

nano n

micro

milli m

centi c

deci d

deka da
Factor Pre ix Symbol
hecto h

kilo k

mega M

giga G

tera T

peta P

exa E

zetta Z

1.3 Conversion Factors


There are two other major systems of units besides the SI units. The (CGS)
system of units which uses the centimeter, gram and second as its base
units, and the (FPS) system of units which uses the foot, pound, and second
as its base units. The conversion factors between the SI units and other
systems of units of length, mass, and time are

slug

yr

Example 1.1 If a tree is measured to be 10 m long, what is its length in


inches and in feet?

Solution 1.1
Example 1.2 If a volume of a room is , what is the volume in cubic

inches?

Solution 1.2

1.4 Dimension Analysis


The symbols used to specify the dimensions of length, mass, and time are
and , respectively. Dimension analysis is a method used to check the
validity of an equation and to derive correct expressions. Only the same
dimensions can be added or subtracted, i.e., they obey the rules of algebra.
To check the validity of an equation, the terms on both sides must have the
same dimension. The dimension of a physical quantity is denoted using
brackets [ ]. For example, the dimension of the volume is , and that

of acceleration is

Example 1.3 Show that the expression is dimensionally

consistent, where represents the speed, x represent the displacement,


and represents the acceleration of the object.

Solution 1.3
Each term in the equation has the same dimension and therefore it is
dimensionally correct.

Fig. 1.1 A vector is represented geometrically by an arrow PQ 129 drawn to scale

1.5 Vectors
When exploring physical quantities in nature, it is found that some
quantities can be completely described by giving a number along with its
unit, such as the mass of an object or the time between two events. These
quantities are called scalar quantities. It is also found that other quantities
are fully described by giving a number along with its unit in addition to a
speci ied direction, such as the force on an object. These quantities are
called vector quantities.
Scalar quantities have magnitude but don’t have a direction and obey
the rules of ordinary arithmetic. Some examples are mass, volume,
temperature, energy, pressure, and time intervals by a letter such as m, t, E
, etc. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction and obey the
rules of vector algebra. Examples are displacement, force, velocity, and
acceleration. Analytically, a vector is speci ied by a bold face letter such as
. This notation (as used in this book) is usually used in printed material.
In handwriting, the designation is used. The magnitude of is written
as or A in print or as in handwriting.

A vector is represented geometrically by an arrow PQ drawn to scale as


shown in Fig. 1.1. The length and direction of the arrow represent the
magnitude and direction of the vector, respectively, and is independent of
the choice of coordinate system. The point is called the initial point (tail
of A) and is called the terminal point (head of A).

1.6 Vector Algebra


In this section, we will discuss how mathematical operations are applied to
vectors.

1.6.1 Equality of Two Vectors


The two vectors and are said to be equal only if they have the
same magnitude and direction, whether or not their initial points are the
same as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 The two vectors and are said to be equal ( = ) only if they have the same
magnitude and direction

1.6.2 Addition
There are two ways to add vectors, geometrically and algebraically. Here, we
will discuss the geometric method which is useful for solving problems
without using a coordinate system. The algebraic method will be discussed
later. To add two vectors and using the geometric method, place the
head of at the tail of and draw a vector from the tail of to the head
of as shown in Fig. 1.3. This method is known as the triangle method. An
extension to sum up more than two vectors is shown in Fig. 1.4. An
alternative procedure of vector addition using the geometric method is
shown in Fig. 1.5. This is known as the parallelogram method, where is
the diagonal of a parallelogram with sides A and B. To ind analytically,
Fig. 1.6 shows that
(1.1)
and that

Thus, Eq. 1.1 becomes


Fig. 1.3 To add two vectors and using the geometric method, place the head of at the tail of
and draw a vector from the tail of to the head of

Fig. 1.4 Geometric method for summing more than two vectors

Fig. 1.5 The parallelogram method of adding two vectors


Fig. 1.6 Finding the magnitude and the direction of

Fig. 1.7 The total displacement of the jogger is the vector

or

The direction of is
Note that only when and are parallel, the magnitude of the resultant
vector is equal to (unlike the addition of scalar quantities, the
magnitude of the resultant vector is not necessarily equal to ).

Example 1.4 A jogger runs from her home a distance of 0.5 km due south
and then 1 km to the west. Find the magnitude and direction of her
resultant displacement.

Solution 1.4
From Fig. 1.7, we can see that the magnitude of the resultant displacement
is given by

The direction of is

south of west.

1.6.3 Negative of a Vector


The negative vector of is a vector of the same magnitude of but in the
opposite direction as shown in Fig. 1.8, and it is denoted by .

Fig. 1.8 The negative vector of is a vector of the same magnitude of but in the opposite direction

1.6.4 The Zero Vector


The zero vector is a vector of zero magnitude and has no de ined direction.
It may result from or from if
1.6.5 Subtraction of Vectors
The vector is de ined as the vector that when added to gives us .
Equivalently, can be de ined as the vector added to vector
as shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Subtraction of two vectors

1.6.6 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar


The product of a vector by a scalar q is a vector or . Its magnitude
is qA and its direction is the same as if q is positive and opposite to if q
is negative, as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 The product of a vector by a scalar


Fig. 1.11 Commutative law of addition

Fig. 1.12 Associative law of addition

1.6.7 Some Properties


(Commutative law of addition). This can be seen in
Fig. 1.11.
as seen from Fig. 1.12 (Associative law of
addition).

(where p and q are scalars) (Associative law


for multiplication).
(Distributive law).
(Distributive law).
(Here, the zero vector has the same direction as , i.e.,
it can have any direction),
1.6.8 The Unit Vector
The unit vector is a vector of magnitude equal to 1, and with the same
direction of . For every is a unit vector.

1.6.9 The Scalar (Dot) Product


The scalar product is a scalar quantity de ined as , where
is the smaller angle between and (see Fig. 1.13).

Fig. 1.13 The scalar product of two vectors

1.6.9.1 Some Properties of the Scalar Product


(Commutative law of scalar product).
(Distributive law).
, where m is a scalar.

1.6.10 The Vector (Cross) Product


The vector product is a vector quantity de ined as (read A cross
B) with magnitude equal to . The direction
of is found from the right-hand rule or of advance of a right-handed
screw rotated from to as shown in Fig. 1.14. is perpendicular to the
plane formed by and .
Fig. 1.14 The vector product of two vectors

1.6.10.1 Some Properties

(Distributive law).

, where q is a scalar.
The area of a parallelogram that has sides A and as shown in
Fig. 1.15.

Fig. 1.15 The magnitude of the vector product is the area of a parallelogram with sides

and

1.7 Coordinate Systems


To specify the location of a point in space, a coordinate system must be
used. A coordinate system consists of a reference point called the origin
and a set of labeled axes. The positive direction of an axis is in the direction
of increasing numbers, whereas the negative direction is opposite.
Figures 1.16 and 1.17 show the rectangular (or Cartesian) coordinate
system and the polar coordinates of a point, respectively The rectangular
coordinates x and y are related to the polar coordinates r and by the
following relations:

In three dimensions, the cartesian coordinate system is shown in Fig. 1.18.


Other used coordinate systems in three dimensions are the spherical and
cylindrical coordinates (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20).

Fig. 1.16 The rectangular (cartesian) coordinate system


Fig. 1.17 The polar coordinate system

Fig. 1.18 The cartesian coordinate system in three dimensions


Fig. 1.19 The spherical coordinate system
Fig. 1.20 The cylindrical coordinate system

1.8 Vectors in Terms of Components


In two dimensions, the vector can be expressed as the sum of two other
vectors , where and as shown in
Fig. 1.21.
Fig. 1.21 In two dimensions, the vector can be expressed as the sum of two other vectors
, where and

and are called the rectangular components, or simply


components of in the and directions respectively The magnitude and
direction of are related to its components through the expressions:

In three dimensions (see Fig. 1.22), the magnitude of A is given by

with directions given by


Fig. 1.22 In three dimensions the magnitude of A is

1.8.1 Rectangular Unit Vectors


The rectangular unit vectors , and are unit vectors de ined to be in the
direction of the positive -, -, and -axes, respectively, of the rectangular
coordinate system as shown in Fig. 1.23. Note that labeling the axes in this
way forms a right-handed system. This name derives from the fact that a
right- handed screw rotated through from the -axis into the -axis
will advance in the positive -direction. (Note that throughout this book the
right-handed coordinate system is used). In terms of unit vectors, vector A
can be written as
Fig. 1.23 The rectangular unit vectors and are unit vectors de ined to be in the direction of the

positive , and axes respectively

1.8.2 Component Method


Suppose we have and

1.8.2.1 Addition
The resultant vector is given by

Thus, the magnitude of is

with a direction

in three dimensions
the magnitude of is

And the directions are

This component method is easy to use in adding any number of vectors.

Example 1.5 A truck travels northwest a distance of 30 km, and then


50 km at north of east, and inally travels a distance of 20 km due
south. Determine both graphically and analytically the magnitude and
direction of the resultant displacement of the truck from its starting point.

Fig. 1.24 The displacements are drawn to scale with the head of placed at the tail of and the
head of placed at the tail of .The resultant vector is the vector that extends from the tail of

to the head of

Solution 1.5
Graphically, in Fig. 1.24 the displacements are drawn to scale with the head
of placed at the tail of and the head of placed at the tail of .The
resultant vector is the vector that extends from the tail of to the head
of . By using graph paper and a protractor, the magnitude of is
measured to have the value of 34.8 km and a direction of from the
positive axis. Analytically, from Fig. 1.24, we have

Thus, the magnitude of is given by

and its direction is

north of east.

1.8.2.2 Subtraction

The magnitude and direction of are as in the case of addition except that
the plus sign is replaced by the minus sign.

1.8.2.3 Scalar Product


Using the de inition of scalar product and by applying the distributive law
we get nine terms: since and , we
get

The dot product of any vector (for example ) by itself is

1.8.2.4 The Angle Between Two Vectors

Example 1.6 Two vectors and are given by and


. Find the angle between them.

Solution 1.6

1.8.2.5 Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors


Nonzero vectors and are perpendicular if or
and they are parallel if . For any two
parallel vectors and , we have , where they have the same
direction if , and are in opposite direction if . Also we can write

or

Fig. 1.25 If we write the unit vectors around a circle, then reading counter clockwise gives the positive
products and reading clockwise gives the negative products

1.8.2.6 Vector Product


From the vector product de inition, we can see that

If we write the unit vectors around a circle as shown in Fig. 1.25, then
reading counterclockwise gives the positive products and reading clockwise
gives the negative products. Note that these results are for a right-handed
coordinate system. We have

using the distributive law and the above relations of unit vectors we get

since a determinant of order 2 is de ined as

Then, the above expression can be written as

A determinant of order 3 is

Hence, the cross product can be expressed as

Note that this is not a determinant since the elements in the irst row are
vectors and not scalars, but it is a convenient way to represent the cross
product.

Example 1.7 Two vectors and are given by and


. Find: (a) the sum of and and and
.

Solution 1.7
(a)
(b)

(c)

Example 1.8 Find a vector of magnitude 1 that is perpendicular to each of


the vectors and

Solution 1.8
By the de inition of the unit vector, we have

where is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane formed by A and B. We


have
Example 1.9 Given that and , ind
(a) (b) (c) .

Solution 1.9
(a)

(b)

(c)

Example 1.10 Using vectors method, ind the area of a triangle if the
coordinates of its three vertices are , , .

Solution 1.10

Area
1.8.2.7 Triple Product
Scalar Triple Product
The triple scalar product is a scalar quantity de ined as .
This quantity can be represented by a determinant that involves the
components of the vectors,

Fig. 1.26 The triple scalar product is equal to the volume of a parallepiped with sides , and

where , and
Furthermore, the triple scalar product is equal to the
volume of a parallepiped with sides , and as shown in Fig. 1.26.
Because any edges can be used, the triple scalar product can be written as
or as . These products are positive and negative for
a right-handed coordinate system respectively. Therefore, there are 6 equal
triple scalar products or 12 if you include the terms of the form
. A. Three of these six products are positive and the rest are negative. By
expanding the determinant, you can prove that

Vector Triple Product


The triple vector product is a vector quantity de ined as .
You can prove by expanding this equation that

Example 1.11 Given that , and , show that


the identity is correct.

Solution 1.11

Hence, the identity is valid.

1.9 Derivatives of Vectors


If is a vector function of t, where t is a scalar variable such as

Then
1.9.1 Some Rules
If and are vector functions and is a scalar function then

Example 1.12 Two vectors and are given by

and , ind at (a) and

Solution 1.12
(a)

At

(b)
At

1.9.2 Gradient, Divergence, and Curl


If is a vector function of x, y, and z then is called
a vector ield. Similarly, the scalar function is called a scalar ield.

1.9.2.1 Del
The vector differential operator del is de ined as

1.9.2.2 Gradient

The vector is called the gradient of (written ).

1.9.2.3 Divergence
is called the divergence of (written div ).

1.9.2.4 Curl

is called the curl of (written curl ).

1.9.2.5 Some Identities


.
.

Example 1.13 A vector ield A and a scalar ield B are given by


and , Find at the point (−1,1)(a) (b)

(c) .

Solution 1.13
(a)

at ,
(b)

at ,
(c)

at ,

1.10 Integrals of Vectors


If , where t is a scalar variable, the inde inite
integral is de ined as

If , then

where is an arbitrary constant vector. The de inite integral between the


limits and is de ined as

1.10.1 Line Integrals


The line integral refers to an integral along a line or a curve. This curve may
be open or closed. The line integral may appear in three different forms
shown by , . dr, and The second is the most common

one and it will be used throughout this book. Suppose the position vector of
any point on the curve (see Fig. 1.27) that extends from
at to at is given by
where t is a scalar variable, and suppose that
is a vector ield, then the line integral of
is given by

(1.2)

Note that is the tangential component of along C. If is a simple


closed curve (does not intersect with itself) then the line integral is written
as

Fig. 1.27 The line integral

1.10.2 Independence of Path


The line integral in general depends on the path, but sometimes it does not.
Instead, it depends only on the coordinates of the end points of the curve
(path) but not on the curve itself. The line integral in Eq. 1.2 is independent
of the path, joining the points and if and only if , or
equivalently . The value of Eq. (1.2) is then given by
Note that has continuous partial derivatives. Furthermore, if the
line integral of is independent of the path then the line integral of
about any closed path is equal to zero:

Example 1.14 A force ield is given by

(a) Show that ,


(b) Find a scalar function such that

Solution 1.14
(a)

(b)

Hence
Example 1.15 A vector is given by . Compute

along each of the following paths:

(a) The straight lines from (0, 0) to (0, 1) and then to (1, 1).
(b) Along the straight line (c) Along the curve

Solution 1.15
(a) Along the straight line from (0,0) to (0,1) we have , and
therefore

Along the straight line from (0, 1) to (1, 1) we have , hence

Thus, we have for the total path

(b) Along the straight line , we have

(c) Finally along the curve , we have ,

furthermore the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) corresponds to and ,


respectively. Hence
.

Example 1.16 If a vector is given by , ind the line integral

along the circular arc shown in Fig. 1.28.

Solution 1.16
By using the polar coordinates, we have and (since
) , and , also , therefore

we have
Fig. 1.28 The line integral along the curve using polar coordinates

Problems
1.
Check if the relation is dimensionally correct, where
v represents the escape speed of a body, and are the mass and
radius of the earth, respectively, and G is the universal gravitational
constant.
2.
If the speed of a car is 180 , ind its speed in
3.
How many micrometers are there in an area of 3
4.
Figure 1.29 shows vectors , and D. Find graphically the
following vectors (a) show that
.
5.
A car travels a distance of 1 km due east and then a distance of 0.5 km
north of east. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
displacement of the car using the algebraic method.
6. Prove that .
7.

A parallelogram has sides and . Prove that its area is equal to

8.
If and , ind (a) (b)
(c) (d) the length of and the length of (e) the angle between
and (f) the scalar projection of on and the scalar projection
of on .
9.
Show that is perpendicular to if
10.
Given that and ,
determine which vectors are perpendicular and which are parallel.
11.
Use the vectors and to prove
that
12.
If and
, ind at (−1,1,1)(a) (b) (c)

.
13.
Evaluate where and
14.
If , show that
15.
A force ield is given by , ind (a) (b) a scalar
ield such that Calculate the line integral along the
straight lines from (0, 0) to (1, 0) to (1, 1) and from (0, 0) to (0, 1) to
(1, 1). Is the line integral independent of path?
Fig. 1.29 Vectors and

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
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indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation
or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_2

2. Kinematics
Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

2.1 Introduction
Mechanics is the science that studies the motion of objects and can be divided
into the following:
1.
Kinematics: Describes how objects move in terms of space and time.
2.
Dynamics: Describes the cause of the object’s motion.
3.
Statics: Deals with the conditions under which an object subjected to
various forces is in equilibrium.
This chapter is considered with kinematics which answers many
questions such as: How long it takes for an apple to reach the ground when it
falls from a tree? What is the maximum height reached by a baseball when
thrown into air? What is the distance it takes an airplane to take off?
In physics, there are three types of motion: translational, rotational, and
vibrational. A block sliding on a surface is in translational motion, (Merry-
go-Round) is an example of rotational motion, and a mass–spring system
when stretched and released is in vibrational motion. From here until Chap. 7,
the object studied will be treated as a particle (i.e., a point mass with no size).
This assumption is possible only if the object moves in translational motion
without rotating and by neglecting any internal motions that might exist in
the object.
That is, an object can be treated as a particle only if all of its parts move in
exactly the same way.
For example, if a man jumps into a pool without rotating by doing a
somersault (freezing his body), he can be treated as a particle since all
particles in his body will move in exactly the same way. Another example of an
object that can be treated as a particle is the Earth in its motion about the
Sun. Since the dimensions of the Earth are small compared to the dimensions
of its path, it can be considered as a particle. The motion of an object is
described either by equations or by graphs. Both ways provide information
about the motion; however, equations provide precise information while
graphs give greater insight about the motion.

2.2 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration


This section will discuss the concepts of displacement, velocity, and
acceleration in one dimension. These concepts are essential in analyzing the
motion of an object.

2.2.1 Displacement
Consider a car that is treated as a particle moving along the straight-line path
shown in Fig. 2.1. The -axis of a coordinate system is used to describe the
position of the car with respect to the origin , where the points and
correspond to the positions at and at , respectively. The position–
time graph of this motion is shown in Fig. 2.2. The displacement of the truck is
a vector quantity de ined as the change in its position during the time interval
from to and is given by

Hence displacement is a quantity that depends only on the initial and inal
positions of the object. The direction of the displacement in one dimension is
speci ied by a plus or minus sign. It is positive if the particle is moving in the
positive direction and negative if the particle is moving in the negative
direction. In two or three dimensions, the displacement is represented by a
vector. The SI unit of the displacement is the meter (m).
Fig. 2.1 A car that is treated as a particle moving along the straight-line path

Fig. 2.2 The position time graph of the carõ s motion

2.2.2 Average Speed


The average speed of an object is a scalar quantity de ined as the total
distance traveled divided by the total time:

The SI unit of the average speed is meter per second .

2.2.3 Velocity
The average velocity of an object is a vector quantity de ined in terms of
displacement rather than the total distance traveled:
is positive if the motion is in the positive -direction and negative if it is in
the negative -direction. On the position–time graph in Fig. 2.2, is the slope
of the straight line connecting the points and Q. The average velocity helps
in describing the overall motion of the particle in a certain time interval. To
describe the motion in more detail, the instantaneous velocity is de ined. This
velocity corresponds to the velocity of a particle at a particular time. That
involves allowing to approach zero:

Geometrically, the instantaneous velocity of a particle at a particular time on


the position–time curve is the slope (the tangent) to the position–time curve
at that point or instance (see Fig. 2.3). The SI unit of the velocity is

Fig. 2.3 Geometrically, the instantaneous velocity of a particle at a particular time on the position-time
curve is the slope (the tangent) to the position-time curve at that point or instance

2.2.4 Speed
The speed of the particle is de ined as the magnitude of its velocity. Note that
speed and average speed are different since speed is de ined in terms of
displacement, whereas average speed is de ined in terms of the total distance
traveled.

2.2.5 Acceleration
If the particle’s velocity changes with time, it is said to be accelerating. The
average acceleration of the particle is de ined as the ratio of the change of
its velocity to the time interval :

The SI unit of acceleration is . The instantaneous acceleration is de ined

as

The average acceleration is the slope of the line joining the points and
on the velocity–time graph, whereas the instantaneous acceleration is the
slope of the curve at a particular point (see Fig. 2.4). Figure 2.5 shows the
position, velocity, and acceleration for a particle simultaneously.

Fig. 2.4 The average acceleration is the slope of the line joining the points and on the velocity-time

graph, whereas the instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the curve at a particular point
Fig. 2.5 This igure shows the position, velocity and acceleration as a function of time of a particle moving
in one direction. The particle starts from rest, accelerates to a certain speed, is maintained at that speed for
some time, then it decelerates back to rest

Fig. 2.6 A car moving along the curved path where it is located at km at , and at

km at hr
Example 2.1 A car travels along the path shown in Fig. 2.6, where it is
located at km at , and at km at h. Find the
displacement, average velocity, and average speed of the car during this time
interval if the total distance traveled is 20 km.

Solution 2.1
The displacement of the car is

Its average velocity is

Fig. 2.7 A particle moves along the -axis according to the expression

Example 2.2 A particle moves along the -axis according to the expression
plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 2.7. the

displacement and average velocity of the particle during the time interval
between and the instantaneous velocity of the particle as
a function of time and at and

Solution 2.2
(a)

The displacement of the particle is

The average velocity is

(b) The instantaneous velocity is given by

at , and at

Example 2.3 A particle is moving along the -axis. The position–time graph
of its motion is shown in Fig. 2.8. Find: (a) the average velocity between a and
the instantaneous velocity at the points and

Solution 2.3
(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.8 The position-time graph of a particle moving along the x-axis

Example 2.4 The acceleration of an object is given by . If

the object has an initial velocity of and an initial displacement of ,


determine (a) its velocity and displacement at any time; (b) the displacement
of the object when it reaches its maximum speed.

Solution 2.4
(a)

At and therefore . Thus


At and . Therefore

(2.1)
(b) When the object reaches its maximum speed and hence

that gives . Substituting into Eq. 2.1 gives

2.3 Motion in Three Dimensions


Consider the particle moving from point to point along a path or curve
during a time interval as shown in Fig. 2.9. To locate the
particle at any point the position vector is used. and
corresponds to the position vectors of the particle at and respectively. A
position vector should be drawn from a reference point (usually the origin of
the coordinate system).
Fig. 2.9 A particle moving from point to point along a path or curve during a time interval

The displacement vector is then given by

The average velocity is

The instantaneous velocity at a particular time is de ined as

As approaches zero, becomes tangent to the path and it is replaced by


. The direction of is in the direction of dr, hence, is always tangent to
the path at any point. In terms of components is given by

The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is


Fig. 2.10 The instantaneous velocity vectors along the path

where ds is the in initesimal arc length along the path and comes from the
fact that as approaches zero, the distance traveled by the particle along the
path becomes equal to the vector displacement . Figure 2.10 shows the
instantaneous velocities along the path. The average acceleration is

The direction of is of the same direction as . The instantaneous


acceleration is then

In terms of components

Another way to describe motion in three dimensions is by using spherical or


cylindrical coordinates. In this book, we will only use rectangular coordinates
for three-dimensional motion.

2.3.1 Normal and Tangential Components of Acceleration


The acceleration describes the change in both the magnitude and direction of
the velocity. That is, the acceleration is not necessarily produced due to the
change in the magnitude of the velocity only. Sometimes, it is produced due to
the change in the direction of the velocity even if its magnitude is unchanged,
and sometimes due to the change in both the magnitude and direction.
Furthermore, the direction of is not necessarily in the direction of . If is
changed in magnitude only (motion along a straight line) then is parallel to
if is increasing, and antiparallel if is decreasing. If is changed in
direction only (motion along a curved path with constant speed), then is
always perpendicular to at any point (see Fig. 2.11). Finally, if is changed
in both magnitude and direction then will be directed at some angle to as
in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.11 If is changed in magnitude only (motion along a straight line) then is parallel to if is

increasing, and antiparallel if is decreasing. If is changed in direction only (motion along a curved

path with constant speed) then is always perpendicular to at any point

In this case, the acceleration can be resolved into parallel and


perpendicular components. The parallel component corresponds to the
change in the magnitude of , while the perpendicular component
corresponds to the change in the direction of . These components can be
viewed to be directed along a rectangular coordinate system that moves with
the particle (as it moves in space), where the particle is located at the origin
of this coordinate system. The parallel (or tangential) component of the
acceleration is always tangent to the path while the perpendicular (or
normal) component is normal to the path at each point as shown in Fig. 2.13.
Figure 2.14 shows the direction of the acceleration of a car moving down a
ramp under the in luence of gravity.
In terms of unit vectors, let be the unit vector along the tangent axis,
is the unit vector along the normal axis (also called the principal unit normal
vector) and a third unit vector called the binormal vector de ined by
. These unit vectors form a frame called the TNB frame, where it
moves with the particle (see Fig. 2.15). Since is always tangent to the path
we may write

Fig. 2.12 If is changed in both magnitude and direction then will be directed at some angle to
Fig. 2.13 The parallel (or tangential) component of the acceleration is always tangent to the path while
the perpendicular (or normal) component is normal to the path at each point

Fig. 2.14 At A the acceleration of a car is in the same direction of the velocity since the latter changes only
in magnitude. As it moves its velocity is changed in both magnitude and direction. Therefore at the
direction of the acceleration is at some angle to the velocity. At the speed reaches a maximum and

therefore the instantaneous change of speed is zero at this point and the acceleration has only a
perpendicular component. As the car moves up its velocity decreases and changes in direction also, thus
the acceleration has both parallel and perpendicular components. Finally at , the acceleration is in the
opposite direction of the velocity since the velocity is decreasing but its direction is the same
Fig. 2.15 The TNB frame moves with the particle

Because is a unit vector we have , differentiating this with


respect to s gives

or

Hence, is perpendicular to . Since is also perpendicular to ,


then we have

k is called the curvature of at a certain point and it has the value


. The quantity is the radius of curvature at that point.
Thus, . The total acceleration of the particle in terms of the
unit tangent vector and the principal unit normal vector can be written
as
(2.2)
Furthermore,

(2.3)

Substituting Eq. 2.2 into Eq. 2.3 gives

Therefore, and . Note that unlike

corresponds to the change in the magnitude of the velocity or in its direction


or in both (as it represents the magnitude of the total acceleration vector),
whereas corresponds to the change in the magnitude only.

Example 2.5
A particle is moving in space according to the expression

Find the radius of curvature at any point on the space curve.

Solution 2.5

Hence

The radius of curvature is


Example 2.6 A car moves with constant tangential acceleration down a ramp
as shown in Fig. 2.16. If it starts from rest at A and reaches after 4 s with a
speed of , ind the radius of curvature at if the total acceleration of
the car at that point is

Fig. 2.16 A car moving with a constant tangential acceleration down a ramp

Solution 2.6
Since the tangential acceleration of the car is constant, it can be found from

Since the total acceleration of the car at is 2 then the normal

acceleration is

The radius of curvature is


2.4 Some Applications
2.4.1 One-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration
An acceleration that does not change with time is said to be a constant or
uniform acceleration. In that case, the average and instantaneous
accelerations are equal. This type of motion is more easily analyzed than
when the acceleration is varied. Since the motion is in one dimension, it
follows that the y and z components are zero. That is,

Hence, as we’ve mentioned earlier, the direction of the displacement can be


speci ied with a plus or minus sign, as well as the directions of the velocity
and acceleration. Let us assume that
and . Since the acceleration is constant, the velocity will vary linearly
with time, and thus the average velocity can be expressed as

(2.4)

(2.5)

Furthermore,
(2.6)

Finally,

(2.7)
Equations 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7 are called the kinematic equations for motion
in a straight line under constant acceleration. The motion graphs for an object
moving with constant acceleration in the positive -direction are shown in
Fig. 2.17.
Fig. 2.17 The motion graphs for an object moving with constant acceleration in the positive -direction

Example 2.7 A train accelerates uniformly from rest and travels a distance of
200 in the irst 8 s. Determine: (a) the acceleration of the train; (b) the
time it takes the train to reach a velocity of 70 , the distance traveled
during that time; (d) the velocity of the train 5 s later from the time calculated
in (b).

Solution 2.7
(a)
Since , we have

(b)

and therefore

(c)

(d)

Example 2.8 An airplane accelerates uniformly from rest at a rate of 3

before taking off. If it is to take off at a speed of 100 how much time
is required for it to take off; (b) what distance will it have traveled before
taking off?

Solution 2.8
(a)

We have , this gives


(b)

Example 2.9 A car moving at a constant velocity of 140 passed a


police car moving at a constant velocity of 80 s after the car had
passed the police car, the police vehicle begins to accelerate toward the car at
a constant rate of (a) How much time will it take the police

car to catch the other car? (b) What is the distance traveled by both during
that time? (c) How much time has passed from where the car passed the
police car to where it was caught?

Solution 2.9
Let’s assume that at where the car passed the police car and that
at the instant the police car begins to accelerate. The velocity of the car is
equal to 38.9 , and the initial velocity and acceleration of the police car
are 22.2 and 1.1 , respectively The police will catch the car when

both their displacements from are equal. (a) From the expression
, the displacement of the car at any time is

The displacement of the police car at any time is

The police will catch the car when , and therefore if


(194.5 or
Thus

That gives
(b)

(c)

2.4.2 Free-Falling Objects


Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian scientist, who studied and
experimented the acceleration of falling objects. By dropping various objects
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (or by releasing objects from inclined planes
according to another story), Galileo discovered that when air resistance is
neglected then all objects would fall with the same constant acceleration
regardless of their mass or size. This acceleration, denoted by g, is known as
the free-fall acceleration since air resistance is neglected and the object is
assumed to be moving freely under gravity alone. The direction of the vector
is downwards toward the earth’s center. However, g varies with altitude as
well as other factors which will be discussed in Chap. 9.
In solving problems involving objects falling near the surface of the earth,
g can be assumed to be constant with a value of 9.8 and air resistance

can be neglected. A free-falling motion is a motion along a straight line (for


example along the -axis) where objects may move upwards or downwards.
The kinematics equations of the free-falling motion with constant
acceleration can be found from Eqs. (2.4), (2.5), (2.6), and (2.7) by simply
replacing x with y and a with g. If the positive direction of y is chosen to be
upwards, then the acceleration is negative (downwards) and is given by
. These substitutions give
The displacement and velocity graphs are shown in Fig. 2.18. Note that it does
not matter whether the object is falling or moving upward, it will experience
the same acceleration g which is directed downwards. Figure 2.19 shows the
important features of a free-falling object that is dropped from rest.

Fig. 2.18 The displacement and velocity graph for a free-falling object
Fig. 2.19 The important features of a free falling object that is dropped from rest

Example 2.10 A ball is thrown directly upwards with an initial velocity of 15


. On its way down, it was caught at a distance of lm below the point from
where it was thrown. Determine (a) the maximum height reached by the ball;
(b) the time it takes the ball to reach that height; (c) the velocity of the ball
when it is caught; (d) the total time elapsed from where the ball was thrown
to where it was caught.

Solution 2.10
(a) First we take at the position where the ball is thrown and positive y
to be upwards. At the maximum height the velocity of the ball is zero,

(b) Using the expression we have

(c) When the ball is caught its position is


taking the initial position of the ball at , we get

and

or if we take the initial position at we have

and

(d) , substituting for v and we have

Example 2.11 A tennis ball is dropped from a building that is high.


Find (a) its position and velocity 2 s later; (b) the total time it takes the ball to
fall to the ground; (c) its velocity just before it hits the ground.

Solution 2.11
(a) Taking and at we have

at

(b)
(c)

Example 2.12 A ball is thrown vertically downwards from a 100 high


building with an initial speed of 1 s later a second ball is thrown. What
initial speed must the second ball have so that the two balls hit the ground at
the same time?

Solution 2.12
The time it takes the irst ball to hit the ground is found from

The second ball must fall the same distance during a time of

and therefore
2.4.3 Motion in Two Dimensions with Constant Acceleration
The position vector can be written as

Because a is a constant both and are constants. Therefore, the


kinematic in Sect. 2.4.1 applies in each direction:
(2.8)

(2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)

(2.12)

(2.13)
Example 2.13 If the motion of a particle in a plane is described by
and plot the component of the

particle as a function of time if at ind the total speed and


magnitude of the acceleration of the particle at

Fig. 2.20 The component of the particle as a function of time

Solution 2.13
(a)The -component of position is

since at , then
The plot of y against t is shown in Fig. 2.20.
(b) The -components of velocity and acceleration is

The -component of acceleration is

or

at and the velocity is

and

Therefore, the acceleration of the particle is constant at any time and is given
by

2.4.4 Projectile Motion


Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown (projected) into the air at
some angle with respect to the surface of the earth, such as the motion of a
baseball thrown into the air or an object dropped from a moving airplane. In
the simpli ied model where air resistance as well as other factors such as the
Earth’s curvature and rotation are neglected, and if the free-fall acceleration
is assumed constant in magnitude and direction throughout the motion of
the object, then the path of the projectile is always a parabola that depends on
the magnitude and direction of its initial velocity. Therefore, the projectile can
be considered as a combination of a vertical motion with a constant
acceleration directed downwards and a horizontal motion with zero
acceleration (constant velocity). We can see from Fig. 2.21 that

Fig. 2.21 The projectile motion

At , we have and . Because and and


by substituting in Eqs. 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, and 2.11 gives
(2.14)

(2.15)

(2.16)
(2.17)
Combining and eliminating t from Eqs. 2.16 and 2.17 we ind that

This equation which is of the form ax–bx2 (a and b are constants), is the
equation of a parabola. Therefore, when air resistance is neglected (when
using the simpli ied model of the system), the trajectory of the projectile is
always a parabola. At any instant, the velocity of the object is tangent to its
trajectory Its magnitude and direction with respect to the positive -
direction are given by

and

respectively The maximum height h of the projectile, as in Fig. 2.22 , is found


at by noting that at the peak . Substituting this in Eq. 2.15
gives

Substituting into Eq. 2.17 we get


The maximum range R is at . Substituting t into Eq. 2.16 gives

Fig. 2.22 The maximum height of a projectile

Example 2.14 A baseball is thrown at angle of to the horizontal with an


initial speed of 20 . Neglecting air resistance, ind: (a) the maximum
height reached by the ball; (b) the time it takes the ball to hit the ground; (c)
the range; and (d) the speed of the ball just before it strikes the ground.

Solution 2.14
(a) The maximum height reached by the ball is

(b) The time it takes the ball to hit the ground is


(c) The range is

(d) The -component of the velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground
is

The -component is

Hence, the speed is

Example 2.15 A boy throws a ball with a constant horizontal velocity of 1


at an altitude of 0.6 . Find the horizontal distance between the
releasing point to the point where the ball hits the ground.

Solution 2.15
Let the origin of the reference frame be the releasing point. Since we
have

and

Hence, when the ball reaches the ground, the elapsed time is
and

2.4.5 Uniform Circular Motion


A particle moving in a circular path with constant speed is said to be in
uniform circular motion. The motion of the moon about earth, and the motion
of clothes in a washing machine are examples of uniform circular motion. In
this motion, the direction of the velocity of the particle is continuously
changing but its magnitude is constant. As we have mentioned in Sect. 2.3.1,
when only the direction of the velocity changes, the acceleration is then
always perpendicular to the velocity at any time. Therefore, we have only the
normal component of the acceleration , and the tangential

component of the acceleration is zero. In the case of the circular


path the radius of curvature R is constant, denoted by r, and the normal
acceleration is directed along the radius of the circle

The subscript rad is for radial. Thus, this radial or centripetal acceleration
is always directed toward the center of the circle. Therefore, the
directions of and a change continuously with time but their magnitudes are
constant (see Fig. 2.23). The time required for the particle to complete one
revolution around the circle is called the period of revolution and is given by

Thus
Fig. 2.23 The directions of and a change continuously with time but their magnitudes are constant

Example 2.16 In a fun fair ride, the passengers rotate in a circle with a
constant speed of 3 . If the period of revolution is 1.5 , ind the total
acceleration of the passenger.

Solution 2.16
Since the speed of the passenger is constant, it follows that the passenger’s
total acceleration is just the centripetal acceleration given by

The radius of the circular path is

2.4.6 Nonuniform Circular Motion


In nonuniform circular motion, the velocity of the particle varies in both
magnitude and direction. As mentioned in Sect. 2.3.1, when both the
magnitude and direction of the particle’s velocity change then its acceleration
is directed at some angle to . Thus, in addition to the normal acceleration in
uniform circular motion that corresponds to the change in the direction of ,
there is a tangential component that corresponds to the change in the
magnitude of . Furthermore is not constant since changes with time.
Therefore, the resultant acceleration is

In Chap. 8, the concepts of angular velocity and acceleration and their vector
relationship with the normal and tangential accelerations are introduced.
Figure 2.24 shows the velocity and total acceleration vectors of a particle
moving in a circular path with increasing speed (clockwise) until it reaches
the maximum speed at the bottom, and then slows down as it goes back up.
An example of this motion is in a roller coaster ride in a vertical circle.

Fig. 2.24 The velocity and total acceleration vectors of a particle moving in a circular path with
increasing speed (clockwise) until it reaches the maximum speed at the bottom, and then slows down as it
goes back up. An example of this motion is in a roller coaster ride in a vertical circle

Example 2.17 A car moving on a circular track of a 20 radius accelerates


uniformly from a speed of 30 to a speed of 50 in 3 . Find the
total acceleration of the car at the instant its speed is 40

Solution 2.17
Since both the direction and the magnitude of the car’s velocity change, its
total acceleration is the vector sum of its tangential and radial accelerations.
The tangential acceleration is

When the radial acceleration is

And the total acceleration is

2.5 Relative Velocity


In this section, we will see how observers moving relative to each other
obtain different results when measuring the velocity of a moving body.
Suppose two cars are moving besides each other at the same speed of 120
with respect to earth. In this case, any of the two cars is at rest relative
to the other. According to an observer who is stationary with respect to earth,
each car is moving with a speed of 120 . A second observer, in any of the
cars, will see the stationary observer moving backwards at a speed of 120
. In addition, if a third car is moving ahead of the two cars at a speed of
140 relative to earth, then its speed relative to an observer in any of the
two cars is 20 . Thus, the displacement and velocities may have different
values when measured relative to different observers. Therefore, the
description of motion depends on the observer. By attaching a coordinate
system to an observer together with an appropriate time scale, he or she are
then said to be in a reference frame. In measuring quantities, it is essential to
specify the reference frame. In most situations, the earth (the lab) is used as
our frame of reference. To understand this, consider a particle moving in one
dimension in the positive -direction. Suppose two observers want to
describe its motion, one is observer who is stationary relative to the
ground, and the other is observer , who is moving in the positive -
direction with a constant velocity relative to the ground (see Fig. 2.25). At any
instant, the position of the particle relative to is , and its position
relative to is . The relation between these two observations is

(2.18)

Therefore, the position of relative to is equal to the position of


relative to plus the distance between and . Differentiating
Eq. 2.18 with respect to time we get

or

We will extend this to three dimensions in the case where the velocity of
with respect to is constant in both magnitude and direction (see
Fig. 2.26). The position vector of the particle relative to is given by

(2.19)

Differentiating this with respect to time gives


(2.20)
Equations 2.19 and 2.20 are called the Galilean transformation equations. In
addition, for any two frames of reference and we have
Fig. 2.25 Observer is stationary relative to the ground, and observer is moving in the positive -

direction with a constant velocity relative to the ground

Fig. 2.26 The velocity of with respect to is constant in both magnitude and direction

Example 2.18 Two motor cyclists and are driving along the same road
(See Fig. 2.27) with speeds 90 and 50 , respectively. Determine:
(a) the velocity of motorcyclist A relative to and of relative to and
(b) if the two motor cyclists approach each other along two parallel roads,
(See Fig. 2.28), A moving at 80 , and moving at 60 , what is the
velocity of motorcyclist A relative to and of relative to A.
Fig. 2.27 Two motor cyclists and driving with speeds 90 and 50 respectively

Fig. 2.28 A is moving at 80 , and moving at 60

Solution 2.18 Using the above discussion, consider as the Earth’s frame
of reference denoted E, as the frame of reference of motorcyclist B and the
point P as the motor cyclist A
(a) The velocity of A relative to is found from

The velocity of relative to A is

(b)

Example 2.19 A boat is traveling at sea at 8 north relative to the sea’s


waves, and the waves are traveling northeast relative to the earth at a
constant speed of 4 . What is the velocity of the boat relative to the
earth?

Solution 2.19
Using Fig. 2.26, consider the Earth as S (denoted E), the waves as , and the
boat as the point P. As we can see from Fig. 2.29, the velocity of the boat
relative to the earth is given by , where and are the
velocities of the boat relative to the waves and the velocity of the waves
relative to the earth respectively With the east as the direction of the positive
-axis we get

Hence

The direction of is

Fig. 2.29 A boat is traveling at 8 north relative to the sea’s waves, and the waves are traveling

northeast relative to the earth at a constant speed of 4


Fig. 2.30 is a unit vector along the increasing r direction and is a unit vector in the direction of

increasing (anticlockwise direction)

2.6 Motion in a Plane Using Polar Coordinates


Consider a particle moving in the x–y plane. A useful way to describe the
position, velocity, and acceleration of the particle is by using its polar
coordinates . The relationship between the polar and rectangular
coordinates is

where is measured from the positive - axis. Suppose a particle is located


at . If the particle moves in a straight line along the r direction, then is
constant through the motion of the particle. If the particle moves in a circle,
then r is constant. Let be a unit vector along the increasing r direction and
to be a unit vector in the direction of increasing (anticlockwise
direction). From Fig. 2.30, we have

and

Unlike the rectangular unit vectors, the polar unit vectors are not ixed in
direction. Their direction changes as the particle moves along some path.
Therefore, when inding the velocity and acceleration of a particle the
derivatives of the polar unit vectors must be considered. The position vector
of the particle is given by

To ind the velocity in terms of the polar unit vectors let us differentiate
and with respect to time. That gives

The velocity of the particle is given by

Hence, the velocity is (Fig. 2.31)


(2.21)
We may write

Fig. 2.31 Unlike the rectangular unit vectors, the polar unit vectors are not ixed in direction. Their
direction changes as the particle moves along some path

where and and . The total acceleration is

(2.22)

or
where

and

and

Example 2.20 If a particle moves in a plane according to the expressions


and . Find its velocity and acceleration at

Solution 2.20
At rad, and

. Also and

. Therefore

and
Fig. 2.32 An object moving in one dimension along the -axis

Fig. 2.33 The position-time graph of a particle moving along the -axis

Problems
1.
A sports car moves around a circular track of radius of 100 . If the car
makes one round in 75 , ind the car’s (a) average speed (b) average
velocity.
2.
An object is moving in one dimension along the -axis according to
Fig. 2.32. Describe the motion of the object.
3.
The position–time graph of a particle moving along the -axis is shown
in Fig. 2.33. Find (a) the average velocity between a and the
instantaneous velocity at , and
4. A motorist drives along a straight-line road. His speed varies with time
according to Fig. 2.34. Sketch the position versus time and acceleration
versus time graphs of the motorist.
5.
A particle moves along the curve de ined by and
Find the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle at any time.
6.
A car moves at constant speed of 40 along the road shown in
Fig. 2.35. If the radius of curvature at A is 350 and the total
acceleration of the car at is , ind (a) the total acceleration of the

car at A and the radius of curvature at B.(Hint: the radius of


curvature at C is in inite).
7.
A body with initial speed of 15 undergoes a uniform acceleration of
. Find the elapsed time and the distance it traveled when it

reaches a speed of 3
8.
A stone is thrown downwards from a height of 10 . Find its initial
speed if it reaches the ground after l s.
9.
A block is thrown horizontally from the top of a cliff that is 30 high
with a speed of 10 . Find (a) the block’s magnitude of displacement
from the origin and its velocity after 1.5 the horizontal distance
from the releasing point to where the block hits the ground.(Hint: the
magnitude of displacement from the origin is ).

10.

A river has a uniform speed of 0.5 due east. If a boat travels east at a
speed of 3 relative to the water, ind the time it takes the boat to
travel a distance of 1100 km and return to its starting point.
11. An aircraft is tracked by a radar (see Fig. 2.36). If at a certain instant the
radar measurements give

, and . Find the velocity and acceleration of the airplane

at that instant.

Fig. 2.34 The speed of a motorcyclist varying with time

Fig. 2.35 A car moves at a constant speed of 40 along curved path

Fig. 2.36 An aircraft tracked by a radar coordinates

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
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The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons
license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's
Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the
permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_3

3. Newton’s Laws
Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, dynamics which is a branch of mechanics will be
discussed. Dynamics is concerned with the cause behind the motion of
objects and answers questions such as: Why does a skydiver loat in
air? What makes an apple fall from a tree? Why a block connected to a
spring oscillates when the spring is stretched? We will ind that these
motions occur when objects interact with each other, i.e., the apple is
interacting with earth, the skydiver is interacting with air, and the block
is interacting with the spring.

3.1.1 The Concept of Force


The interaction between one object and another or between the object
and its environment de ines a quantity called force. A force is a pull or a
push in a certain direction that may cause the object to move or deform.
However, motion does not always occur if the force is not large enough
to overcome other forces such as friction or gravity But whether or not
an object moves due to a force, there is always some deformation. In
this book, it is assumed that objects remain undeformed under the
in luence of any forces. Experimentally, a force is found to be a vector
quantity The net external force acting on an object (the vector sum of
all forces acting on the object) causes the object to accelerate where the
direction of the acceleration is in the direction of that force.
Hence, acceleration is a measure of force. If the net force equals
zero, the acceleration of the object is zero, and the velocity of the object
remains unchanged (constant). Forces in nature are one of two:
1.
Contact forces resulting from direct contact between two objects
(e.g., kicking a ball or punching a bag);
2.
Field forces that can act through empty space and in which physical
contact is not necessary (e.g., gravitational force between two
objects and the electric force between two electric charges).

3.1.2 The Fundamental Forces in Nature


The following fundamental forces are all ield forces:
1.
The gravitational force between any two objects;
2.
The electromagnetic force between two electric charges;
3.
The strong nuclear force between subatomic particles which is
responsible for the stability of the nuclei;
4.
The weak nuclear force which produces certain kinds of radioactive
decay and is responsible for the instability of some nuclei.
The irst two fundamental forces are examples of long-range forces,
which act over a great distance. The second two are examples of short-
range forces, which are forces that act over a very short distance. Note
that contact forces are fundamentally electromagnetic since they
involve electromagnetic forces between the atoms of the surfaces in
contact.

3.2 Newton’s Laws


Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) formulated his three famous laws of
motion describing the relationship between the force acting on an
object and the acceleration of that object. Newtonian or classical
mechanics which is based mainly on Newton’s three laws of motion,
deals only with objects that are
Large compared to the size of an atom .

Moving at speeds much less than the speed of light .

Einstein’s special theory of relativity replaces Newtonian mechanics


when an object’s speed approaches the speed of light. On the other
hand, quantum mechanics replaces Newtonian mechanics when the
object’s dimensions are close to atomic scale.

3.2.1 Newton’s First Law


It was believed long ago that a force is necessary to keep an object
moving and that any object’s natural state is to be at rest. Later, these
statements were proved to be incorrect. To understand this, suppose a
block resting on a surface is given a push and is released. As a result,
the block will slide for sometime before coming to rest. The time
elapsed between pushing the block until it comes to rest will increase
as the surface gets smoother. If the surface becomes so smooth, such
that friction is almost negligible, the block will continue to move along a
straight line with constant speed for a greater distance before coming
to rest.
An example of frictionless motion is the motion of the puck in the
air-hockey table. The puck loats on a thin column of air that is used as
the lubricant. In situations where there is no friction at all, the object
will continue to move along a straight line with constant speed without
requiring any force to keep it moving. However, a force is required to
initiate motion. This concept was formulated by Newton and became
his irst law of motion: An object at rest remains at rest and an object in
motion will continue in motion with constant velocity (constant speed in
a straight line) unless acted upon by a net external force. That is, if
A body’s tendency to stay at rest or maintain uniform motion in a
straight line is called inertia. Thus, Newton’s irst law is often referred
to as the law of inertia, where it de ines speci ic kinds of reference
frames called inertial reference frames. An inertial reference frame is a
frame in which Newton’s irst law is valid. That is, in an inertial frame of
reference, an object has no acceleration if there is no net force acting
upon it. Any reference frame moving with constant velocity relative to
an inertial frame is also inertial. Observers in different inertial frames
measure the same acceleration for a moving object. To prove this,
consider the two inertial reference frames and mentioned in
Sect. 2. 5, where is stationary and is moving with constant velocity
relative to S. By differentiating Eq. 2. 20, we have

Because is constant we have

That is, the acceleration of the particle measured from both inertial
reference frames and is the same. To show that Newton’s irst law
is only valid when applied with respect to an inertial frame of
reference; consider a girl named Mia that is at rest while watching her
friend Lea driving a car moving at constant velocity. Lea has her
seatbelt fastened and put her suitcase in the seat right next to her
without restraining it. Now, suppose that Lea steps on the brakes,
which would cause her vehicle to decelerate, her suitcase will start to
move forward. According to Lea, who is in an accelerated frame, the
suitcase moved from rest even though there was no apparent net
external force acting on it. Therefore, in Lea’s frame, Newton’s irst law
seems to be incorrect.
The situation, however, is different to Mia, who is in an inertial
frame of reference. In her perspective, the suitcase was initially moving
with constant velocity and the net force on it was zero. When the car
started to decelerate, the net force on the suitcase is still equal to zero
and thus the suitcase must continue to move forward with constant
velocity and stop by friction or impact with the inside of the car.
Therefore, it is apparent to Mia that Newton’s irst law is valid. From
the previous example, we conclude that Newton’s irst law (and in
general Newton’s laws) is not valid in all kinds of reference frames; it is
only valid when applied with respect to inertial frames. That is, Lea
must not apply Newton’s irst law in her reference frame.
The same situation would be observed by Lea if she were to turn
her car while moving. When the car turns, the suitcase will start to
move in the direction opposite to the turn. Once again, Lea observes
that the suitcase has moved from rest without any apparent force acting
on it which contradicts Newton’s irst law in her opinion. Mia sees no
contradiction with Newton’s irst law because when the car turns, the
suitcase tends to continue its initial uniform straight line motion, and
thus it moves toward the direction opposite to the turn. Therefore
Newton’s laws are obeyed by objects when observed from inertial
frames of reference (see Fig. 3.1).
To apply classical (Newtonian) mechanics with respect to a
noninertial reference frame, new forces named as pseudo forces are
introduced. In this book, only inertial frames are used, and all laws are
stated with respect to those frames. One convenient inertial frame of
reference, used throughout this book, is the surface of the earth. The
earth can be considered as an inertial frame since its motion about its
axis and about the sun has a small effect on calculations and thus can be
neglected.
Fig. 3.1 The boy is throwing the water out by pitching the bucket forward. If he stops, the water
will continue its motion along a straight line. However, because of the force of gravity, it follows a
parabolic path

3.2.2 The Principle of Invariance


Some quantities such as mass, force, time, and acceleration are
invariant, which means that they have the same numerical values when
measured in different inertial frames of reference. Other quantities
such as velocity, kinetic energy, and work have different values in
different inertial frames. However, the laws of physics have the same
form in all inertial frames of reference. This is called the principle of
invariance.

3.2.3 Mass
As mentioned earlier, the tendency of an object to resist any change in
its motion (i.e., to remain at rest or maintain uniform motion along a
straight line) is called inertia. From experiments and everyday
experience, it is observed that a certain force produces different
accelerations when applied to different bodies. This variation in the
produced acceleration depends upon the quantity of matter contained
in the body Such quantity is known as the mass of the body Therefore,
mass is a measure of inertia. Objects with large masses have less
acceleration when exposed to the same force. Thus, mass is a quantity
that relates the acceleration of the body to the force acting on it. The SI
unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). Experimentally, it is found that the
ratio of the masses of any two bodies (say and ) is equal to the
inverse of the ratio of the magnitudes of their accelerations if both are
acted upon by the same force. That is, we have

The mass of any body can be found by comparing its acceleration to the
acceleration of a l kg mass when both bodies are acted upon by the
same force. This leads to the conclusion that mass is independent of
force; it is an inherent characteristic of matter. Furthermore, it has been
experimentally proved that when two masses and are attached
together, the combined body behaves as a single body of mass .
Thus, mass is a scalar quantity and obeys the rules of ordinary
arithmetic.

3.2.4 Newton’s Second Law


Unlike Newton’s irst law, Newton’s second law describes the situation
in which the net force acting on an object is not zero. It was found that
when different forces act on an object, the object undergoes different
accelerations. The magnitude of the acceleration is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the applied force, and its direction is
in the direction of that force. Furthermore, this acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass of the object for a certain applied force. These
observations are summarized in Newton’s second law of motion: The
acceleration of an object produced by a net external force is directly
proportional to the force in a direction parallel to that force and is
inversely proportional to its mass That is,

In terms of components, the vector equation can be written


as

where and In terms of normal and tangential


coordinates, the net normal force is

and the net tangential force is

where and . Finally, in terms of polar coordinates

we have

and

where and . The unit of force in the SI

system is the Newton (N). One Newton (1N) is de ined as the force that
gives a l kg mass an acceleration of 1 .
Example 3.1 A body is exposed to three forces acting in different
directions as shown in Fig. 3.2. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force acting on the body and the corresponding acceleration.

Fig. 3.2 A body is exposed to three forces acting in different directions

Solution 3.1
The net force in the -direction is

The net force in the -direction is

The magnitude of the net force is

The direction of relative to the -axis is


The acceleration of the body is, therefore,

and its direction is the same as that of the force.

Example 3.2 If a man pushes a 60 kg box with a constant horizontal


force of 100 how far will the container be moved when its
speed reaches a value of 3 ; (b) how far will the container be
moved when its speed reaches a value of 3 if the same force is
applied at to the horizontal; (c) ind the normal force acting on the
block in (a) and (b).

Solution 3.2
(a) The acceleration of the container is given by

the distance moved when its speed reaches 3 is found from

By taking at the starting point we have

That gives
(b) If the force is at to the horizontal, the acceleration is
and
(c) In situation (a) we have

and

In (b) we have

and

Example 3.3 A particle of mass 0.5 kg is moving along the curve given
by where t is time. Determine the force acting on

the particle.

Solution 3.3
The force acting on the particle is

Example 3.4
A particle of mass of 1 kg is moving under the in luence of a force given
by

If at and , ind the velocity and the position of the


particle at any time.

Solution 3.4

Since at , , then and the velocity at any time is

Example 3.5 If a man weighs himself on an elevator that is


accelerating upwards at a rate a relative to an observer outside the
elevator (in an inertial frame) as shown in Fig. 3.3, what reading will he
get for the normal force acting on him by the loor? what is the force if
the elevator is accelerating downwards?

Solution 3.5 The normal force is for upward


acceleration and for downward acceleration. Since a
weighing scale measures the normal force and calculates the mass from
it, the downward journey might be a more pleasant one!

Fig. 3.3 A man weighing himself in an elevator

3.2.5 Newton’s Third Law


A force acting on an object is always due to another object in the
surrounding environment. Newton’s third law shows that: if body 1
exerts a force on body 2 then body 2 will exert an equal and
opposite force on body 1. That is
Any of these forces can be called an action force. When one of these
forces is called an action force the other force is called a reaction (see
Fig. 3.4). This law is sometimes stated as “To every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.” Note that the action and reaction forces
always act on different objects, i.e., they can’t cancel each other out. This
law also shows that forces come in pairs and that there is no such thing
as a single isolated force.

Fig. 3.4 The gravitational force exerted by the Earth on the apple and that exerted by the apple to
the Earth form an action-reaction pair

Example 3.6 Three blocks of masses , and are placed on a


frictionless surface and pushed by a horizontal force F as in Fig. 3.5.
Determine (a) the acceleration of the system; (b) the contact forces
between and and between and

Solution 3.6
The free-body diagram of each block is shown in Fig. 3.5, where is
the force exerted on by . (a) Applying Newton’s second law for
the ,
(b) Applying Newton’s second law for each block, we have
and . From Newton’s law
of action and reaction we have , and , and
therefore

Fig. 3.5 Three blocks of masses , and are placed on a frictionless surface and pushed

by a horizontal force F

3.3 Some Particular Forces


3.3.1 Weight
In Sect. 2. 4. 2, we’ve seen that an object in free fall near the surface of
the earth has a gravitational acceleration of magnitude 9.8 that is

directed toward the center of earth. Using Newton’s second law, we can
calculate the force that caused this acceleration. If an object has a mass
m then the gravitational force is given by , and is denoted by , i.e.,
. is known as the weight of an object and is de ined as the
gravitational force exerted on it by earth (or any other astronomical
body, where g is different than that of earth). In Chap. 9, we will see that
a gravitational force exists between any two bodies. When one of the
bodies is an astronomical body, such as the earth or moon, and the
other body is relatively smaller in size and mass the gravitational force
is then called the weight of the body We will also see that the
gravitational force varies with the distance between objects, and that
the value of becomes less at greater altitudes. Thus, weight is not an
intrinsic property of an object. In everyday life, it is common to use the
word weight when measuring the mass of a body mass and weight
represent different quantities but they are proportional for a given
value of . For two masses at the same location, the ratio of their
weights is equal to the ratio of their masses.

3.3.2 The Normal Force


If an object is in contact with a surface, either at rest or moving on it,
the surface exerts a supporting force on the object that is always
perpendicular to the surface of contact. This force is called the normal
force.

3.3.3 Tension
The tension force is the force that a cord, rope, cable, or any other
similar object exerts on an object attached to it. This force is directed
along the rope away from the object at the point where the rope is
attached. In solving problems, ropes are usually assumed to be
massless (referred to as light ropes) and unstretchable. For any light
rope, the magnitude of the tension force T is the same at all points
along the rope.

3.3.4 Friction
Imagine that everything around you is coated with an extremely good
lubricant. Simple activities such as walking, sitting, driving a car, or
holding objects would become extremely dif icult or impossible.
Therefore, friction plays a very important role in our everyday life. The
frictional force is due to the interaction between the surface atoms of
any two bodies in contact. The direction of this force is always parallel
to the surface of contact, opposing the motion or the planned motion of
one object relative to the other. Hence, the normal and frictional forces
are both contact forces and they are always perpendicular to each
other.
Consider a block resting on a table. If the block is pushed with a
horizontal force and remains stationary, it is because that the applied
force is balanced by an equal and opposite force. This opposing force is
known as the statistical frictional force and it has the value .
The statistical frictional force increases with increasing (see Fig. 3.6).
The name statistical comes from the fact that the block remains
stationary.
Fig. 3.6 The opposing force is known as the statistical frictional force and it has the value

. Its maximum value represents the applied force when the block is at the

verge of slipping i.e. it is the minimum force necessary to initiate motion. When the block moves,
the retarding frictional force is then called the kinetic frictional force

However, if is increased to a certain maximum value, the block


will eventually accelerate (see Fig. 3.7). This maximum value is equal to
the maximum frictional force and it represents the applied
force when the block is at the verge of slipping, i.e., it is the minimum
force necessary to initiate motion. When the block moves, the retarding
frictional force is then called the kinetic frictional force and is usually
less than . If , the block will move with a constant speed. If
or if is removed, the block will decelerate and will eventually
be brought to rest. Experiments show that and have the
following properties:

Fig. 3.7 A graph of the friction force versus the applied force

1.
, where is the coef icient of static friction and n is
the normal force acting on the block. As long as the block is at rest
where
2.
where is the coef icient of the kinetic friction.
3. The directions of and are always parallel to the surface. is
opposite to the component of the applied force that is parallel to

the surface and is opposite to the instantaneous velocity of the
body relative to the surface.
The dimensionless coef icients and depend on the nature
of the surfaces in contact and are independent of the area of
p

contact between these surfaces. is generally less than .


Table 3.1 lists and for some materials. Note that may vary
with speed but such variations are not included here. Friction is a
very complex phenomenon. One reason behind this is that the
actual area of contact viewed from a microscopic level is much less
than the area of contact viewed from a macroscopic level, as in
Fig. 3.8, even for very smooth surfaces. For our purposes here, the
detailed friction mechanism will not be discussed.
Table 3.1 Coef icients of Friction

Materials (static) (kinetic)

Steel on steel 0.74 0.57


Aluminum on steel 0.61 0.47
Copper on steel 0.53 0.36
Wood on wood 0.25–0.5 0.2
Rubber on concrete 1.0 0.8
Glass on glass 0.94 0.4
Copper on glass 0.68 0.53
Te lon on te lon 0.04 0.04
Fig. 3.8 The actual area of contact viewed from a microscopic level is much less than the area of
contact viewed from a macroscopic level

3.3.5 The Drag Force


If a luid (such as gas or liquid) and a body are in relative motion, the
body will experience a resistive force opposing the relative motion
called the drag force D. The direction of is the direction in which the
luid is lowing relative to the body. The drag force depends on some
factors, such as the speed of the object. We will consider the situation in
which a relatively large object is moving through air at high speed (such
as a skydiver or an airplane). In this case, the drag force is
proportional to the square of the body’s speed and is given by

where is the air density, A is the effective cross-sectional area of the


body taken in a plane perpendicular to its velocity, and c is the drag
coef icient. c is a dimensionless constant that has a value ranging from
0.4 to 2. The value of c may vary with v, but such variations will be
ignored.

Fig. 3.9 An object falling through air experiences a drag force and a gravitational force

As an example, consider an object falling through air far from the


earth’s surface. The forces acting on the object are the drag force and
the gravitational force as in Fig. 3.9. As the object falls, its speed
increases and thus increases from zero until it eventually becomes
equal to the object’s weight . The net force on the object
when will be equal to zero, and hence the object’s
acceleration will become zero . As a result the body will fall at a
constant speed called the terminal speed :
where m is the mass of the body.

3.4 Applying Newton’s Laws


It is necessary to follow some steps when solving problems using
Newton’s second law. These steps can be summarized in the following:
1.
Draw a simple diagram of the objects in the system analyzed;
2.
Draw a free-body diagram for each object in the system. In a free-
body diagram, the body is represented by a dot, and all external
forces (represented by vectors) acting on the body are shown. The
forces exerted by the body on other bodies in the system are not
included in its free-body diagram;
3.
A coordinate system should be drawn in a free-body diagram with
the body at its origin. Newton’s second law is then applied along
each axis using the components of each force. The coordinate
system must be oriented in such a way that simpli ies the analysis,
i.e., some forces should be directed along the axes;
4.
Solve obtained equations for the unknowns.
Note that from here until Chap. 5, any object is assumed to behave
as a particle, i.e., all of its parts move in exactly the same way When
applying Newton’s second law, a particle is represented by a dot on the
free-body diagram. Furthermore, the mass or friction of any rope or
pulley is neglected.
Example 3.7 A 25 kg block is released from rest at the top of a rough
inclined surface. It then accelerates at a constant rate of 0.1 .

Find: (a) the coef icient of kinetic friction between the box and the
surface; (b) the maximum angle the box would be at the verge of
slipping if the angle of the incline is changeable.

Fig. 3.10 The free-body diagram of a block accelerating down an incline

Solution 3.7
(a) The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 3.10. Applying Newton’s
second law to the box gives
The coef icient of kinetic friction is

(c) At the verge of slipping the force of static friction is maximum:

Applying Newton’s second law we get

Also we have , therefore

Since from Table 3.1, we have

Example 3.8 Two masses kg and kg are connected by


a massless cord that passes over a massless and frictionless pulley
(Atwood’s machine) as shown in Fig. 3.11. Find the acceleration of the
system and the tension in the cord.

Solution 3.8
The free-body diagram of each mass is shown in Fig. 3.11. Applying
Newton’s second law to each block (taking positive y to be upwards)
gives

adding the two equations we have

Substituting a in any of the two equations gives

Fig. 3.11 The free-body diagram of an Atwoodõ s machine

Example 3.9 Two blocks of masses kg and kg are


connected by a light string that passes over a massless frictionless
pulley as shown in Fig. 3.12. If the surface is frictionless: (a) what is the
distance that will drop during the irst 0.6 s? (b) if a third block is
attached to using strong glue, what must its mass be such that the
system moves with constant speed?

Fig. 3.12 The free-body diagram showing the forces on each block

Solution 3.9
(a) The acceleration value is the same for both masses since they are
connected by a string. Figure 3.12 shows the free-body diagram for
each mass. Applying Newton’s law to and in the direction of
motion we have for

and for
from this we have

and

and therefore

After 0. , the distance that falls is

(b) If the system moves with constant speed, its acceleration is zero

and

that gives

and

hence
Example 3.10 A 3 kg block is hanged from the ceiling as in Fig. 3.13.
Find the magnitude of , and

Fig. 3.13 A block hanged from the ceiling


Fig. 3.14 The free-body diagram of the block

Solution 3.10
The free-body diagrams of the block and the knot are shown in
Fig. 3.14. From Newton’s second law is equal to the weight of the
block, i.e.,

For the knot, we have

(3.1)

(3.2)

Solving for from Eq. 3.2 gives


Substituting this result into Eq. 3.1 we get

Example 3.11 Figure 3.15 shows a weight of 200 that is lifted with a
constant speed. Find the tension in each part of the rope and the force
of lift.

Solution 3.11
Since the pulleys are massless and frictionless we have ( is
the tension in each rope)and , thus

we also have
Fig. 3.15 Using two pulleys to reduce the force necessary to lift a weight

3.4.1 Uniform Circular Motion


In Sect. 2. 4. 5, it was found that a particle moving in a circle with a
constant linear speed v (uniform circular motion) has a centripetal
acceleration directed towards the center of the circle. Its magnitude is
given by

where r is the radius of the circle. Figure 3.16 shows an object attached
to a string in uniform circular motion (the plane of motion is parallel to
the Earth’s surface). From Newton’s second law, the centripetal
acceleration is caused by a force or net force directed towards the
center of the circle. Therefore, as , the centripetal (or radial) force
has a constant magnitude but its direction changes continuously
The magnitude of this centripetal force is given by

If at some instant the radial force becomes zero, the object would then
move along a straight line path tangent to the circle. Hence, the
centripetal force is necessary to keep the object in its circular path. The
centripetal force may be any kind of force such as friction, gravity, or
tension.
Fig. 3.16 An object attached to a string in uniform circular motion

Example 3.12 A conical pendulum consists of a bob of mass m


attached to a light string rotating in a horizontal circle as in Fig. 3.17. If
the bob rotates with a constant speed and if and m are known, ind:
(a) the tension in the string; (b) the speed of the bob; (c) the period of
motion.
Fig. 3.17 A conical pendulum consisting of a bob of mass m attached to a light string rotating in a
horizontal circle

Solution 3.12
The horizontal component of the tension force supplies the required
centripetal force to keep the bob in its circular path while the vertical
component balances the weight of the bob. (a) Applying Newton’s
second law in both the - and -directions we have

(3.3)

and

(3.4)

(b) Dividing Eq. 3.4 by Eq. 3.3 gives

(c) The period of motion is given by

Since , we have

Example 3.13 (a) A car needs to turn on a level road without skidding
as in Fig. 3.18. Find the maximum speed for which the car can take the
curved path of the level road safely (b) If the road is banked, i.e., the
outer edge is raised relative to the inner edge as in Fig. 3.19, ind the
maximum speed for which the car can take the curved path of the level
road safely without depending on friction.

Fig. 3.18 A car turning without skidding

Fig. 3.19 A car turning on a banked road

Solution 3.13
(a) The centripetal force required for the car to remain in its circular
path, is in this case, is the force of static friction. The maximum speed
for which the car can take the curve without skidding is when the static
frictional force is a maximum. That is,

Hence

(b) If the road is banked the car can take the turn without depending on
friction as the required centripetal force. In that case, the horizontal
component of the normal force supplies the necessary centripetal force.
Thus we have
and

where v is the speed of the car. Dividing these two equations gives

If the angle and the curvature r are known, then the safe speed limit
can be found. If the car moves at a speed lower or higher than that
speed then the frictional force must supply the additional centripetal
force for the car to stay in its circular path.

3.4.2 Nonuniform Circular Motion


In Sect. 2. 4. 6, we saw that an object in nonuniform circular motion has
both perpendicular (centripetal) and parallel components of
acceleration given by

and

The total acceleration is

These radial and tangential accelerations are caused by radial and


tangential forces respectively (see Fig. 3.20):
The net force is

Fig. 3.20 The radial and tangential forces in nonuniform circular motion

Example 3.14 An object attached to a light string is rotating in a


vertical circle of radius r (see Fig. 3.21). Find: (a) the tension in the cord
at the lowest and highest points; (b) the minimum speed at the highest
point such that the object remains in its circular path.
Fig. 3.21 An object attached to a string rotating in a vertical circle

Solution 3.14
(a) Applying Newton’s second law in both the tangential and radial
directions gives
and

At the bottom and therefore and

At the top and and

(b) For the object to remain in its circular path, the string must remain
taut, i.e., must be positive . If then . Hence,
the velocity must satisfy

Fig. 3.22 An object subjected to two forces acting in different directions


Fig. 3.23 A block released from the top of an incline

Fig. 3.24 Two masses connected by a light string over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass

Fig. 3.25 A block hanged from the ceiling

Fig. 3.26 A block held in equilibrium


Fig. 3.27 Two blocks connected by a light rope and pulled by a force

Problems
1.
A 4 kg object is exposed to two forces (see Fig. 3.22). Find the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration of the object.
2.
A 0.2 kg block is released from the top of an inclined plane of
angle as in Fig. 3.23. Find the speed of the block just as it
reaches the bottom.
3.
Two masses are connected by a light string that is connected to a
frictionless pulley of negligible mass as in Fig. 3.24. Find the
magnitude of the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the
string.
4.
A block is pushed up along a smooth inclined plane of angle of
where it is given an initial velocity of 8 . Determine the
time it takes the block to return to its initial position.
5.
Find the tension in each string in the system shown in Fig. 3.25.
6.
A 5 kg block is held in equilibrium as in Fig. 3.26. Find the normal
force acting on the block.
7.
Find the normal force exerted on a 70 kg man standing inside an
elevator that is accelerating upwards at a rate of 2

8.
Find the acceleration of the system shown in Fig. 3.27 and the
tension in the string if kg and kg (assume
massless string and frictionless surface).
Two blocks of masses 3 and 5 kg are placed on top of each other
Two blocks of masses 3 and 5 kg are placed on top of each other
9. as in Fig. 3.28. If the coef icient of static friction between the
blocks is 0.2 and assuming there is no friction between the lower

block and the surface on which it rests, ind the maximum
horizontal force that can be applied to the lower block such that
the blocks move together.
10.
A 1000 kg car move along the track shown in Fig. 3.29. Find (a)
the maximum speed the car can have at point A such that it does
not leave the track (b) the normal force exerted on the car at if
its speed there is 15 .

11.
A block of mass m on a frictionless table is attached to light string
that passes through the center of the table and is connected to a
larger block of mass M (see Fig. 3.30). If m moves in uniform
circular motion of radius r and speed v, ind v such that M remains
at rest when released.
12.
A l kg particle moves in the force ield given by
Find the position of the particle at any

time if at , and .

Fig. 3.28 Two blocks placed on top of each other, where a horizontal force is applied to the lower
block
Fig. 3.29 A car moving on a curved path

Fig. 3.30 A block of mass m on a frictionless table is attached to light string that passes through
the center of the table and is connected to a larger block of mass M

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
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license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_4

4. Work and Energy


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

4.1 Introduction
Energy is a very important concept that is heavily used in everyday life.
Everything around us, including ourselves, needs energy to function. For
example, electricity provides home appliances with the energy they
require, food gives us energy to survive, and the sun provides earth with
the energy needed for the existence of life!
Experiments show that energy is a scalar quantity related to the
state of an object. Energy may exist in various forms: mechanical,
chemical, gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, and thermal.
Furthermore, energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one form to another. In other words, if energy were to
be exchanged between objects inside a system, then the total amount of
energy (the sum of all forms of energy) in the system will remain
constant.
A transformation of energy occurs due to the action of a force known
as work or due to heat exchange between objects (or between an object
and its environment). If energy is transferred due to work then it may be
de ined as the capacity of doing work. This book is concerned with
mechanical energy which involves kinetic energy (associated with the
object’s motion) and potential energy (associated with the position of
the object in space).

4.2 Work
Work may have many meanings. Sometimes, work is said to be done
when a muscular activity is performed. Work may also refer to mental
activity (mental work). In physics, the de inition of work is different.
Work is said to be done if a force is applied to an object while it is
moving, i.e., if there is no resulting displacement, no work is done.
Suppose that a person holds a heavy box for sometime and then starts to
feel tired. The reason he/she feels tired is because chemical energy in
his/her body is converted into internal microscopic motions of the
muscles. Since the energy is not transferred to the box being carried (the
box did not move), the work done on the box is equal to zero.

4.2.1 Work Done by a Constant Force


Consider an object exposed to a constant force (see Fig. 4.1). If the
object is displaced through a displacement , then the work done on the
object is a scalar quantity de ined as

where is the smaller angle between and . The component of in


the direction of is the only effective component that
produces motion. The work done represents energy transferred to or
from the object via that force. If , the work done on the object is
positive, i.e. energy is transferred to the object. If , the work
done is negative, i.e., energy is transferred from the object. The SI unit of
work is Newton meter (N.m) also named as the Joule.

Note that energy and work have the same units.

4.2.2 Work Done by Several Forces


Consider an object exposed to several forces as in Fig. 4.2. The work
done by all of these forces is the sum of the individual amounts of work
done by each force:

Another method to ind the work is by considering the resultant of these


forces:

where

Fig. 4.1 An object exposed to a constant force and undergoes a displacement of

Fig. 4.2 An object exposed to several forces undergoes a displacement of


Example 4.1 A lady pulls an 80 kg block horizontally on a rough surface
by a constant force of 400 that is at to the horizontal. If the block
is pulled a distance of and if the opposing force of friction has a
magnitude of 118 determine the work done on the block by each
of the applied force, the frictional force, the normal force, and the force
of gravity; (b) ind the total work done on the block; (c) determine if it is
easier for the lady to pull the block at an angle larger than .

Solution 4.1
(a) The work done by the applied force is

The work done by the frictional force is

The work done by the normal force and the force of gravity are both
zero since each force is perpendicular to the displacement.
(b) The total work done is

The total work done can also be found by computing the net force
acting on the block and calculating its work.
(c) For , If , then and therefore
, i.e., it is easier for the man to pull at an angle larger than
.

Example 4.2 A delivery man wants to push a crate up a ramp of length


s: (a) ind the minimum work the man must do to lift the crate to the top
of the ramp; (b) determine if a ramp with a steeper incline would be
more dif icult for the man to push the crate.

Solution 4.2
(a) The minimum work that the delivery man must do is the work done
against gravity The work done on the crate by the force of gravity is
Hence the minimum work that the delivery man must do is equal to

(b) For angles between 0 and , if , then . Hence


, i.e., the more inclined the ramp is the more dif icult it is to
move the crate.

4.2.3 Work Done by a Varying Force


Previously, the work done in the special case of a force that is constant in
both magnitude and direction was discussed. The object there moved
along a straight line. In many situations, the force may vary in
magnitude or in direction or in both, and the object may move along a
curved path. To ind the work done in this case, consider a particle
moving along the curved path shown in Fig. 4.3. While it is moving, a
force that varies in both magnitude and direction with the position of
the particle acts on it. Let us divide the path into a large number n of
very small displacements where each is tangent to the path. For each
displacement, the force can be approximated to be constant in both
magnitude and direction. The total work done as the particle moves
from to is the sum of the individual amounts of work done along
each displacement, that is

By dividing the path into more displacements we have

or
As mentioned in Sect. 1. 10. 1, this integral is called the line integral. Each
component of may be a function of x, y, and z, and the
curve can be determined by its equations that relates x, y, and z to each
other. The component form of the above equation is

(4.1)

Now consider the case in which the particle moves along a straight line
(for example the positive -axis) and in which the force acting on the
particle has a constant direction along the -axis and a magnitude that
varies with x. Equation 4.1 is then reduced to

(4.2)

This equation represents the area under the curve in Fig. 4.4. If F(x) is
constant then we have

The work is then equal to the rectangular area shown in Fig. 4.5.
Fig. 4.3 A particle moving along a curved path. While itõ s moving, a force that varies in both
magnitude and direction with the position of the particle acts on it

Fig. 4.4 The area under the curve represents the work
Fig. 4.5 The work is equal to the rectangular area

Example 4.3 In Example 3.3, ind the work done by the force in moving
the particle during the time interval from to

Solution 4.3
The work done from to is

Example 4.4 A force acting on a particle is a function of position


according to Fig. 4.6. Find the work done by this force as the particle
moves from to

Solution 4.4
The work done is equal to the area of the triangle under the curve
between to , i.e.
Fig. 4.6 A force acting on a particle is a function of position

Example 4.5 A ball that is suspended from a ceiling by a light rope is


displaced a small distance to the position shown in Fig. 4.7. If it is
released from rest at , ind the work done by the tension force and the
force of gravity as the ball moves from to A.

Solution 4.5
Because the tension force is always perpendicular to the displacement,
the work done by it is zero at all times. The only component of the
gravitational force that does work is its tangential component.
Therefore,
Since , then , and we have

Fig. 4.7 A ball suspended by a light rope and displaced a small distance from the position of
equilibrium
Fig. 4.8 The center of mass of the system (man+skateboard) moves and the work-energy theorem
can be applied to that point

4.3 Kinetic Energy (KE) and the Work–Energy


Theorem
Consider a particle that is exposed to a net ield force and is moving
along a curve in space. Suppose that the particle is at at and at at
and that its velocity at and is and , respectively. The net
work done on the particle as it moves from to is then given by
The quantity is the energy associated with the motion of the

particle called the kinetic energy (KE). Thus, if a particle of constant


mass m is moving with a speed v, its KE is a scalar quantity de ined as

It also can be written as . Hence, the total work done by

the net force in displacing the particle is equal to the change in the KE of
the particle

Similar to work, the SI unit of kinetic energy is the Joul. Note that the
work–energy theorem is applied only if the object is treated as a particle
(all of its parts move in exactly the same way). As an example of how the
theorem is applied only for particle-like objects consider a man standing
on a skateboard on a horizontal surface (see Fig. 4.8). If the man pushes
the bar then that would move him backwards along with his skateboard.
This motion is due to the reaction force exerted on him by the bar.
The work done by or is equal to zero since each force is
perpendicular to the displacement. Because the point of application of
did not move it follows that the work done by that force is zero. Thus,
from the work–energy theorem the man should not move. The question
is why did he move?
The fact here is that it is incorrect to treat the man as a particle, since
different parts of his body move in different ways as he pushes the bar.
Therefore, the work–energy theorem does not hold. The man must be
treated as a system of particles. In Chap. 6, we will see that the motion of
a system of particles can be represented by the motion of its center of
mass. The center of mass behaves as if all of the mass of the object (or
system) is concentrated there and as if the net external force is applied
there. In the case of the skateboarder, the center of mass of the system
(man skateboard) moves and the work–energy theorem can be
applied to that point.
The work–energy theorem is an alternative method for describing
motion without using Newton’s laws. It is especially useful in problems
involving a varying force. Note that the work and the kinetic energy are
not invariant quantities; they have different values when measured in
different inertial frames of reference. However, from the principle of
invariance, the equation still holds for any inertial frame.

Example 4.6 A 5 kg block resting on a surface is given an initial velocity


of 5 . If the coef icient of kinetic friction of the surface is ,
ind the distance the block would move before it stops.

Solution 4.6
As we will see later in Sect. 4.3.1, the change in the kinetic energy of the
block due to friction is , where s is the displacement of the
block.
Example 4.7 A 10 kg block is pushed on a frictionless horizontal
surface by a constant force of magnitude of 100 and that is at
below the horizontal. If the block starts from rest, ind its inal speed
after it has moved a distance of using work–energy theorem.

Solution 4.7

From the work–energy theorem, we have

since we get

Fig. 4.9 A block attached to a light spring on a frictionless surface


4.3.1 Work Done by a Spring Force
Consider a block attached to a light spring ixed at the other end on a
frictionless horizontal surface as in Fig. 4.9. Suppose an external force
is applied to the block by either stretching or compressing it
through a small displacement from its equilibrium (relaxed) position
taken at . The spring will then exert a restoring force on the
block that opposes the applied force and restores the block to its
equilibrium position. For many kinds of springs and in the case of small
displacements, the spring force varies linearly with the displacement x
of the block (or any other object) from its equilibrium position .
That is

where k is a constant called the force or spring constant. k measures the


stiffness of the spring. The stiffer the spring the larger is k. This equation
is known as Hook’s law. The minus sign indicates that the spring force is
always acting in a direction opposing the displacement. The work done
by the spring force in moving the block from an initial position to a
inal position is:

The work done on the block by the spring as it moves from an initial
position to a inal position is

Figure 4.10 shows a plot of versus x for the mass–spring system.


Fig. 4.10 A plot of versus x for the mass-spring system

Example 4.8 A 2 kg block is attached to a light spring of force constant


300 on a horizontal smooth surface as shown in Fig. 4.11. If the
system is initially at rest at the position of equilibrium and is then
stretched a distance of 3 cm, ind the work done by the spring on the
block as it moves from to cm.

Solution 4.8

Fig. 4.11 A 2 kg block attached to a light spring of force constant 300 on a horizontal

smooth surface

4.3.2 Work Done by the Gravitational Force (Weight)


If a particle-like object of mass m is moving vertically upward or
downward near the surface of the earth where is assumed to be
constant (see Fig. 4.12), and if air resistance is neglected, then the only
force that does work on the object is the gravitational force mg. By
taking the -axis along the line of motion (positive upwards) with
at the earth’s surface, the work done by the gravitational force is

Note that unlike the spring force the reference point may be chosen
anywhere. If the object moved downwards from to , the
work done by the gravitational force is

Now suppose the object moves along a curved path from to as in


Fig. 4.13. The work done by the gravitational force is

This result is the same as if the object has followed a straight vertical
path. Therefore, the work done by the gravitational force depends only
on the initial and inal positions of the object.
Fig. 4.12 By taking at the hand level, in the work done by gravity a is and in b is
Fig. 4.13 a The total work done by the spring force on the block is zero since . b Along any

path the work done by the gravitational force is the same since the initial and inal positions are the
same

Example 4.9 A man lifts a 300 kg weight a distance of 2 above the


ground. Find the work done by the force of gravity on the weight.
Solution 4.9

4.3.3 Power
Power is a quantity that de ines how much work is done over a period of
time, i.e., power is the time rate of doing work, or more generally, it is
the time rate of energy transfer. If an external force does work W on
an object for a time interval , then the average power during that time
is

The instantaneous power is

Our concern in this book is the mechanical power since it involves


mechanical work. If is the velocity of the object, we have

for a constant force, or

The SI unit of power is joules per second and is called the watt
(W).

Another unit of power that is often used is the horsepower:


4.4 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
In nature, there are two kinds of forces: conservative and
nonconservative forces. A conservative force is a force that conserves
the energy of a system when acting upon it. The action of this force
results in changing the kinetic energy of any object in the system. This
change will be stored in the system in the form of potential energy. For
every conservative force, there is a certain potential energy that is
associated with it. Such potential energy can be retransformed into
kinetic energy Thus, the total energy of the system would not be
dissipated, instead it would be conserved. A force that does not act in
this way is said to be a nonconservative force. Properties of a
conservative force are given as follows:
1.
The net work done by a conservative force on a particle moving
from one point to another is independent of the path taken by the
particle;
2.
The net work done by a conservative force in moving a particle
through any closed path is equal to zero.
A force not meeting these conditions is a nonconservative force. As
mentioned in Sect. 1. 10. 2, property 2 of a conservative force can be
obtained from property 1 (if is a vector ield and the line integral of
between any two points is independent of path, then ).

That is, these two properties are equivalent. Examples of conservative


forces in mechanics are the gravitational and spring forces. To show this
let us go back to Sects. 4.3.1 and 4.3.2, where the work done by the
gravitational force or the spring force was calculated. We have seen that
the work done in each case depends only on the initial and inal
positions of the object. Therefore, the work done by any of these forces
is independent of the path joining the initial and inal positions.
Furthermore, if in the case of the spring or in the
case of the gravitational force the net work done is zero. Hence, these
forces are conservative.
The force of friction is an example of a nonconservative force. To
show that, consider a block sliding on a rough surface. Figure 4.14
shows two possible paths connecting two points. The longer the path
the more interaction between the block and the surface and the more
the force of friction will act and do work on the block. Thus, the work
depends on the path taken between the two points and therefore the
frictional force is a nonconservative force.

Fig. 4.14 The longer the path the more interaction between the block and the surface and the more
the force of friction will act and do work on the block

4.4.1 Potential Energy


For a system consisting of two or more objects, the potential energy U of
the system is the energy associated with the con iguration of the system.
That is, the potential energy is the energy associated with the position of
objects in the system relative to each other. If the con iguration of the
system is changed, then the potential energy of the system also changes.
Such energy is de ined only in terms of a conservative force because if
such a force acts on a system then it can transform the kinetic energy of
any object in the system into potential energy of the system and vice
versa. The potential energy means that the system has potential to do
work.
In Sect. 1. 10. 2 it has been proven that the line integral in Eq. (1. 2) is
independent of the path joining the points and if and only if
or equivalently . Where is some scalar
that has continuous partial derivatives. Therefore, for a conservative
force ield , there always exist a scalar ield
(called the potential energy) such that

Furthermore
Thus, the total work done by a conservative force in moving a particle
from to (see Fig. 4.15) is

or

where . Because only the change in the potential energy


is signi icant, it does not matter where the reference point (U) is chosen.
This is because if is changed will be also changed but will
remain constant.

Fig. 4.15 The total work done by a conservative force in moving a particle from to
Example 4.10 A force acting on a particle is given by .
Determine: (a) whether or not the force is conservative; (b) the potential
energy associated with the force if it is conservative.

Solution 4.10
(a)

Therefore, the force is conservative.


(b)

Example 4.11 If a force acting on a particle is given by , where


a is a positive constant: (a) ind the work done in moving the particle
along the closed path shown in Fig. 4.16; (b) determine if the force is
conservative.

Solution 4.11
(a) Along path 1 we have and and along path 3 we have
and

(b) Since the total work done through the closed path is zero, the force is
conservative.
Fig. 4.16 The work done in moving the particle along a closed path

Example 4.12 Find the force acting on a particle if the potential energy
associated with it is

Solution 4.12

and therefore

4.4.1.1 The Gravitational Potential Energy


As we have mentioned in Sect. (4.1.7), the work done by the
gravitational force in displacing a particle near the earth’s surface from
to is
Since , we have

If and , the gravitational potential energy of the object–


earth system may be written as

The force of gravity near the surface of the earth can be found from the
gravitational potential energy In general we have here, since
the motion is in one direction we have

4.4.1.2 The Elastic Potential Energy


It was found in Sect. (4.1.6) that the work done by the spring force when
moving a block from to (when it is stretched or compressed) is

Since , we have

If and , the elastic potential energy of the block-spring


system can be written as

The spring force can be found from the elastic potential energy
4.5 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The total mechanical energy of a system is de ined as the sum of all of
the kinetic energies of the objects within the system plus all of the
potential energies of the system.

Now, consider an isolated system in which there are no external forces


acting on it, or the net external force is zero. The only forces acting on
the system will be the internal forces within the system. These forces
may be conservative or nonconservative. If only internal conservative
forces exist, then the work done by any of these forces on an object in
the system will transform its kinetic energy into potential energy
(associated with that force), or vice versa. The internal conservative
force can also transform one form of potential energy into another. The
work done by such a force on an object in the system is

The change in potential energy due to this work is

Thus,

or

or

If more than one conservative force acts, there will be a potential energy
associated with each force. That is
Therefore we have

or

From the previous discussion, we conclude that for an isolated system in


which only conservative forces act, the total mechanical energy of the
system remains constant (conserved). Figure 4.17 shows the changes of
energy of a ball thrown upwards. Now suppose that the system is not
isolated and that the external forces acting on the system are
conservative. The change in the kinetic energy of the system is then
equal to the work done on the system by an internal conservative force
plus the amount of kinetic energy changed due to an external
conservative force, that is,

or

Hence

Therefore, the total mechanical energy of the system remains constant


under both external and internal conservative forces. If external
nonconservative forces act on the system, or if there is heat transfer, or if
internal nonconservative forces act, then the total mechanical energy
may change and is no longer conserved.
Fig. 4.17 Changes in the kinetic and potential energies of a ball thrown vertically upwards

4.5.1 Changes of the Mechanical Energy of a System due to


External Nonconservative Forces
External nonconservative forces may act on a system if it is not isolated.
Consider a system that is not isolated in which only internal
conservative forces act. The change in the kinetic energy of the system is
then equal to the work done on the system by an internal conservative
force plus the amount of kinetic energy changed due to an external
nonconservative force. This can be expressed as

or
Thus
(4.3)
This implies that the total mechanical energy has changed by an amount
of . Not that the work done by a nonconservative force cannot be
calculated generally but the change in the kinetic energy can be
observed.

4.5.2 Friction
Friction is a nonconservative force as seen in Sect. 4.2. If this force is
applied externally to a system in which only internal conservative forces
act, it will decrease (dissipate) the kinetic energy of the system by
transforming it into thermal energy The change in the mechanical
energy of the system is

The work done by friction or any other nonconservative force cannot be


calculated. In other words, the work done by friction is not simply ,
where s is the displacement of the object in the system. The reason
behind not being able to calculate the work done by friction is that at a
microscopic level the frictional force is not a single force that acts at one
point. Rather, it is a combination of forces acting at different points in
the object. However, the loss in kinetic energy of the object can be
calculated as shown below: Consider a block sliding on a rough surface.
Let’s choose the block only to be our system. From the equation of
motion, we have

Newton’s second law gives

Thus

or
Therefore

This quantity represents the magnitude of the loss in the kinetic energy
of the block due to friction. This loss of energy appears as thermal
energy of the block and of the surface on which it slides.

4.5.3 Changes in Mechanical Energy due to Internal


Nonconservative Forces
In solving problems you are free to choose the system. If we considered
the block plus the surface as our system, then friction will be an internal
nonconservative force and we may write

where is the change in the kinetic energy of the system due to an


internal nonconservative force. Another example of a nonconservative
force is the force that you exert on your body by your muscles. This force
transfers the chemical energy of your body into kinetic energy In
Sect. (4.1.5), we have seen that the motion of the skateboarder can be
explained using the concept of the center of mass. Another way to
explain the motion of the skateboarder is that the internal chemical
energy of the man is transformed into kinetic energy, and we may write

Since in his case. An additional example of nonconservative


forces is the forces that different parts in an object exert on each other
when the object is deformed. These forces transform the kinetic energy
of the object into internal energy. In all cases, even though energy can
transfer from one object to another or to the environment, the total
amount of energy in the universe is constant. That is, energy gained by a
system is lost by another system. In other words, energy cannot be
created or destroyed it can only be transformed from one form to another
and the total energy of an isolated system is conserved (constant). This
statement is known as the law of conservation of energy The law of
conservation of energy is also valid in relativity and quantum
mechanics.

4.5.4 Changes in Mechanical Energy due to All Forces


Consider a system in which there are both internal and external
conservative and nonconservative forces acting on it. In this case, the
change in the total mechanical energy of the system can be written as

Example 4.13 A 0.2 kg apple falls from a tree at a distance of 3 above


the ground. Find: (a) the velocity of the apple at an altitude of 2 and
at the instance just before it hits the ground; (b) the altitude of the apple
when its velocity is 4

Solution 4.13
(a) Consider the system to be the earth the apple. By neglecting air
resistance (the apple is in free-fall), the only internal force that acts
within the earth–apple system is the force of gravity. Because the
gravitational force is a conservative force, the total mechanical energy of
the system is conserved. Therefore as the apple falls its gravitational
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy such that at any instant
the total mechanical energy of the system is constant. Applying the law
of conservation of energy to the system and by taking at the
earth’s surface and the gravitational potential energy to be zero at
, we have

where h is its initial altitude. That gives


At

At

(b)

Example 4.14 A roller coaster of mass 500 kg starts from rest at point
, and rolls down the track as shown in Fig. 4.18. Ignoring friction,
determine: (a) the roller coaster speed at and ; (b) the work done
by gravity as the rollercoaster moves from A to B.

Fig. 4.18 By ignoring friction, the total energy of the roller coaster can be considered to be
conserved
Solution 4.14
(a) Consider the system to consist of the rollercoaster the track the
earth. Taking the gravitational potential energy to be zero at the earth’s
surface and from the conservation of energy we have

Therefore,

Similarly, the velocity at is

You may also calculate the velocity at C by taking B as the initial point.
(b) As the car moves from A to the work done by gravity is

Example 4.15 A block of mass 5 kg is released from rest at the top of a


incline that is 0.5 long as shown in Fig. 4.19. It then slides on a
horizontal surface that is 0.7 long and goes up again on a second
ramp that is at to the horizontal. If the coef icient of kinetic friction
between the block and all three surfaces is 0.2, ind the maximum
distance that the block would move up the second ramp?
Fig. 4.19 A block released from rest on top of an incline

Solution 4.15
First, we divide the path into three parts. Let us consider the system as
the block only Along the irst part the change in the total mechanical
energy of the system is equal to the energy dissipated by friction. Thus,

the force of kinetic friction is

That gives

. Along the second path we have again

The force of kinetic friction is given by

and therefore
Finally, along the third path, we also have

and

but we have

and thus

That gives

Example 4.16 Two masses kg and kg are connected by


a light rope that passes over a massless frictionless pulley as in Fig. 4.20.
If the system is released from rest when is at 0. above the
ground, use the principle of conservation of energy to determine the
speed with which will hit the ground.
Fig. 4.20 Two masses connected by a light rope that passes over a massless frictionless pulley

Solution 4.16
If air resistance is neglected, the only force acting in the masses-earth
system is the gravitational force between them and hence the total
mechanical energy of the system is conserved, i.e.,

Because the two masses are connected by a rope, they have the same
speed at any instant. If descends a distance will rise through
the same distance and we have

and therefore
Example 4.17 A 0.25 kg ball is attached to alight string of length
as in Fig. 4.21. Find (a) the tension in the string at
if the ball is given an initial velocity at its
lowest position; (b) the velocity of the ball at A if the ball is released
from rest at B.

Fig. 4.21 A ball attached to a light string

Solution 4.17
(a) At point some of the kinetic energy of the ball is converted into
potential energy By taking the origin of the x-y coordinates at the lowest
point , we have

and therefore we get


(4.4)
Applying Newton’s second law along the radial direction to the ball at
we have

(4.5)

Substituting Eq. 4.4 into Eq. 4.5 gives

thus

and hence

Substituting the values of and gives N.


(b) If , we have from

hence

Example 4.18 A 3 kg block compresses a spring of negligible mass a


distance of 0.1 from its equilibrium position as in Fig. 4.22. If the
surface is frictionless and the force constant of the spring is 200 ,
and the block is free to move, ind: (a) the speed of the block just as it
leaves the spring; (b) the maximum height that the block will reach; (c)
suppose that a part of the horizontal track is rough with a length of 0.05
m, ind the coef icient of kinetic friction if the block reaches a maximum
height of 0.014 .

Fig. 4.22 A 3 kg block compresses a spring of negligible mass a distance of 0.1 from its
equilibrium position

Solution 4.18
(a) The only force acting inside the spring–mass–earth system is the
spring force that acts on the block. This force is conservative and
therefore the total mechanical energy of the system is conserved. The
potential energy of the spring is transformed into kinetic energy of the
block,

and therefore

this gives
(b)

and hence
We can also take the initial position before the block is released.
(c)

along the rough surface , and therefore

thus

That gives

Example 4.19 A small stone of mass 0.1 kg is released from rest inside
a large hemispherical bowl of radius . It then slides along the
surface as in Fig. 4.23. (a) Find the speed of the stone at point and ;
(b) If the surface of the bowl is not frictionless, how much energy is
dissipated by friction as the stone moves from A to if the speed at
is 1.7 ?
Fig. 4.23 A small stone of mass 0.1 kg is released from rest inside a large hemispherical bowl of
radius

Solution 4.19
(a)

thus

At point some of the kinetic energy at is converted into potential


energy and we have

and therefore
(b) If a force of kinetic friction exists between the stone and the
bowl, the total mechanical energy at point is given by
where the stone is considered as the system, therefore

hence the energy dissipated by friction is

Example 4.20 A skier starts at the top of a frictionless incline as in


Fig. 4.24. Find the velocity with which he will leave the second incline.

Solution 4.20
From the conservation of energy the velocity when he leaves the track is

That gives

Fig. 4.24 A skier slides from rest on top of an incline

Example 4.21 A 0.4 kg stone is released from rest at point A where


(see Fig. 4.25). It then slides without friction along the track
shown where . Determine: (a) the speed of the stone at ; (b)
the normal force exerted on the stone at ; (c) the magnitude of the
total acceleration of the stone at ; (d) the minimum height in which
the stone must be released such that it does not fall off the track.

Fig. 4.25 A 0.4 kg stone is released from rest at point A where

Solution 4.21
(a) From the conservation of energy, we have

(b) From Newton’s second law, we have


(c) The velocity of the stone at is

Therefore, the radial acceleration at is

The tangential force exerted on the stone at is its weight


hence the tangential acceleration of the stone at is and the
magnitude of the total acceleration is

(d) When the stone is at the verge of falling at , then the only force
acting on it is the force of gravity and we have .

From conservation of energy

or

and

4.5.5 Power
Expanding on the de inition of power, power is the rate of energy
transfer due to a force. If is the amount of energy transferred in an
amount of time the average power is
The instantaneous power is then

4.5.6 Energy Diagrams


Consider a particle that is a part of an isolated system where only
internal conservative forces act. Suppose this particle is moving along
the -axis while a conservative force that depends only on the position
of the particle acts on it. For simplicity, we will assume that is the only
force acting on the system and that it does work only on that particle.
The potential energy of the system as a function of the particle’s position
(x) is shown in Fig. 4.26. At any point F(x) is given by

That is, it is the negative of the slope of the curve at that point. Because
this force is conservative it follows that the total mechanical energy of
the system is conserved. Therefore the kinetic energy of the particle as a
function of position is given by

On the U versus x curve, the kinetic energy at any point can be found by
subtracting the value of U (at that certain point) from E.
Fig. 4.26 The potential energy of the system as a function of the particle’s position

4.5.7 Turning Points


A turning point is a point in which the particle changes its direction of
motion. The points , , and are all turning points.

4.5.8 Equilibrium Points


Equilibrium points occur in general when . In the case of one
dimensional motion it occurs when , i.e. when

4.5.9 Positions of Stable Equilibrium


If at an equilibrium point , then U(x) is a minimum at

that point. The point is then said to be a position of stable equilibrium,


i.e., any minimum on the U(x) curve is a position of stable equilibrium.
Another method to ind the position of stable equilibrium is to ind the
sign of F(x) at each side of the point. As an example, consider the point
.
This point is a position of stable equilibrium since if the particle is
displaced slightly to the right of then dU(x) / dx is positive which
leads to F(x) being negative and the particle will accelerate back towards
. On the other hand, if the particle is displaced slightly to the left of
, then dU(x) / dx is negative and thus F(x) is positive and the particle will
also accelerates back to . Therefore, because F(x) tends to restore the
particle back to that position when the particle is displaced in either
direction, it is called a position of stable equilibrium. is also a
position of stable equilibrium.

4.5.10 Positions of Unstable Equilibrium


If at an equilibrium point , then U(x) is maximum at that

point, and the point is called a position of unstable equilibrium. In


Fig. 4.26, is a position of unstable equilibrium since if the particle is
slightly displaced to the right of is positive and the particle will
accelerate away from . If the particle is displaced to the left of
is negative and the particle will also accelerate away from that
position. Therefore, because F(x) tends to repel the particle away from
that position, it is called a position of unstable equilibrium. In general
this force tends to move the particle towards the minimum value of U(x).
Figure 4.27 shows the potential energy of a mass–spring system as a
function of x.
Fig. 4.27 The potential energy of a mass-spring system as a function of x

4.5.11 Positions of Neutral Equilibrium


Any point in a region where U(x) is constant and is called a
position of neutral equilibrium. is a position of neutral equilibrium. If
the particle is slightly displaced to the right or left of , no restoring or
repelling forces will act on the particle and it will remain stationary The
position of the particle as a function of time can be obtained from

or
hence

By evaluating this integral, we would obtain the time as a function of the


position, then by solving for x we get the position as a function of time.

Example 4.22 Figure 4.28 shows the potential energy of a particle as a


function of its displacement. Find: (a) the values of x where the particle
is in stable or unstable equilibrium; (b) the direction of the force acting
on the particle at 0.5

Solution 4.22 (a) We have and are positions of


stable equilibrium, is a position of unstable equilibrium.
(b) At 0.5 is negative and hence F(x) is positive which
means that the particle will accelerate in the positive -direction.
Fig. 4.28 The potential energy of a particle as a function of its displacement

Example 4.23 Consider a block attached to a light spring and released


from rest at Find the position of the block as a function of time
using energy methods.

Solution 4.23

or

Since and . In Chap. 10, we will see that this


equation represents the equation of a simple harmonic motion.
Fig. 4.29 A force acting on a particle varies with position

Problems
1.
A force acting on a particle varies with position as in Fig. 4.29. Find
the work done by the force as the particle moves from to

2.
A force acts on a particle that undergoes a
displacement . Find the work done by the
force on the particle.
3.
A 5 block is pulled from rest on a rough surface by a constant

force of 10 that is at to the horizontal. If the coef icient of
kinetic friction between the block and the surface is 0.15, ind the
inal speed of the block as it moves through a displacement of
using the work–energy theorem.
4. Calculate the work done against gravity in moving a 30 kg box
through a height of 6
through a height of 6
5.
A 1600 kg car accelerates from rest at a rate of 1 . Find the

average power delivered to the car during the irst 5

6.
Determine whether or not the force is
conservative, where is constant and m is the mass of the
particle. If the force is conservative determine the potential energy
associated with it.
7.
A 5 block slides down an inclined plane of angle (see
Fig. 4.30). Using energy methods, ind the speed of the block just as
it reaches the bottom if the coef icient of kinetic friction is

8.
A block of mass of 2 kg is pressed against a light spring of force
constant 400 (see Fig. 4.31). If the compression of the spring
is 10 cm, ind the maximum height the block will reach when it is
released.
9.
A force acting on a particle is given by . Find the work
done in moving the particle along the path shown in Fig. 4.32.
10.

Two blocks are connected by a light rope that passes over a
massless frictionless pulley (see Fig. 4.33). If the system is released
from rest, ind the total kinetic energy of the blocks when the 5 kg
block descends a distance of 0.5 assuming that the surface is
frictionless.
11. A particle of mass 1.5 kg moves along the -axis where its
potential energy varies as in Fig. 4.34. Plot the force versus x
f
from to
12.
A block of mass m rests on a hemispherical mound of ice as shown
in Fig. 4.35. If it is given a very small push and start sliding, ind the
height of the point in which the block will lose contact with the
mound.
13.
A 3 kg block hangs from a spring as in Fig. 4.36. If the spring
stretches a distance of 10 cm, ind (a) the force constant of the
spring (b) the work done in expanding the spring a distance of
5 cm without accelerating it.

14. In Fig. 4.37, determine the Turning points and the positions of
stable and unstable equilibrium.

Fig. 4.30 A block slides down an inclined plane


Fig. 4.31 A block pressed against a light spring and released

Fig. 4.32 The work done in moving the particle along a closed path
Fig. 4.33 Two blocks connected by a light rope that passes over a massless frictionless pulley

Fig. 4.34 The potential energy versus displacement of a particle


Fig. 4.35 A block of mass m resting on a hemispherical mound of ice

Fig. 4.36 A block hanging from a spring

Fig. 4.37 The potential energy versus position of a particle

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
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© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_5

5. Impulse, Momentum, and Collisions


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

5.1 Linear Momentum and Collisions


When two billiard balls collide, in which direction would they travel
after the collision? If a meteorite hits the earth, why does the earth
remain in its orbit? When two cars collide with each other, why is one
of the cars more damaged than the other? We will ind that to answer
such questions, new concepts must be introduced.
Consider the situation where two bodies collide with each other.
During the collision, each body exerts a force on the other. This force is
called an impulsive force, because it acts for a short period of time
compared to the whole motion of the objects, and its value is usually
large. To solve collision problems by using Newton’s second law, it is
required to know the exact form of the impulsive forces. Because these
forces are complex functions of the collision time, it is dif icult to ind
their exact form and would make it dif icult to use Newton’s second law
to solve such problems. Thus, new concepts known as momentum and
impulse were introduced. These concepts enable us to analyze
problems that involve collisions, as well as many other problems.
The law of conservation of momentum is especially used in
analyzing collisions and is applied immediately before and immediately
after the collision. Therefore, it is not necessary to know the exact form
of the impulsive forces, which makes the problem easy to analyze. Next,
we will discuss and verify the concepts of momentum and impulse, and
the law of conservation of momentum. The linear momentum (or
quantity of motion as was called by Newton) of a particle of mass m is a
vector quantity de ined as

where is the velocity of the particle. A fast moving car has more
momentum than a slow moving car of the same mass. Another example
is that a bowling ball has more momentum than a basketball moving at
the same speed. The SI unit of linear momentum is . In terms of
components, we may write , and .
Newton’s second law can be expressed in terms of momentum for a
particle-like object of constant mass as

or

That is, the rate of change of the linear momentum of an object is equal
to the resultant force acting on the object and is in the same direction
as that force.

5.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum


The law of conservation of linear momentum states that if the net
external force acting on a system equals zero (isolated) and if there is
no mass exchange with the surroundings of the system (closed), then
the total linear momentum of the system remains constant. To show
that, consider an isolated system consisting of two particles where the
only forces that act in the system are internal forces (see Fig. 5.1). The
total linear momentum of the system at any particular time is given by
(5.1)

If the net force exerted on particle 2 by particle 1 is , then from


Newton’s third law, the net force exerted on particle 1 by particle 2 is
, That is

Differentiating Eq. 5.1 with respect to time and by using Newton’s


second law, we have

Fig. 5.1 An isolated system consisting of two particles where the only forces that act in the
system are internal forces

That is,

or
That is, the linear momentum of each particle may change, but the total
linear momentum of the system is the same at all times. This statement
is known as the law of conservation of linear momentum: If the net
external force on a system is zero, the total linear momentum of the
system remains unchanged (constant). In terms of components, we have
, and . In solving problems involving
collisions, and refers to the total momentum of the system
immediately before and immediately after the collision, respectively.
For a two-particle system, we have

From the principle of invariance, the law of conservation of momentum


is valid with respect to any inertial frame of reference. Furthermore, as
the law of conservation of energy, the law of conservation of
momentum is valid in relativity and quantum mechanics.

5.3 Impulse and Momentum


Impulse is a quantity that de ines how a certain force acting on a
particle changes the linear momentum of that particle. Now, consider a
time-dependent force acting on a particle. From Newton’s second law
, we have

The right side of the equation is a vector quantity known as the impulse
I
Hence,

Which is known as the impulse–momentum theorem. In component


form, we have , and . That is, the impulse of
a force that acts on a particle during a time interval is equal to the
change in the momentum of the particle during that interval. The
direction of the impulse is in the same direction as the change of
momentum. If has a constant direction, the variation of its magnitude
with time may be of the form as shown in Fig. 5.2. The average of is
given by

And thus, I can be written as

That is, is a constant force that gives the same impulse as F. In the
case of a collision between two bodies, the variation of the impulsive
force that each body exerts on the other during the collision time takes
the form as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2 One example of the variation of over time

5.4 Collisions
As discussed previously, when two bodies collide, they exert large
forces on one another (during the time of the collision) called impulsive
forces. These forces are very large such that any other forces ( .,
friction or gravity) present during the short time of the collision can be
neglected. This approximation is known as the impulse approximation.
For example, if a golf ball was hit by a golf club, the change in the
momentum of the ball can be assumed to be only due to the impulsive
force exerted on it by the club. The change in its momentum due to any
other force present during the collision can be neglected. That is, the
force in the expression I can be assumed to be the

impulsive force only The neglected forces present during the collision
time are external to the two-body system, whereas the impulsive forces
are internal. The two-body system can therefore be considered to be
isolated during the short time of the collision (which is in the order of a
few milliseconds). Hence, the total linear momentum of the system is
conserved during the collision, which enables us to apply the law of
conservation of momentum immediately before and immediately after
the collision. In general, for any type of collision, the total linear
momentum is conserved during the time of the collision. That is,
., where and are the momenta immediately before and
after the collision. In the next sections, we will de ine various types of
two- body collisions, depending on whether or not the kinetic energy of
the system is conserved.

Example 5.1 A 50 golf ball initially at rest is struck by a golf club.


The golf club exerts a force on the ball that varies during a very short
time interval from zero before impact, to a maximum value and back to
zero when the ball is no longer in contact with the club. If the ball is
given a speed of 25 , and if the club is in contact with the ball for
, ind the average force exerted by the club on the ball.

Solution 5.1
The impulse of the force is

the average force exerted on the ball by the club is then

Example 5.2 A canon placed on a carriage ires a 250 kg ball to the


horizontal with a speed of 50 . If the mass of the canon and the
carriage is 4000 kg, ind the recoil speed of the canon.

Solution 5.2
Because there are no external horizontal forces acting on the cannon-
carriage-ball system, then the total momentum of the system is
constant (conserved) in the -direction

therefore,

i.e., the cannon recoils in the negative -direction.

Example 5.3 A hockey puck of mass 0.16 kg traveling on a smooth ice


surface collides with the court’s edge. If its initial and inal velocities
are and and if the hockey puck is in contact
with the wall for 2 ms, ind the impulse delivered to the puck and the
average force exerted on it by the wall.

Solution 5.3

Example 5.4 A 0.5 kg hockey puck is initially moving in the negative


-direction as shown in Fig. 5.3, with a speed of 7 . If a hockey player
hits the puck giving it a velocity of magnitude 12 in a direction of
to the vertical, and if the collision lasts for 0.008 , ind the
impulse due to the collision and the average force exerted on the puck.

Fig. 5.3 A hockey player changing the momentum of the puck

Solution 5.4
Along the -direction, we have

and
along the -direction, we have

and

Therefore, the impulse of the force in each direction is

and

The direction of the impulse is

where is measured from the positive -axis. The average force acting
on the puck is

Example 5.5 Two ice skaters of masses kg and kg


standing face to face push each other on a frictionless horizontal
surface. If skater (1) recoils with a speed of 5 , ind the recoil speed
of the other skater.

Solution 5.5
For the two-skater system, the sum of the vertical forces are zero
(weight and normal forces) and the forces exerted by one skater on the
other is internal to the system. That is, there are no external forces
acting on the system and the total momentum is conserved. Because
the motion takes place in a straight line, we have

and hence,

Example 5.6
A particle is moving in space under the in luence of a force. If its
momentum as a function of time is

(a) Find the force acting on the particle at any time; (b) Find the
impulse of the force from to

Solution 5.6
(a)

(b)
5.4.1 Elastic Collisions
An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy, as well as
momentum, of the two-colliding-body system is conserved. These
collisions exist when the impulsive force exerted by one body on the
other is conservative. Such force converts the kinetic energy of the body
into elastic potential energy when the two bodies are in contact. It then
reconverts the elastic potential energy into kinetic energy when there is
no more contact. After collision, each body may have a different velocity
and therefore a different kinetic energy. However, the total energy as
well as the total momentum of the system is constant during the time of
the collision. An example of such collisions is those between billiard
balls.

5.4.2 Inelastic Collisions


An inelastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy of the two-
colliding-body system is not conserved, although momentum is
conserved. In such a collision, some of the kinetic energy of the system
is lost due to deformation and appear as internal or thermal energy. In
other words, the (internal) impulsive forces are not conservative.
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the system before the collision is less
than that after the collision. If the two colliding objects stick together,
the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic. There are some types of
collisions in which the total kinetic energy after the collision occurs is
greater than that before it occurs. This type of collision is called an
explosive collision.

Fig. 5.4 Two particles of masses and experiencing an elastic head-on collision

5.4.3 Elastic Collision in One Dimension


When a collision takes place in one dimension, it is referred to as a
head-on collision. Consider two particles of masses and
experiencing an elastic head-on collision as in Fig. 5.4. Applying the law
of conservation of energy and the law of conservation of linear
momentum gives

Solving these equations for and , we get

(5.2)

(5.3)

5.4.3.1 Special Cases


1. If , it follows from Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3 that and
. In other words, if the particles have equal masses they
exchange velocities.
2. If is stationary , then from Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3, we have

(5.4)

(5.5)

In that case is called the target and is called the projectile.


Furthermore, if , then from Eqs. 5.4 and 5.5, we ind that
and . While if , then from Eqs. 5.4 and 5.5,
we see that , and
Fig. 5.5 A one dimensional (head-on) perfectly inelastic collision between two particles of mass
and

5.4.4 Inelastic Collision in One Dimension


Figure 5.5 shows a one-dimensional (head-on) perfectly inelastic
collision between two particles of mass and . Here, the kinetic
energy of the system is not conserved, but the law of conservation of
linear momentum still holds

5.4.5 Coef icient of Restitution


For any collision between two bodies in one dimension, the coef icient
of restitution is de ined as

where and are velocities before the collision. and are


velocities after the collision. is called the relative speed of
approach and is the relative speed of recession.

If the collision is perfectly elastic.


If the collision is inelastic.
If the collision is perfectly inelastic (the two bodies stick
together).

Example 5.7 Two marble balls of masses kg and kg


are sliding toward each other on a straight frictionless track. If they
experience a head-on elastic collision and if the initial velocities of
and are 0.5 to the right and 2 to the left, respectively, ind
the inal velocities of and

Solution 5.7
For an elastic head-on collision, we have

Example 5.8 The ballistic pendulum consists of a large wooden block


suspended by a light wire (see Fig. 5.6). The system is used to measure
the speed of a bullet where the bullet is ired horizontally into the
block. The collision is perfectly inelastic and the system (bullet block)
swings up a height h. If kg, and cm, ind (a) the
initial speed of the bullet; (b) the mechanical energy lost due to the
collision.
Fig. 5.6 The ballistic pendulum consists of a large wooden block suspended by a light wire

Solution 5.8
(a) Using the impulse approximation, the law of conservation of
momentum gives the velocities just before and after the collision when
the string is still nearly vertical. For a perfectly inelastic collision, the
total momentum is conserved but the total kinetic energy is not
conserved during the collision. Thus, we have

After the collision, the energy of the (bullet earth) system is


conserved since the gravitational force is the only force acting in the
system.

That gives
(b) The kinetic energy of the bullet before collision is

After collision, the kinetic energy of the (bullet block) is

therefore,

That is, nearly, all the mechanical energy is dissipated and converted
into internal (thermal) energy of the (block bullet) system.

Example 5.9 Two masses kg and kg are heading


toward each other with speeds of 0.25 and , respectively.
If they have a perfectly inelastic collision, ind the inal velocity of the
system just after the collision.

Solution 5.9

Example 5.10 Two blocks kg and kg collide head-on


with each other on a frictionless surface (see Fig. 5.7. If
and and the coef icient of restitution is ,
determine the inal velocities of the masses just after the collision.
Fig. 5.7 Two blocks colliding head-on on a frictionless surface

Solution 5.10

(5.6)
From the conservation of momentum, we have

That gives
(5.7)
Solving Eqs. 5.6 and 5.7 gives and

Example 5.11 A bullet is ired horizontally at the center of a


wooden block with a mass of . The bullet embeds itself in the
block and the two slides a distance of 0. on a rough surface
before coming to rest. Find the initial speed of the bullet.

Solution 5.11
Applying the law of conservation of momentum immediately before
and after the collision gives

by taking the (block bullet) as the system after the collision until it
comes to rest, we have

that gives

Hence,

5.4.6 Collision in Two Dimension


When a collision takes place in space, the total linear momentum is
conserved along each of the -, and z-directions. That is,
, and Here, we will analyze a two-
dimensional elastic collision between two particles where one particle
is moving and the other is at rest as shown in Fig. 5.8. This type of
collision is known as a glancing collision. Since the collision is elastic, it
follows that the total linear momentum as well as the kinetic energy of
the system are conserved. Applying these laws immediately before and
immediately after the collision, we have and or
and

From Fig. 5.8, we have

and

Furthermore,

Therefore, we have three equations and seven unknown quantities. By


knowing any four of these quantities, the three equations for the three
variables can be solved.

Fig. 5.8 A two dimensional elastic collision between two particles where one particle is moving
and the other is at rest

Example 5.12 A ball of mass of 2 kg is sliding along a horizontal


frictionless surface at a speed of 3 . It then collides with a second
ball of mass of 5 kg that is initially at rest. After the collision, the second
ball is de lected with a speed of 1 at an angle of below the
horizontal as shown in Fig. 5.9. (a) Find the inal velocity of the irst
ball; (b) show that the collision is inelastic; (c) suppose that the two
balls have equal masses and the collision is perfectly elastic, show that

Fig. 5.9 A ball sliding along a horizontal frictionless surface collides with a second ball that is
initially at rest

Solution 5.12
Applying the law of conservation of momentum immediately before
and after the collision in each direction gives and .
Thus,

Along the -direction, we have


Thus, the inal velocity of the irst ball is

The direction of the velocity is

(b) The total kinetic energy before the collision is

The total kinetic energy after the collision is

That is, some of the energy of the system is lost and thus the collision is
inelastic.
(c) In a perfectly elastic collision, both the total momentum and the
total mechanical energy of the system are conserved. That is

(5.8)
(5.9)
From the conservation of kinetic energy, we have

or
(5.10)
Substituting Eq. 5.8 into Eq. 5.9 gives

or

(5.11)

Substituting Eq. 5.11 into Eq. 5.10 gives

Therefore,

This is satis ied only if .


Fig. 5.10 A 1200 kg car traveling east at a speed of 18 collides with another car of mass of

2500 kg that is traveling north at a speed of 23

Example 5.13 A 1200 kg car traveling east at a speed of 18


collides with another car of mass of 2500 kg that is traveling north at a
speed of 23 as shown in Fig. 5.10. If the collision is perfectly
inelastic, how much mechanical energy is lost due to the collision?

Solution 5.13
The direction of is

from the positive -axis. The change in the kinetic energy of the system
is

5.5 Torque
Consider a force acting on a particle that has a position vector with
respect to some origin that is in an inertial frame. The torque is a
vector quantity that measures the tendency of that force to rotate the
particle about and is de ined as

The direction of is perpendicular to the plane formed by and


and its sense is given by the right-hand rule or of advance of a right-
handed screw rotating from to . From the vector product de inition,
this quantity has a magnitude given by
where is the smaller angle between and is positive if the force
tends to rotate the particle counterclockwise and negative if it tends to
rotate it clockwise. If or , the force is radial and thus it has
no rotating tendency. In component form, we may write

Let us consider a particle in the x–y plane exposed to a force that lies in
that plane (see Fig. 5.11). The resulting torque is then perpendicular to
the x–y plane parallel to the -axis. can also be written as

where is called the moment arm of where it represents


the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action
of as shown in Fig. 5.12. Note that because depends on , it follows
that depends on the choice of the origin O. The force can be
resolved into two components and . Since
the line of action of passes through it has no rotating effect.
Hence, is the only component of that causes rotation. The SI unit
of torque is the Newton-metre (N m). This unit is the same unit of work,
but they are different quantities and the torque should never be
expressed in joules.
Fig. 5.11 A particle in the x-y plane exposed to a force that lies in that plane. The resulting torque
is then perpendicular to the x-y plane parallel to the -axis

Fig. 5.12 is called the moment arm of and it represents the perpendicular

distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of


Example 5.14 A force acts on a

particle that has a position vector ind

the torque of the particle about the origin at

Solution 5.14

Evaluating this at gives

5.6 Angular Momentum


The angular momentum of a particle of mass m and linear
momentum is a vector quantity de ined as

where is the position vector of the particle relative to an origin


that is in an inertial frame. Therefore, as also depends on the
choice of the origin. Suppose the particle moves in the x–y plane (see
Fig. 5.13). The direction of is then perpendicular to the plane
containing and and its sense is found by the right-hand rule. The
magnitude of is given by
where is the smaller angle between and . This quantity is the
rotational analog of linear momentum in translational motion. If
or the particle will move along a line passing through and its
angular momentum is zero. The SI unit of angular momentum is
. In terms of rectangular components, we have

Fig. 5.13 If the particle is moving in the x-y plane, then the direction of is perpendicular to the
plane containing and and is found by the right-hand rule

5.6.1 Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form


From the de inition of torque, we have
(5.12)

This implies that the torque acting on a particle is equal to the time rate
of change of the angular momentum for that particle. This equation is
valid only if and are evaluated with respect to the same origin or
any other ixed point in an inertial frame. If several forces act on the
particle, Eq. 5.12 can be written as

where is the net torque on the particle. This is the rotational analog
of Newton’s second law in linear form, which states that the net force
acting on a particle is equal to the time rate of change of its linear
momentum. In component form, we have
and

5.6.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum


The total angular momentum of a particle is constant if the net external
torque acting on it is zero:
or

The law of conservation of angular momentum is a fundamental law of


physics and it holds in relativity and quantum mechanics. Thus, for an
isolated system, the linear momentum and angular momentum are
conserved.

Example 5.15 A cat watches a mouse of mass m run by, as shown in


Fig. 5.14. Determine the mouse’s angular momentum relative to the cat
as a function of time if the mouse has a constant acceleration a and if it
starts from rest.

Solution 5.15
Suppose the plane is the x–y plane. Since , we have

Fig. 5.14 A cat watching a mouse run by

Example 5.16 A 0.2 kg particle is moving in the x–y plane. If at a


certain instant and (see Fig. 5.15), ind the
magnitude and direction of the angular momentum of the particle at
that instant relative to the origin.

Solution 5.16

Fig. 5.15 A particle moving in the x-y plane

Example 5.17 A particle is moving under the in luence of a force given


by . Prove that the angular momentum of the particle is
conserved.

Solution 5.17

Since , it follows that the total angular momentum of the


particle is conserved. That is,

Example 5.18 A particle is moving in a circle where its position as a


function of time is given by the expression ,
where is a constant. Show that the total angular momentum of the
particle is constant.

Solution 5.18

Problems
1.
A tennis ball of mass of 0.06 kg is initially traveling at an angle of
to the horizontal at a speed of 45 . It then was shot by the
tennis player and return horizontally at a speed of 35 . Find
the impulse delivered to the ball.
2.
A force on a 0.5 kg particle varies with time according to Fig. 5.16.
Find (a) The impulse delivered to the particle, (b) the average
force exerted on the particle from to . The inal
velocity of the particle if its initial velocity is 2
3.
A 1 kg particle moves in a force ield given by
N. Find the impulse delivered to the

particle during the time interval from to


4. A boy of mass 45 kg runs and jump with a horizontal speed of 4.5
into a 70 kg cart that is initially at rest (see Fig. 5.17). Find
the inal velocity of the boy and the cart.
5.

A rubber ball of mass of 0.2 kg is dropped from a height of 2.2 .
It re- bounds to a height of 1.1 . Find (a) the coef icient of
restitution, (b) the energy lost due to impact.
6.
A 1200 kg car initially traveling at 12 due east collides with
another car of mass of 1600 kg that is initially at rest. If the cars
become entangled after the collision, ind the common inal speed
of the cars.
7.
Figure 5.18 shows a ball that strikes a smooth surface with a
velocity of 20 at an angle of with the horizontal. If the
coef icient of restitution for the impact between the ball and the
surface is , ind the magnitude and direction of the
velocity in which the ball rebounds from the surface. (Hint: use
the velocity components in the direction perpendicular to the
surface for the coef icient of restitution).
8.
Two gliders moving on a frictionless linear air track experience a
perfectly elastic collision (see Fig. 5.19). Find the velocity of each
glider after the collision.
9.
A bullet of mass of m is ired with a horizontal velocity v into a
block of mass M. The block is initially at rest on a frictionless
surface and is connected to a spring of force constant of k (see
Fig. 5.20). If the bullet embeds itself in the block causing the
spring to compress to a maximum distance d, ind the initial speed
of the bullet.
10.
A block moves along the -axis due to a force given by
(see Fig. 5.21). Find the torque on the block about (a) the origin
(b) point A.
11. A conical pendulum of mass m and length L is in uniform circular
motion with a velocity v (see Fig. 5.22). Find the angular
momentum and torque on the mass about O.

Fig. 5.16 A force acting on a particle varies with time

Fig. 5.17 A boy jumps on a cart that is initially at rest

Fig. 5.18 A ball bouncing off a smooth surface


Fig. 5.19 Two gliders moving on a frictionless linear air track experience a perfectly elastic
collision

Fig. 5.20 A bullet of mass of m is ired with a horizontal velocity v into a block of mass M

Fig. 5.21 A block moving along the y-axis subject to a force


Fig. 5.22 A conical pendulum of mass m and length L is in uniform circular motion with a velocity
v

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from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_6

6. System of Particles
Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

6.1 System of Particles


In the previous chapters, objects that can be treated as particles were
only considered. We have seen that this is possible only if all parts of
the object move in exactly the same way. An object that does not meet
this condition must be treated as a system of particles. Next, we will see
that the complex motion of this object or system of particles can be
represented by the motion of a point located at the center of mass of
the system. The center of mass moves as if all of the mass of the object
is concentrated there and as if the net external force acting on the
system is applied there (at the center of mass). As well as representing
an object by a particle, the concept of the center of mass is used to
analyze the motion of many systems such as a system of two colliding
blocks (particle-like objects) and the system of two colliding subatomic
particles such as the neutron with the nucleus.

6.2 Discrete and Continuous System of


Particles
6.2.1 Discrete System of Particles
A discrete system of particles is a system in which particles are
separated from each other.

6.2.2 Continuous System of Particles


A continuous system of particles is a system where the separation of
particles is very small such that it approaches zero. An extended object
is a continuous system of particles. Now, consider the skateboarder
example mentioned in Sect. 4. 3. It has been shown that the system
(man skateboard) cannot be treated as a particle since different parts
of the system move in different ways. By representing the skateboarder
as a system of particles its motion can be represented by the motion of
its center of mass, hence, the work–energy theorem can be applied to
that point. The work done by the force, exerted on the skateboarder by
the bar, is not zero because the point of application of that force (which
is at the center of mass) has moved.

6.3 The Center of Mass of a System of Particles


For a system of particles of total mass M the acceleration of its center of
mass is given by

6.3.1 Two Particle System


Consider two particles of masses and moving in space. Suppose
that their position vectors at a particular instant of time are given by
and as shown in Fig. 6.1. The center of mass of the system lies
somewhere along the line joining the two particles and its position
vector is given by

The x, y and z components of the center of mass is


and

Fig. 6.1 Two particles of masses and moving in space. Their position vectors at a

particular instant of time are given by and


Fig. 6.2 A discrete system of particles consisting of n particles

6.3.2 Discrete System of Particles


Consider a discrete system of particles consisting of n particles (see
Fig. 6.2). The position vector of the center of mass at a particular
instant is given by

where is the position vector of the ith particle and is the

total mass of the system. In component form, can be written as

The x, y and z components of the center of mass vector are


and

Example 6.1 Find the center of mass of the system shown in Fig. 6.3
where the three particles have an equal mass of

Solution 6.1

Fig. 6.3 The center of mass of a system in the x-y plane

Example 6.2 A system of particles consists of three masses


kg, kg and kg located at , and
, respectively. Find the position vector of the center of mass
of the system.

Solution 6.2
The position vector of each particle is

and

The center of mass of the system is

That gives

6.3.3 Continuous System of Particles (Extended Object)


A continuous system of particles is a system consisting of a large
number of particles separated by very small distances. Consider an
extended object of mass M divided into small volume elements each of
mass and a vector position (see Fig. 6.4). The position vector of
the center of mass at a particular instant is then approximately given by

For a very large number of particles where we have ,


that gives
Since , the x, y and z components of the center of mass
are given by

and

Fig. 6.4 An extended object of mass M divided into small volume elements each of mass and

a vector position

6.3.4 Elastic and Rigid Bodies


A body is called an elastic (deformable) body if the separation between
its particles changes when a force is applied to it. This change or
deformation is sometimes so small that it can be neglected. A body that
behaves in this way is called a rigid body. A rigid body can be de ined as
a body in which the separation between its particles remain constant
with time despite the applied force, i.e., the body has a constant size
and shape. Therefore, the center of mass of a rigid object remains ixed
at the same location at all times. In this book, only rigid bodies are
discussed. In solving problems, it is common to use the volume density
de ined as the mass per unit volume given by

Therefore, the total mass of a rigid object is

The center of mass of a rigid object can thus be written as

may be a function of position, i.e., it can vary from point to point in


the body If the body has a uniform density (homogeneous body), then
can be written as

If the continuous distribution of particles occupies a surface, then the


surface density is used and is given by
If the particles occupy a curve or a line, the linear density is used
given by

The center of mass of any homogeneous symmetric object is at its


geometrical center and it is not necessarily located within the object.

Example 6.3 A thin rod of length has a linear density that


increases with x according to the expression (see
Fig. 6.5). Locate the center of mass of the rod relative to O.

Solution 6.3

Substituting gives
Fig. 6.5 A thin rod of length has a linear density that increases with x

Fig. 6.6 A uniform square sheet suspended by a uniform rod where they both lie in the same
plane

Example 6.4 A uniform square sheet is suspended by a uniform rod


where they both lie in the same plane as shown in Fig. 6.6. Find the
center of mass of the system.

Solution 6.4
Because the sheet and the rod are homogeneous, the center of mass of
each is at its geometric center. Since the center of the sheet is at the
origin we have
Example 6.5 Find the center of mass of the rectangular plate shown in
Fig. 6.7. The plate has a uniform surface density

Solution 6.5
Method 1:

Hence

Method 2:
Dividing the plate into very thin rods each of mass gives

Similarly by dividing the plate into thin horizontal rods each of mass
gives
and

Fig. 6.7 The center of mass of a rectangular plate

Example 6.6 An object of uniform surface density and mass M has


the shape shown in Fig. 6.8 (half of an ellipse). Find the center of mass
of the object.

Solution 6.6
The equation of an ellipse is

therefore

or
By dividing the area into very thin rectangles each of mass gives

To obtain the y coordinate of the center of mass we divide the area into
very thin rectangles each of mass as in Fig. 6.8. That gives

Fig. 6.8 The center of mass of half an ellipse


Example 6.7 Determine the center of mass of the cylindrical shell
shown in Fig. 6.9. The shell has a uniform surface density

Solution 6.7
From symmetry, the center of mass lies on the -axis. By dividing the
shell into very thin rings each of mass we have

Fig. 6.9 The center of mass of a cylindrical shell

Example 6.8 A boy standing on a smooth ice surface wants to fetch a


container that is at a distance of 10 away from him. To do that, he
throws a rope around the container and start to pull. Because the
surface is smooth, both the boy and the container will move until they
meet. If the masses of the boy and of the container are 40 kg and 70 kg
respectively, how far will the container move when the boy has moved a
distance of 2 ?

Fig. 6.10 A boy pulling a container on a smooth surface

Solution 6.8
By taking the midpoint between the boy and the container as the origin
(see Fig. 6.10) and by neglecting the mass of the rope, the center of
mass of the system is

Because the surface may be assumed to be frictionless, the resultant


external force on the system is zero and therefore the center of mass
must remain stationary at all times. Hence, if the boy has moved a
distance of 2 , he will be at a distance of from the origin. Thus,
we have
That gives , therefore the distance moved by the container
towards the center of mass is

Example 6.9 A boy is standing at the rear of a boat as shown in


Fig. 6.11. The masses of the boy and of the boat are 45 kg and 80 kg
respectively Find the distance that the boat would move relative to the
origin if the boy moves a distance of lm from the rear of the boat (the
length of the boat is ).

Fig. 6.11 A boy walking on a small boat

Solution 6.9
By neglecting air and water resistance, the net external force on the
boat) system is zero. Therefore the center of mass of the system
must remain at rest. Suppose that the boat is a symmetrical
homogeneous object where its center of mass is at its geometrical
center. The center of mass of the boat is therefore at a distance of 2.5
from the origin. Thus, the center of mass of the system is
If the boy moves a distance of 1 , the center of mass is still at the
same position, and we have

That gives . Thus, the displacement of the center of mass of


the boat is

6.3.5 Velocity of the Center of Mass


The velocity of the center of mass of a system of particles that has a
constant mass M is

where , or

(6.1)

where is the ith particle velocity. The acceleration of the center of


mass is given by

(6.2)
where is the acceleration of the ith particle.

6.3.6 Momentum of a System of Particles


The total linear momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of
the linear momenta of the individual particles:

(6.3)

By using Eq. 6.1


(6.4)

Example 6.10 Two particles of masses kg and kg have


position vectors given by and
respectively where t is time. Determine the velocity and linear
momentum of the center of mass of the two- particle system at any time
and at

Solution 6.10

That gives
The total linear momentum is

at

and

6.3.7 Motion of a System of Particles


From Newton’s second law Eq. 6.2 can be written as

(6.5)

where is the net force acting on the ith particle. If both the external
forces on the system and the internal forces between the particles in
the system are included, then may be written as

(6.6)

Where is the resultant external force acting on the ith particle.


is the internal force exerted on the ith particle by the jth particle. Note
that it is as- sumed that no force is exerted on the particle by itself, i.e.,
. Substituting Eq. 6.6 into Eq. 6.5 gives:

(6.7)

Now, from Newton’s third law we have

Therefore, the second term in Eq. 6.7 is equal to zero. Hence the net
force acting on the system is due only to external forces. That gives

where is the resultant external force on the center of mass, i.e.,

By differentiating Eq. 6.4 with respect to time we have

thus

Thus, the net external force acting on a system of particles is equal to


the time rate of change of the total linear momentum of the system.

6.3.8 Conservation of Momentum


For an isolated system of particles, we have

Thus
and

Which is the law of conservation of linear momentum for a system of


particles.

6.3.9 Angular Momentum of a System of Particles


The angular momentum of a system of particles about a ixed point
is the vector sum of angular momenta of the individual particles:

6.3.10 The Total Torque on a System


The total torque acting on a particle in a system is the sum of torques
associated with the internal forces and of torques associated with
external forces. Using Eq. 6.6 we have

Summing over we get

(6.8)

By using Newton’s third law of action and reaction, the double sum in
Eq. 6.8 has terms of the form

Now, suppose that the internal forces between the two particles lie
along the line joining the particles (i.e., the vectors and
have the same direction). This condition is known as the strong law of
action and reaction. It requires the internal forces to be central. If the
internal forces are equal and opposite but not central, then they are
said to satisfy the weak law of action and reaction. The force of gravity
is an example of a force satisfying the strong law of action and reaction.
Some forces such as the forces between two moving charges are not
central. From this, it follows that the double summation in Eq. 6.8 is
equal to zero.

Therefore, the total torque on the system about the origin is only the
torque associated with external forces

(6.9)

6.3.11 The Angular Momentum and the Total External


Torque
The angular momentum of the individual particles may change with
time. This will change the total angular momentum of the system

Eq. 6.9 may be written as

i.e., the net external torque about some origin exerted on a system of
particles is equal to the time rate of change of the total angular
momentum of the system.

6.3.12 Conservation of Angular Momentum


If
or

Hence, if the resultant external torque acting on a system is zero, the


total angular momentum remains constant.

6.3.13 Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles


The total kinetic energy of a system of particles is the sum of the kinetic
energies of the individual particles

6.3.14 Work
Since the total force acting on the ith particle is given by

then the total work done on such particle is given by

6.3.15 Work–Energy Theorem


The total work done in moving a system from one state to another is
Since

it follows that

where is the total kinetic energy of the system.

6.3.16 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy of a


System of Particles
Consider a system of particles in which the external and internal forces
acting on the system are conservative. First, let us calculate the work
done by the internal conservative forces. Suppose that is the
conservative force acting on the ith particle due to the jth particle and
is the force acting on the jth particle due to the ith particle. Note that
and form an action and reaction pair, i.e., . Because
these forces are conservative there is a potential energy associated with
each force. That is,

and

From the law of action and reaction, is a function only of the


distance between the particles. That is
or

where is the distance between the ith and jth


particles. The work done by each pair of forces in displacing the ith and
jth particles through and , respectively, is

Hence, the total work done by the internal conservative forces in


moving the system from stage 1 to stage 2 is

The factor 1/2 occurs since each term in the summation appears twice.
Now, consider the total work done by the external conservative forces

To show that energy is conserved when both the external and internal
forces are conservative, we may de ine a total potential of the system as

From the work–energy theorem, the work done by the total force
acting on the ith particle is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of
that particle

and since

From this, we conclude that for a system of particles in which the


internal and external forces are conservative, the total mechanical
energy of the system is conserved

or

or

Thus

6.3.17 Impulse
In Sect. 6.3.7, we have seen that the net external force on a system of
particles is equal to the rate of change of the total linear momentum of
the system

The total linear impulse on the system as the system goes from one
state to another is de ined as
That is, the total linear impulse on the system is equal to the change in
the total momentum of the system.

6.4 Motion Relative to the Center of Mass


The motion of a system of particles is sometimes described relative to
the center of mass of the system. This method is used in some problems
to simplify the analysis and add a particular symmetry to it.

Fig. 6.12 The position vector of the ith particle relative to the center of mass

6.4.1 The Total Linear Momentum of a System of Particles


Relative to the Center of Mass
The position vector of the center of mass of the system with respect to
an origin in an inertial frame of reference (for example, the lab frame) is
given by

(6.10)

From Fig. 6.12, the position vector of the ith particle relative to the
center of mass is
or
(6.11)
Where is the position vector of the ith particle relative to the origin
O. Substituting Eq. 6.11 into Eq. 6.10 gives

therefore

That gives

(6.12)

Differentiating Eq. 6.12 with respect to t gives

(6.13)

or

or
That is, the total linear momentum of the system is zero when observed
from the center of mass frame.

6.4.2 The Total Angular Momentum About the Center of


Mass
By differentiating Eq. 6.11 with respect to time gives
(6.14)
where and are the velocities of the particle relative to the origin
and the center of mass respectively is the velocity of the center
of mass relative to O. The angular momentum of the system about the
origin is

The second and third terms are zero followed from Eqs. 6.12 and 6.13
where and , hence

Thus, the total angular momentum of the system of particles about an


origin equals the angular momentum of the system about the center
of mass plus the angular momentum of the center of mass about O.
Therefore, the total angular momentum about the center of mass is

(6.15)
6.4.3 The Total Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles
About the Center of Mass
The total kinetic energy of a system of particles relative to an origin in
an inertial frame of reference is given by

From Eq. 6.14 we have

From Eq. 6.13, the term in brackets in the second term is equal to zero.
Hence

That is the total kinetic energy of a system of particles about an origin


is equal to the kinetic energy of the system with respect to the center of
mass plus the kinetic energy of the center of mass relative to the origin
O. Therefore, the total kinetic energy of the system with respect to the
center of mass is

6.4.4 Total Torque on a System of Particles About the


Center of Mass of the System
The total torque acting on a system of particles about the center of
mass is (from theorem (5.6.1)) equal to the time rate of change of the
angular momentum of the system about the center of mass. That is,

Example 6.11 Two particles of masses kg and kg are


moving in the x-y plane. Their position vectors relative to the origin are
and where t is time. Find: (a) the

total angular momentum of the system; the total external torque acting
on the system; and the total kinetic energy of the system all relative to
the origin at any time; (b) repeat (a) relative to the center of mass.

Solution 6.11
(a)

The total angular momentum of the system relative to the origin is

that gives

The total kinetic energy of the system relative to is

The net external torque about the origin is


(b) To ind the total angular momentum relative to the center of mass
let’s ind irst the total angular momentum of the center of mass
relative to the origin

The velocity of the center of mass is

and the total angular momentum of the center of mass relative to is

From Eq. 6.15, the total angular momentum relative to the center of
mass is

The net external torque about the center of mass is


The total kinetic energy of the system relative to the center of mass
is

Example 6.12 Two particles of equal mass m are rotating about their
center of mass with a constant speed v as in Fig. 6.13. If they are
separated by a distance 2d, ind the total angular momentum of the
system.

Solution 6.12
Fig. 6.13 Two particles rotating about their center of mass

6.4.5 Collisions and the Center of Mass Frame of Reference


In problems involving collisions, it is useful to use an inertial frame of
reference that is attached to the center of mass to analyze the collision.
This method is most commonly used in analyzing collisions between
subatomic particles or atoms. In section (6.4.1), we proved that the
total linear momentum of a system when observed from the center of
mass frame is equal to zero.
(6.16)
Now consider a system consisting of two bodies undergoing a one-
dimensional collision (see Fig. 6.14). Then from Eq. 6.16 we have

and
That is, when viewed from the center of mass frame the two objects
approach each other with equal and opposite momenta and move away
from each other with an equal and opposite momenta. Therefore, the
center of mass frame simpli ies the analysis since it exhibits a particular
symmetry to the problem (see Fig. 6.15).

Fig. 6.14 Consider a system consisting of two bodies undergoing a one-dimensional collision

Fig. 6.15 The center of mass frame analysis of a collision


Fig. 6.16 A rocket is projected vertically upward and explodes into three fragments of equal mass
when it reaches the top of its light at an altitude of 40

Example 6.13 A rocket is projected vertically upward and explodes


into three fragments of equal mass when it reaches the top of its light
at an altitude of 40 (see Fig. 6.16). If the two fragments land to the
ground after 3 from the explosion, ind the time it takes the third
fragment to hit the ground.

Solution 6.13
When the rocket reaches the top its velocity immediately before
explosion is zero. Since and are the velocities of the fragments
immediately after explosion, we have from the conservation of
momentum

Since , then . The irst and second


fragments land at the same time and hence they have the same
vertical velocity initially which is equal to . Therefore

and
That gives

and

Substituting the values of h and gives

Thus,

Example 6.14 Find the center of mass of the Earth–Moon System and
describe its motion around the sun.

Fig. 6.17 The center of mass of the Earth-Moon system

Solution 6.14
As we shall see in Chap. 9, the center of mass of two bodies with
different masses moving under gravity will trace an ellipse. Since the
external forces on the sun can be neglected, we may consider it to be at
rest in an inertial frame of reference and at the origin of a coordinate
system (see Fig. 6.17). The center of mass of the Earth–Moon system is
where and are unit vectors in the direction of and
respectively. The equation of motion of the center of mass is

The gravitational force on the Earth–Moon system exerted by the sun is

Since the distance between the earth and the moon is so small
compared to their distance from the sun we may write

Hence, the center of mass of the Earth–Moon system moves as a single


planet of mass about the sun as shown in Fig. 6.18.

Fig. 6.18 The center of mass of the Earth-Moon system moves as a single planet of mass
about the sun

Example 6.15 Describe the motion of a rocket in space using the law of
conservation of momentum.
Fig. 6.19 A rocket moving in space is a system with varying mass. Its motion is analyzed using the
law of conservation of momentum

Solution 6.15
A rocket moving in space is a system with varying mass. Its motion is
analyzed using the law of conservation of momentum. In order for a
rocket to move in space, its fuel is burned and gases are produced and
ejected from its rear. This will cause the mass of the rocket to decrease
continuously The ejected gases produce momentum in the backward
direction and as a result the rocket receives a forward momentum and
its velocity increases (see Fig. 6.19). Suppose at an instant t, the rocket
has a mass M and velocity v relative to a stationary frame of reference.
During a time interval t, a mass of the fuel is expelled as gas with a
velocity u relative to the rocket. The speed of the rocket increases to
and the speed of the fuel relative to the stationary frame of
reference is . The initial momentum of the rocket is

and the inal momentum is

The change in the momentum is

Therefore, the force acting on the rocket is


Since the increase in the exhaust mass produce an equal decrease in the
rocket mass, we have

Thus

If no external forces act on the rocket we have and

hence

That gives

Therefore, the inal speed of the rocket depends on the exhaust speed
and on the ratio of the initial and inal masses.
Fig. 6.20 A system of particles in x-y plane

Fig. 6.21 A homogenous sheet with a hole


Fig. 6.22 A homogenous sheet in the x-y plane

Problems
1.
Find the coordinate of the center of mass of the system shown in
Fig. 6.20.
2.
Find the center of mass of a uniform plate bounded by
and the -axis from to

3.
Find the center of mass of the homogeneous sheet shown in
Fig. 6.21.
4.
Find the center of mass of the homogeneous sheet shown in
Fig. 6.22.
5.
Find the center of mass of a uniform solid circular cone of radius a
and height h.
6.
Find the center of mass of a uniform solid hemisphere of radius R.
7.
Two masses initially at rest are located at the points shown in
Fig. 6.23. If external forces act on the particles as in Fig. 6.23, ind
the acceleration of the center of mass.
A projectile of mass 15 kg is ired from the ground with an initial
p j g g
8. velocity of 12 at an angle of to the horizontal. 1 second

later, the projectile explodes into two fragments A and B. If
immediately after explosion, fragment A has a mass of 5 kg and a

speed of 5 at an angle of to the horizontal, ind the


velocity of fragment B (assuming air resistance is neglected).
9.
Two boys of masses 45 and 40 kg are standing on a boat of mass
150 kg and length 5 as in Fig. 6.24. The boat is initially lm from
the pier. Assuming that there is no friction between the boat and
the water, ind the distance moved by the boat when the two meet
at the middle of the boat.
10.
Two particles of masses kg and kg are moving
relative to the lab frame with velocities of 10 along the -
axis and 15 at an angle of to the -axis. Find (a) the
velocity of their center of mass (b) the momentum of each particle
in the center of mass frame (c) the total kinetic energy of the
particles relative to the lab frame and relative to the center of
mass frame.
11.
Two particles of masses kg and kg are moving
relative to the lab frame with velocities of and
. If at a certain instant they are located at
and (3, 0, 1) , ind the angular momentum of the system
relative to the origin and relative to the center of mass.
Fig. 6.23 The acceleration of the center of mass of two masses acted upon by different forces

Fig. 6.24 By neglecting friction between the boat and water, the center of mass can be used to
ind the distance moved by the boat

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
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license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_7

7. Rotation of Rigid Bodies


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

7.1 Rotational Motion


Rotational motion exists everywhere in the universe. The motion of
electrons about an atom and the motion of the moon about the earth are
examples of rotational motion. Objects cannot be treated as particles when
exhibiting rotational motion since different parts of the object move with
different velocities and accelerations. Therefore, it is necessary to treat the
object as a system of particles.

7.2 The Plane Motion of a Rigid Body


When all parts of a rigid body move parallel to a ixed plane, then the
motion of the object is referred to as plane motion. There are two types of
plane motion, which are given as follows:
1.
The pure rotational motion: The rigid body in such a motion rotates
about a ixed axis that is perpendicular to a ixed plane. In other words,
the axis is ixed and does not move or change its direction relative to an
inertial frame of reference.
2. The general plane motion: The motion here can be considered as a
combination of pure translational motion parallel to a ixed plane in
addition to a pure rotational motion about an axis that is perpendicular
to that plane. This chapter discusses the kinematics and dynamics of
pure rotational motion.
pu e otat o a ot o

7.2.1 The Rotational Variables


Suppose a rigid body of an arbitrary shape is in pure rotational motion
about the -axis (see Fig. 7.1). Let us analyze the motion of a particle that
lies in a slice of the body in the x-y plane as in Fig. 7.2. This particle (at point
P) will rotate in a circle of ixed radius r which represents the perpendicular
distance from to the axis of rotation. If you look at any other particle in
the object you will see that every particle will rotate in its own circle that
has the axis of rotation at its center. In other words, different particles move
in different circles but the center of all of these circles lies on the rotational
axis. Suppose the particle moves through an arc length s starting at the
positive -axis. Its angular position is then given by

r and are the polar coordinates of a point in a plane (which was


mentioned in Sect. 2.6) where is always measured from the positive -
axis. Because is the ratio of the arc length to the radius, it is a pure
(dimensionless) number. The unit usually used to measure is the radians
(rad). One radian is de ined as the angle subtended by an arc of length that
is equal to the radius of the circle. Since one rotation ( ) corresponds to
rad, it follows that:

Note that if the particle completes one revolution, will not become zero
again, it is then equal to . Thus for example for three revolutions the
angular position is given by

Suppose that the particle in Fig. 7.2 is at point at and at point at


where it changes its angular position from to (see Fig. 7.3). Its angular
displacement is then given by

is positive for counterclockwise rotations (increasing ) and negative


for clockwise rotations (decreasing ). If the particle undergoes this
angular displacement during a time interval , the average angular
velocity is then de ined as

The instantaneous angular velocity is

Fig. 7.1 A rigid body of an arbitrary shape is in pure rotational motion about the -axis
Fig. 7.2 The motion of a particle that lies in a slice of the body in the x-y plane

Fig. 7.3 The particle is at point at and at at , where it changes its angular position from

to

has units of or . The average angular acceleration is de ined as


The instantaneous angular acceleration is

where is in or . Note that is positive for increasing and

negative for decreasing , while is positive for increasing and negative


for decreasing . When a rigid body is in pure rotational motion, all
particles in the body rotate through the same angle during the same time
interval. Thus, all particles have the same angular velocity and the same
angular acceleration. Therefore, and describes the motion of the whole
body In the case of pure rotational motion, the direction of is along the
axis of rotation (also see Sect. 7.4), it can be determined by the right-hand
rule or of advance of a right-handed screw as in Fig. 7.4. The direction of
is in the same direction of if is increasing or in the opposite direction if
is decreasing.
The quantities and in pure rotational motion are the rotational
analog of x, v and a in translational one-dimensional motion. The vectors
and are not used in the case of pure rotational motion, they are used in
the general rotational motion when the axis of rotation changes its direction
with time. Note that only the in initesimal angular displacement can be
represented by a vector but not the inite angular displacement . This is
because the inite angular displacement does not obey the commutative
law of vector addition (see Fig. 7.5) and therefore cannot be represented by
a vector. Hence, the instantaneous angular velocity and acceleration ( and
) can be represented by vectors but not their average values ( and ).
Fig. 7.4 The direction of is along the axis of rotation and can be determined by the right-hand rule

or of advance of a right-handed screw


Fig. 7.5 Changing the order of addition will change the inal result

Example 7.1 Convert each of the following into the other angular units:
, 0.25 , 3

Solution 7.1
Example 7.2 A rotating rigid object has an angular position given by
rad. Determine: (a) the angular displacement of

the object and the average angular velocity during the time interval from
to . (b) the instantaneous angular velocity and the
instantaneous angular acceleration at .

Solution 7.2
(a)

and

(b)

at
at

Example 7.3 A wheel is rotating with an angular acceleration that is given


by . (a) Find the angular velocity and displacement at

any time if at the wheel has an angular velocity of 2 and an


(initial) angular displacement of 3 rad; (b) at what angular displacement
will the wheel reach its maximum angular velocity

Solution 7.3
(a)

Since at , we have and hence

Since at , then rad and

(b) The maximum velocity is when , or , i.e. at


The angular displacement at that time is
7.3 Rotational Motion with Constant Acceleration
A pure rotational motion with constant angular acceleration is the
rotational analogue of the pure translational motion with constant
acceleration. The corresponding kinematic equations of pure rotational
motion can be obtained by using the same method that is used for obtaining
the kinematic equations of pure translational motion. To show this, consider
a rigid object rotating with a constant angular acceleration during a time
interval from to through an angle from to . Let
, and Because the angular
acceleration is constant it follows that the angular velocity changes linearly
with time and the average angular velocity is given by

Since

we have
(7.1)
Furthermore

Hence

(7.2)

Substituting Eq. 7.1 into Eq. 7.2 gives

or
(7.3)
Finally solving for t from Eq. 7.1 and substituting into Eq. 7.2 gives

or
(7.4)
Note that as mentioned earlier, if a rigid object is in pure rotational motion,
all particles in the object have the same angular velocity and angular
acceleration. Different particles move in different circles but the center of
these circles lies at the axis of rotation. As the rigid body rotates, a particle
in the body will move through a distance s along its circular path (see
Fig. 7.6). The angular displacement of the particle is related to s by

where r is the radius of the circle in which the particle is moving along.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to t gives

Since ds / dt is the magnitude of the linear velocity of the particle and


is the angular velocity of the body we may write
(7.5)
Therefore, the farther the particle is from the rotational axis the greater its
linear speed. The direction of the linear speed of the particles is always
tangent to the path (as mentioned in Sect. 2.2.3). In Sect. 2.4.6 we have seen
that a particle in nonuniform circular motion has both tangential and radial
components of acceleration. The radial component is due to the change in
the direction of the velocity and is given by

(7.6)

Substituting Eq. 7.5 into Eq. 7.6 gives


The tangential component of the acceleration is due to the change in the
magnitude of the velocity and it is given by

or

The total linear acceleration of the particle (see Fig. 7.7) is given by

It’s magnitude is given by

Table. 7.1 shows the linear/rotational analogous equations.

Fig. 7.6 As the rigid body rotates, a particle in the body will move through a distance s along its circular
path
Fig. 7.7 The total acceleration of the particle

Table 7.1 Kinematic equations

Rotational motion about a ixed axis with constant Linear motion with constant a

Example 7.4 A disc of radius of 10 cm rotates from rest with a constant


angular acceleration. If it requires 2 for it to rotate through an angular
displacement of : (a) ind the angular acceleration of the disc; (b) its
angular velocity at and at the linear speed at of a
point that is at a distance of 7 cm from the center of the disc; (d) the
distance that this point has moved during that time interval.

Solution 7.4
(a) We have and rad. By
choosing the reference position we have

(b)

at

(c)

(d)

Example 7.5 Two sprockets are attached to each other as in Fig. 7.8. There
radii are cm and cm. If the angular velocity of the smaller
sprocket is 2 ind the angular velocity of the other.

Solution 7.5
A point at the rim of one sprocket has the same linear speed as a point at
the rim of the other sprocket since they are attached to each other, i.e.,

hence
Fig. 7.8 Two sprockets connected at the rim

Example 7.6 Find the angular speed of the moon in its orbit about the
earth in rev/day.

Solution 7.6
Assuming that the moon’s orbit is circular, the linear speed of the moon is
given by , where r is the mean distance from the earth to the
moon and T is its period. Thus, the angular velocity of the moon is

or

7.4 Vector Relationship Between Angular and


Linear Variables
Consider a rigid body in pure rotational motion about a ixed axis (for
example the -axis). For any particle in the object, its linear velocity is given
by

where is the position vector of the particle from the origin (see Fig. 7.9)
and is the angle between the position vector and the -axis. As shown in
Fig. 7.9, the direction of is perpendicular to the plane formed by and
where it can be veri ied using the right-hand rule. Therefore, by using the
de inition of vector product we may write
(7.7)
The total linear acceleration is

From Sect. 1.9.1 we have

Furthermore, the direction of is tangent to the circular path of the


particle at any instant (see Fig. 7.9). Thus the quantity is just the
tangential component of the total acceleration
(7.8)
In addition

The direction of is along the direction of (radial direction). Hence,


the quantity is the radial component of the total acceleration

(7.9)
Equations 7.7–7.9 are the vector relationship between angular and linear
quantities.
Fig. 7.9 A rigid body in pure rotational motion about a ixed axis (here the -axis)

7.5 Rotational Energy


In Chap. 6 we have seen that the kinetic energy of a discrete system of
particles is where and are the mass and linear

velocity of the ith particle respectively (see Fig. 7.10). From Eq. 7.5, we have

where is the perpendicular distance from the particle to the axis of


rotation. Therefore the total kinetic energy of the system is

The quantity between brackets is known as the moment of inertia of the


system
This quantity shows how the mass of the system is distributed about the
axis of rotation. Thus, to ind the rotational inertia, the axis of rotation must
be speci ied. If the rotational axis changes its position or direction, I changes
as well. The SI unit of the moment of inertia is kg . The rotational kinetic
energy can thus be written as

This quantity is the rotational analogue of the kinetic energy in translational


motion. Note that this energy is not a new kind of energy; it is just the sum
of the translational kinetic energies of the particles. For a rigid body which
is a continuous system of particles, the sum is replaced by an integral

In solving problems , and (see Sect. 6.3.4) are often used to express
dm in terms of its position coordinates.

Fig. 7.10 A system of particles rotating about the z-axis


7.6 The Parallel-Axis Theorem
The parallel-axis theorem states that the moment of inertia I of a system
about any axis that is parallel to an axis passing through the center of mass
is

where is the moment of inertia about an axis passing through the center
of mass, M is the total mass of the system, and D is the perpendicular
distance between the two parallel axes.

Fig. 7.11 The Parallel-axis Theorem

Proof
Consider an axis that is perpendicular to the page and passing through the
center of mass of the object. Figure 7.11 shows a thin slice of the object that
lies in the x-y plane. Because the origin is taken at the center of mass we
have
The moment of inertia of the object about the center of mass axis is

where x and y are the coordinates of the mass element dm from the center
of mass (the origin). Now consider another axis that is parallel to the irst
axis and that passes through a point as shown in Fig. 7.11. Suppose that
the and coordinates of from the center of mass are and . The
moment of inertia about an axis passing through is

where and are coordinates of dm from point P Expanding


this equation gives

Since and since

and

it follows that the second and third terms are zero. Thus

where

is the perpendicular distance between the two parallel axes. Hence


Special Moment of Inertia Fig. 7.12 gives the rotational inertia of various
rigid bodies of uniform density.

Fig. 7.12 The rotational inertia of various rigid bodies of uniform density
7.7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating
about a Fixed Axis
Consider a rigid body rotating about a ixed axis (the -axis) with an
angular speed as shown in Fig. 7.13. The angular momentum of the ith
particle with respect to the origin is given by

Fig. 7.13 A rigid body rotating about a ixed axis (the -axis) with an angular speed

Since the angle between and is 90, then . As seen from


Fig. 7.13, is not parallel to . can be analyzed to two components,
component parallel to written and a component perpendicular to
, . The magnitude of is given by
where is the radius of the circle in which the particle is moving along and
. Therefore, the total angular momentum of the rigid body along
the -direction is

where I is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the rotational axis
(z-axis). This equation can also be written in component form since is
parallel to , that is,

(7.10)
Therefore, if a rigid body is rotating about a ixed axis (say the -axis), the
component of the angular momentum along that axis is given by Eq. 7.10.
Now suppose that the rigid body is symmetric and homogeneous and that it
is rotating about its symmetrical axis (see Fig. 7.14). For any two particles
(1 and 2) opposing each other with an equal angular momenta and ,
the perpendicular components, and , of the angular momenta
cancel each other out since they are in opposite directions. That leaves the
parallel components and which add up since they have the same
direction. For all particles in the object the total angular momentum is,
therefore, given by

Hence, the total angular momentum of a symmetrical homogeneous body in


pure rotation about its symmetrical axis is given by
(7.11)
Note that Eq. 7.10 is valid for any rigid object in pure rotation where it only
gives the component of the angular momentum that is parallel to the
rotational axis. On the other hand, Eq. 7.11 is valid only for a symmetrical
homogeneous rigid object rotating about its symmetrical axis, where the
angular momentum in the equation is the total angular momentum and it is
directed along the axis of rotation. The net external torque acing on the
rigid object is equal to the rate of change of the total angular momentum of
the object, i.e.,

In the case of any rigid object symmetrical or not, the net external torque
acting on the object about the axis of rotation (say the -axis) is equal to the
rate of change of the component of angular momentum that is along that
axis

However, if the object is symmetric and homogeneous in pure rotation


about its symmetrical axis we may write

Fig. 7.14 A homogenous symmetrical rigid body rotating about its symmetrical axis
Example 7.7 A 5 kg wheel of radius of 0.1 decelerates from an angular
speed of 5 to rest after going through an angular displacement of 10
rev If a frictional force causes the wheel to decelerate, ind the torque due to
this force.

Solution 7.7
The angular displacement is

The angular acceleration of the wheel is

The external torque is

Fig. 7.15 Three masses connected by massless rods

Example 7.8 Three masses are connected by massless rods as in Fig. 7.15.
If ind the moment of inertia of the system and the
corresponding kinetic energy if it rotates with an angular speed of 5
about: (a) the -axis; (b) the -axis and; (c) the -axis .

Solution 7.8
(a)

(b)

(c)

Example 7.9 Fig. 7.16 shows a uniform thin rod of mass M and length L.
Find the moment of inertia of the rod about an axis that is perpendicular to
it and passing through: (a) the center of mass; (b) at one end; (c) at a
distance of L / 6 from one end.

Solution 7.9
(a) The mass dm of an element in the rod is
(b)

(c)

Fig. 7.16 A uniform thin rod of mass M and length L

Example 7.10 Fig. 7.17 shows a uniform thin plate of mass M and surface
density . Find the moment of inertia of the plate about an axis passing
through its center of mass if its length is b and its width is a (the -axis).

Solution 7.10
A mass element dm has an area dxdy and is at a distance from

the axis of rotation. Therefore, we have

Fig. 7.17 A uniform thin plate of mass M and surface density

Example 7.11 Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid cylinder of


radius R, length L and mass M about its axis of symmetry.
Fig. 7.18 Calculating the moment of inertia of a uniform solid cylinder with the volume element
de ined in different ways

Solution 7.11
Method 1: Using a single integration by dividing the cylinder into thin
cylindrical shells each of radius r, length L and thickness dr as in Fig. 7.18,
then each volume element is given by

and

Since

then

Method 2: Using double integration: dividing the cylinder into thin rods
each of mass

Since

We have

Method 3: Using triple integration Dividing the cylinder into small cubes
each of mass given by
Since

Therefore,

Example 7.12 Three rods of length L and mass M are connected together
as in Fig. 7.19. Determine the moment of inertia of the system about an axis
passing through and perpendicular to the page (the rods lie in the same
plane).

Solution 7.12
The moment of inertia of a thin rod about an axis that is perpendicular to it
and passing through one end is . The total moment of inertia at

is the sum of the moment of inertias of the rods, i.e.,


Fig. 7.19 Three rods of length L and mass M are connected together

Example 7.13 Find the moment of inertia of a spherical shell of radius R


and mass M about an axis passing through its center of mass.

Solution 7.13
Let us divide the spherical shell into thin rings each of area (see Fig. 7.20)
given by

since , we have
Fig. 7.20 A spherical shell divided into thin rings

7.8 Conservation of Angular Momentum of a


Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Axis
In Chap. 5 we have seen that if the net external torque acting on a system of
particles relative to an origin is zero then the total angular momentum of
the system about that origin is conserved

In the case of a rigid object in pure rotational motion, if the component of


the net external torque about the rotational axis (say the -axis) is zero
then the component of angular momentum along that axis is conserved, i.e.,
if

then
That is, the angular momentum is not necessarily conserved in all
directions. It is conserved in the direction where the net external torque is
equal to zero.

7.9 Work and Rotational Energy


Consider a rigid body rotating about a ixed axis as in Fig. 7.21. If a force
that lies in the x-y plane is applied to the body at , then the work done on
the body if it rotates through an angle is

Since and are parallel, (the force lies in the x-y plane therefore the total
torque is parallel to the -axis) we have

Therefore, the total work done in displacing the body from to is

(7.12)

If this torque is constant we have


Fig. 7.21 A rigid body rotating about a ixed axis

The Work–Energy Theorem The work–energy theorem states that the


work done by an external force while a rigid object rotate from to is
equal to the change in the rotational energy of the object. This follows from
Eq. 7.12 and by using the fact that along the axis of rotation the torque is
given by (see Sect. 7.7), thus

Table 7.2 Analogous Equations in linear Motion and Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

Rotational motion Linear motion



Rotational motion Linear motion

7.10 Power
The instantaneous power delivered to rotate an object about a ixed axis is
found from

Table. 7.2 shows analogous equations in linear motion and rotational


motion about a ixed axis

Example 7.14 A disc of radius and mass of 5 kg is rotating


about its central axis with an angular speed of 170 rev/min. Find: (a) the
rotational kinetic energy of the disc; (b) Suppose that the same disc rotate
using a motor that delivers an instantaneous of power 0. , ind in that
case the torque applied to the disc.

Solution 7.14
(a) Since the rotational axis is the axis of symmetry of the disc, then the
moment of inertia is

The angular velocity of the disc is


(b)

and

Example 7.15 Consider a light rope wrapped around a uniform cylindrical


shell of mass 30 kg and radius of 0.2 as in Fig. 7.22. Suppose that the
cylinder is free to rotate about its central axis and that the rope is pulled
from rest with a constant force of magnitude of 35 N. Assuming that the
rope does not slip, ind: (a) the torque applied to the cylinder about its
central axis; (b) the angular acceleration of the cylinder; (c) the acceleration
of a point in the unwinding rope; (d) the number of revolutions made by the
cylinder when it reaches an angular velocity of 12 the work done
by the applied force when the rope is pulled a distance of the work
done using the work–energy theorem.

Fig. 7.22 A light rope wrapped around a uniform cylindrical shell


Solution 7.15
(a) Because the line of action of both the weight and the normal forces
passes through the central axis of the cylinder, they produce no torque.
Hence, the total torque acting on the cylinder is

(b) The moment of inertia of the cylinder is

and

(c) The acceleration of a point in the unwinding rope is the same as the
acceleration of a point at the rim of the cylinder, i.e.,

(d)

Since

or

(e) If the rope has moved a distance of lm, the angular displacement of the
cylinder is

the work done is


(f) The inal angular speed when rad is

That gives . From the work–energy theorem we have

Example 7.16 A uniform rod of mass kg and length is


hinged at one end and is free to rotate in a vertical plane as in Fig. 7.23. If
the rod is released from rest at an angle to the horizontal, ind; (a)
the initial angular acceleration of the rod when it is released; (b) the initial
acceleration of a point at the end of the rod; (c) from conservation of energy
ind the angular speed of the rod at its lowest position (Neglect friction at
the pivot).

Fig. 7.23 A uniform rod free to rotate at one end

Solution 7.16
(a) Since the normal force exerted by the pin on the rod passes through
then the only force that contributes to the torque is the force of gravity This
force acts at the center of gravity which is at the center of mass (see
Sect. 8.4). Therefore the net external torque is

The moment of inertia about the rotational axis is

and hence

(b) The acceleration of a point at the end of the rod is

(c) When the rod reaches its lowest position, the potential energy of its
center of mass is transformed into rotational kinetic energy of the rod. From
conservation of energy we have . Taking the potential
energy to be zero at the lowest position, gives

That gives
Fig. 7.24 A cylinder with a core section is free to rotate about its center. Ropes wrapped around the
inner and outer sections exert different forces

Fig. 7.25 A block of mass m is attached to a light string that is wrapped around the rim of a uniform
solid disk of radius R and mass M

Example 7.17 Find the net torque on the system shown in Fig. 7.24 where
cm, cm, and . Neglect the
mass and friction of the ropes and pulleys.

Solution 7.17
Since all forces lie in the same plane the net torque is

Example 7.18 A block of mass m is attached to a light string that is


wrapped around the rim of a uniform solid disc of radius R and mass M as in
Fig. 7.25. Assuming that the string does not slip and that the disc rotates
without friction, ind: (a) the acceleration of the block; (b) the angular
acceleration of the disc, and; (c) the tension in the string when the system is
released from rest.

Solution 7.18
The free-body diagrams of the disc and the block are shown in Fig. 7.25.
Applying Newton’s second law to the block gives

or

(7.13)

where positive is chosen to be directed upwards. Applying Newton’s


second law in angular form to the disc gives

or

Since the acceleration of the block is equal to the (tangential) acceleration


of a point at the rim of the disc we have

(7.14)
Equating Eqs. 7.13 and 7.14 gives

that gives

Substituting this into Eq. 7.14

gives

Finally

Example 7.19 A homogeneous solid sphere of mass 4.7 kg and radius of


0.05 rotate from rest about its central axis with a constant angular
acceleration of 3 . Find: (a) the torque that produces this angular

acceleration; (b) the work done on the sphere after 7 revolutions; (c) the
work done after 7 revolutions using the work–energy theorem.

Solution 7.19
(a)

(b)
and

assuming
(c) After seven revolutions the angular velocity is

Since , we have

that gives . Hence

Example 7.20 Fig. 7.26 shows Atwood’s machine when the mass of the
pulley is considered. If the system is released from rest (and assuming that
the string does not stretch or slip) and that the friction of the pulley is
negligible, ind linear acceleration of the blocks and the angular acceleration
of the pulley.
Fig. 7.26 AtwoodOs machine

Solution 7.20
Fig. 7.26 shows the free-body diagram for each block and for the pulley
Applying Newton’s second law gives

and

The torque is negative because the pulley rotates in the clockwise direction.
Therefore we have
and

That gives

If the pulley is a uniform solid disc then

and

Example 7.21 A uniform solid cylinder of radius of 0.2 and mass of 10


kg is rotating about its central axis. If the angular speed of the cylinder is 5
calculate the angular momentum of the cylinder about its central
axis; (b) Suppose the cylinder accelerates at a constant rate of 0.5 ,

ind the angular momentum of the cylinder at ind the applied


torque; (d) ind the work done after

Solution 7.21
(a) The moment of inertia of the cylinder is

for homogeneous symmetrical objects the total angular momentum is


(b) At

at that instant

(c)

(d)

Example 7.22 A uniform solid sphere of radius of 5 cm and mass of 4.7 kg


is rotating about an axis that is tangent to the sphere (see Fig. 7.27). If its
angular acceleration is given by and if at , ind

the angular momentum of the sphere and the applied torque as a function
of time.

Solution 7.22

since at then and

The moment of inertia of the sphere is

and
Fig. 7.27 A uniform solid sphere rotating about an axis tangent to the sphere

Example 7.23 In Example 7.8 ind the angular momentum in each case.

Solution 7.23
(a)

(b)

(c)
Example 7.24 A uniform solid sphere of radius of 0.2 is rotating about
its central axis with an angular speed of 5 . If an impulsive force that
has an average value of 100 acts at the rim of the sphere at the center
level for a short time of 2 : ind the angular impulse of the force; (b)
the inal angular speed of the sphere.

Solution 7.24 (a)

(b)

That gives

Example 7.25 A man stands on a platform that is free to rotate without


friction about a vertical axis as in Fig. 7.28. If the system is initially rotating
with an angular speed of 0.3 ind the inal angular speed of the
system if the man draws the weights in; (b) ind the increase in the kinetic
energy of the system and its source. And .
Fig. 7.28 A man stands on a platform that is free to rotate without friction about a vertical axis

Solution 7.25
Because the resultant external torque on the system is zero, it follows that
the total angular momentum of the system is conserved. That is

hence

(b)
This increase in the kinetic energy is because the man does work when he
moves the dumbbells inwards.

Example 7.26 A uniform disc of moment of inertia of 0.1 kg m is rotating


without friction with an angular speed of 3 about an axle passing
through its center of mass as in Fig. 7.29. When another disc of moment of
inertia of 0.05 kg m that is initially at rest is dropped on the irst, the two
will eventually rotate with the same angular speed due to friction between
them. Determine (a) the inal angular speed; (b) the change in the kinetic
energy of the system.

Fig. 7.29 A uniform disc rotating without friction. Another disc that is initially at rest is dropped on the
irst, the two will eventually rotate with the same angular speed due to friction between them
Solution 7.26
(a) Since the net external torque acting on the system is zero, it follows that
the total angular momentum of the system is conserved, i.e.,

or

hence

(b)

This decrease in kinetic energy is due to the internal nonconservative


(frictional) force that acts within the system.

Problems
1.
A wheel is initially rotating at 60 in the clockwise direction. If a
counterclockwise torque acts on the wheel producing a
counterclockwise angular acceleration , ind the time

required for the wheel to reverse its direction of motion.


2.
If the angular position of a point on a rotating wheel is given by
rad, ind the angular speed and angular acceleration of

the point at
3. A wheel of radius of 0.5 rotates from rest at a constant angular
acceleration of 2.5 . At Find (a) the angular speed of the
wheel (b) the angle in radians through which the wheel rotates (c) the
wheel (b) the angle in radians through which the wheel rotates (c) the
tangential and radial acceleration of a point at the rim of the wheel.
4.
Find the angular speed in radians per second of the earth about (a) its
axis (b) the sun.

5.
An -shaped bar rotates counterclockwise with an angular
acceleration of (see Fig. 7.30). Find (in vector form) the linear
velocity and acceleration of the point on the bar.
6.
Four masses are connected by light rigid rods as in Fig. 7.31. Calculate
the moment of inertia of the system about (a) the -axis (b) the -
axis (c) the -axis.
7.
Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere of radius R and
mass M about an axis passing through its center of mass.
8.
Find the moment of inertia of an elliptical quadrant about the -axis
(see Fig. 7.32).
9.
A 5 kg uniform solid cylinder of radius 0.2 rotate about its center of
mass axis with an angular speed of 10 rev/min. Find (a) its rotational
kinetic energy (b) its angular momentum.
10.
A wheel of mass of 20 kg and radius of 0.75 is initially rotating at
120 rev/min. If its angular speed is increased to 300 rev/min in 20 ,
ind (a) the work done on the wheel (b) the average power delivered
to the wheel.
11.
A wheel of mass 10 kg and radius 0.4 accelerates uniformly from
rest to an angular speed of 800 rev/min in 20 . Find (a) the torque
applied to the wheel (b) the work done on the wheel (c) the work
done using the work–energy theorem.
12. A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted at (see Fig. 7.33). If
a projectile of mass m moving at velocity v collide with the rod and

stick to it, ind the angular momentum of the system immediately
before and immediately after the collision.
13.
A disc of radius 2.2 and mass of 120 kg rotate about a frictionless
vertical axle that passes through its center. A man of mass 65 kg walks
slowly from the rim of the disc towards the center. Find the angular
speed of the disc when the man is at a distance of 0.7 from the
center if its angular speed when the man starts walking is 1.6

Fig. 7.30 An L-shaped bar rotating counterclockwise

Fig. 7.31 Four masses connected by light rigid rods


Fig. 7.32 An elliptical quadrant

Fig. 7.33 A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted at . A projectile of mass m moving at

velocity v collides with the rod and sticks to it

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
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The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation
or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_8

8. Rolling and Static Equilibrium


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

8.1 Rolling Motion


Rolling motion represents the general plane motion of a rigid body It
can be considered as a combination of pure translational motion
parallel to a ixed plane plus a pure rotational motion about an axis that
is perpendicular to that plane. The axis of rotation usually passes
through the center of mass. In Sect. 6. 4, we’ve seen that the motion of
an object (or a system of particles) can always be considered as a
combination of the motion of the object relative to its center of mass
plus the motion of its center of mass relative to some origin O. From
Sect. 6. 4. 3, the kinetic energy of an object relative to the origin is

(8.1)

where is the velocity of the center of mass of the object relative to


the origin is the mass of the ith particle and is the linear
velocity of the ith particle relative to the center of mass. In the case of
the general plane motion of a rigid body, the motion can be considered
as a combination of pure translational motion of the center of mass plus
pure rotational motion about an axis passing through the center of
mass and perpendicular to the plane of motion. Therefore, the irst
term in Eq. 8.1 can be written as

where is the perpendicular distance from the ith particle to the


center of mass axis. Hence

Thus, the total kinetic energy of a rolling object is the sum of the
translational kinetic energy of its center of mass and the rotational
kinetic energy about its center of mass.

8.2 Rolling Without Slipping


An important special case of the general plane motion is rolling without
slipping. Such motion occurs if a perfectly rigid body rolls on a perfectly
rigid surface. As the object rolls without slipping, the instantaneous
point of contact between the object and the surface is at rest relative to
the surface since there is no slipping. Now, consider a wheel of radius R
rolling without slipping along the straight track shown in Fig. 8.1. The
center of mass of the wheel moves along a straight line, while a point on
the rim such as moves in a cycloid path. As the wheel rotates through
an angle , its center of mass moves through a distance equal to the arc
length s (see Fig. 8.2) given by
Fig. 8.1 A wheel of radius R rolling without slipping along the straight track

Fig. 8.2 As the wheel rotates through an angle , its center of mass moves through a distance

equal to the arc length s

Fig. 8.3 The combination of pure rotational and translational motions

Hence, the speed of the center of mass is

The acceleration of the center of mass is given by


The combination of pure rotational and translational motions is viewed
in Fig. 8.3. In the pure translational motion (see Fig. 8.3 part a) every
particle in the wheel moves with the velocity . In pure rotational
motion (see Fig. 8.3 part b), each particle moves with an angular speed
about the center of mass axis and the linear speed of any particle at
the rim is
(8.2)
The resulting motion of these two combined motions is shown in
Fig. 8.3 part , where the linear velocity of each particle is the vector
sum of its linear velocity in pure translational motion and its linear
velocity in pure rotational motion. Therefore, the instantaneous
velocity of the point of contact is equal to zero and of a point
at the top of the wheel is equal to twice the velocity of the center of
mass . Note that Eq. 8.2 is valid only in the special case of
rolling without slipping; in the general rolling motion this equation
does not hold. The total kinetic energy of a rigid object rolling without
slipping is therefore given by

Another way to view rolling without slipping is to consider the wheel to


be in pure rotational motion about an instantaneous axis that passes
through the point of contact (see Fig. 8.4). In that case, the velocity of
the point of contact is zero and the velocity of the center of mass is
(since it is at a distance R from the axis of rotation) and the
velocity of a point at the top is . Note that the angular
velocity of the wheel is the same as its angular velocity if the axis of
rotation is at the center of mass.

Fig. 8.4 Another way to view rolling without slipping is to consider the wheel to be in pure
rotational motion about an instantaneous axis that passes through the point of contact

For simplicity, only homogeneous symmetrical objects will be


considered here such as hoops, cylinders, and spheres. When a rigid
body rolls without slipping with a constant speed, there will be no
frictional force acting on the body at the instantaneous point of contact.
However, if the object is accelerating, then a statistical frictional force
acts on it at the instantaneous point of contact producing a torque
about the center (see Fig. 8.5). This will cause the object to rotate about
its center of mass. The direction of the statistical force opposes the
tendency of the object to slide. For example, if a wheel is rolling down
an incline, the direction of the frictional force will be opposing the
downward motion.

Fig. 8.5 A statistical frictional force acts on it at the instantaneous point of contact producing a
torque about the center

In most situations, the body and the surface are not perfectly rigid.
As a result, the normal force would not be a single force; rather it would
be a number of forces that are distributed over the area of contact (see
Fig. 8.6). Therefore, each normal force will exert an opposing torque
since its line of action will not pass through the center of mass.
Furthermore, as the object rolls over the surface, both the object and
the surface undergo deformation resulting in a loss in the mechanical
energy.

Fig. 8.6 If the body and the surface are not perfectly, the normal force would not be a single
force; rather it would be a number of forces that are distributed over the area of contact

Example 8.1 A uniform solid hoop of mass of 32 kg and radius of 1.2


rolls without slipping on a horizontal track where the center of mass
speed is 2 . Find: (a) the total energy of the hoop and compare it
with its total energy if it would slide without rolling; (b) the speed of
the hoop at its top and bottom.

Solution 8.1
(a) the total energy is given by

If the hoop slides without rolling its total kinetic energy is , that

is, its value is half of that if the hoop were to roll without slipping.
(b)
Example 8.2 A uniform solid cylinder, sphere, and hoop roll without
slipping from rest at the top of an incline (see Fig. 8.7). Find out which
object would reach the bottom irst.

Fig. 8.7 A uniform solid cylinder, sphere and hoop roll without slipping from rest at the top of an
incline

Solution 8.2
For each object, we have

Hence, the speed of the center of mass of any object at the bottom of the
incline does not depend on its mass or size; it depends only on its
shape. Therefore, all objects of the same shape such as spheres (of any
mass or size) have the same speed at the bottom. That is, the smaller
the ratio the faster the object moves since less of its energy

goes to rotational kinetic energy and more goes to translational kinetic


energy The ratio is equal to 0.4, 0.5, and 1 for a sphere,
cylinder, and hoop, respectively Therefore, these objects will inish in
the order of any sphere, any cylinder, and any hoop.

Example 8.3 A marble ball of radius R and mass M rolls without


slipping down the incline shown in Fig. 8.8. Find: (a) its acceleration;
(b) the minimum coef icient of static friction that is required to prevent
slipping.

Fig. 8.8 A marble ball of radius R and mass M rolls without slipping down the incline

Solution 8.3
(a) Applying Newton’s second law in both linear and angular form (see
Fig. 8.7) we have

(8.3)

and

that gives

(8.4)
Substituting Eq. 8.4 into Eq. 8.3 gives

hence

and

(b) At the verge of slipping, the statistical frictional force is a maximum


given by

Hence, the coef icient of static friction must be at least as great as


in order for the ball not to slip.

Example 8.4 A string is wrapped around a uniform solid cylinder of


radius of R and mass of M as in Fig. 8.9. If the cylinder is released from
rest while the string is ixed in place and assuming that the string does
not slip at the cylinder’s surface, ind: (a) the acceleration of the center
of mass using Newton’s laws (b) the acceleration of the center of mass
using energy methods if the cylinder descends a distance the
tension in the string.
Fig. 8.9 A string wrapped around a uniform solid cylinder of radius of R and mass of M

Solution 8.4
(a) Applying Newton’s second law in both the linear and angular form
gives

(8.5)

hence

(8.6)

Substituting Eq. 8.6 into Eq. 8.5 gives

that gives

(b) Energy Method


that gives

From the expression , and since we have

(b) From Eq. 8.6,

Example 8.5 A uniform solid sphere of radius R and mass M is


released from rest at the top of an incline at a distance h above the
ground. If it rolls without slipping, ind the speed of the center of mass
at the bottom of the incline.

Solution 8.5
That gives

Example 8.6 A block of mass m is attached to a light string that passes


over a light pulley and is connected to a uniform solid sphere of radius
R and mass M as in Fig. 8.10. Show that the acceleration of the system is
when the block is released from rest.

Fig. 8.10 A block of mass m is attached to a light string that passes over a light pulley connected
to a uniform solid sphere of radius R and mass M

Solution 8.6
From conservation of energy, we have

Since the block and the sphere are connected, they have the same
speed, therefore
Therefore, the speed of the system when the block is at the bottom of
the incline is

The acceleration of the system is

or

that gives

8.3 Static Equilibrium


An extended object is said to be in equilibrium if two conditions are
satis ied. First, the net external force acting on the object must be equal
to zero. Second, the net external torque on the object about any origin
must also be equal to zero. In other words, an object is in equilibrium if
its total linear momentum and its total angular momentum (about any
origin) are constants. Only the irst condition is necessary if the object
can be treated as a particle. Thus, the conditions of equilibrium may be
written as

(8.7)

(8.8)

In terms of components, we may write


(8.9)
(8.10)

An object is said to be in static equilibrium if it is at rest (there isn’t any


kind of motion with respect to our inertial frame of reference). Now
consider the case in which all external forces acting on the object lie in
the same plane (for example the x–y plane). Such forces are called
coplanar forces. The net external torque due to these forces is then
perpendicular to the x–y plane and parallel to the -axis. Equations 8.9
and 8.10 are, therefore, reduced to

Next, we will prove that if the object is in translational equilibrium


where and the net external torque on the object is equal to
zero about some origin, it is also equal to zero about any other origin.
Note that the origin may be chosen anywhere inside or outside the
object. Suppose that a number of forces are acting on
a rigid object at different points (see Fig. 8.11) and that the object is in
translational equilibrium. The point of application of relative to
is and of is and so on. The net external torque about is
given by

The net external torque about (see Fig. 8.12) is


Since we have

Fig. 8.11 A number of forces act on a rigid object at different points


Fig. 8.12 The net external torque on the object about

8.4 The Center of Gravity


The resultant gravitational force acting on an object is the resultant of
the individual gravitational forces acting on different mass elements of
the object (see Fig. 8.13), i.e.,

(8.11)

This force can be replaced by a single force that is equal to the weight of
the object (Mg) and that acts at a single point called the center of
gravity Now consider an object that is near the earth’s surface where
the force of gravity is assumed to be constant over that range.
Equation 8.11 becomes

To locate the center of gravity, let us calculate the net torque acting on
an object about an origin due to gravity This torque is the vector sum of
the individual torques acting on different mass elements. That is,
Therefore, we conclude that if the gravitational ield (g) is constant over
the body, the center of gravity of the object coincides with its center of
mass.

Fig. 8.13 The resultant gravitational force acting on an object is the resultant of the individual
gravitational forces acting on different mass elements of the object

Example 8.7 Two blocks of masses kg and kg are


supported by a uniform horizontal beam of length and mass
kg (see Fig. 8.14). Find: (a) the normal force exerted by the
fulcrum (supporting point) on the beam if it is placed under the center
of gravity of the beam; (b) the distance x in which must be placed in
order for the system to be balanced.
Fig. 8.14 Two blocks supported by a uniform horizontal beam
Fig. 8.15 The free-body diagram of a ladder of length L and mass kg resting against a

smooth vertical wall

Solution 8.7
(a) The free-body diagram of the system in shown in Fig. 8.14 where
, and . Applying Newton’s second
law to the beam gives
and

(b) The net external torque about an axis passing through the center of
the beam and perpendicular to the page is

Example 8.8 A ladder of length L and mass kg rests against a


smooth vertical wall as shown in Fig. 8.15. If the center of gravity of the
ladder is at a distance of L/3 from the base, determine: (a) the
minimum coef icient of static friction such that the ladder does not slip;
(b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the contact forces
acting on the ladder at the base; (c) if a man of mass of climbs up
the ladder, what is the maximum distance the man can climb before the
ladder slips if

Solution 8.8
(a) Figure 8.15 shows the free-body diagram of the ladder. Applying
Newton’s second law to the ladder gives

and
Applying Newton’s second law in angular form about (the point
must be chosen to give minimum unknowns) we have

(8.12)

If the ladder is at the verge of slipping the statistical frictional force is


maximum . From Eq. 8.12, we have

hence

(b) The resultant of the contact forces on the ladder at the base is

the direction of is

(c) The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 8.15. From the equilibrium
condition, we have

and

or
and

Furthermore, the resultant external torque about is

thus

at the verge of slipping

Hence

Example 8.9 A uniform beam of weight w and length L is held by two


supports as in Fig. 8.16. A block of weight is resting on the beam at
a distance of L/6 from the center of gravity of the beam. Find the
magnitude of the forces exerted by the supports on the beam.

Fig. 8.16 A uniform beam of weight w and length L balanced by two supports

Solution 8.9
The free-body diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 8.16. Because the
beam has a uniform density its center of mass and gravity are located at
its geometrical center. Applying Newton’s second law gives

(8.13)
Taking the torque about an axis passing through one end (at ) gives

(8.14)

From Eqs. 8.13 and 8.14 we have

and

Example 8.10 A man of mass of 80 kg is standing at the end of a


uniform beam of mass of 30 kg and length of 12 as shown in
Fig. 8.17. Find the tension in the rope and the reaction force exerted by
the hinge on the beam.
Fig. 8.17 A man standing at the end of a uniform beam

Solution 8.10
(a) The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 8.17. Applying Newton’s
second law to the beam gives

The resultant torque about an axis passing through is

That gives N. Hence

(8.15)

and

(8.16)
Dividing Eq. 8.16 by Eq. 8.15 gives

and

Example 8.11 A uniform beam of weight of 120 and length of L is in


horizontal static equilibrium as in Fig. 8.18. Neglecting the masses of
the ropes, ind the tension in each string. (The center of mass is at L/3
from one end).

Solution 8.11
The free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 8.18. Applying Newton’s second
law to the beam gives

or
(8.17)
Also

or
(8.18)
Taking the resultant torque on the beam about one end (at ) gives
or

Substituting into Eqs. 8.18 and 8.17 gives

and

Hence

That gives and .

Fig. 8.18 A uniform beam held by ropes in static equilibrium

Example 8.12 A solid sphere of mass of 12 kg is in static equilibrium


inside the wedge shown in Fig. 8.19. If the surface of the wedge is
frictionless, ind the forces that the wedge exerts on the sphere.
Solution 8.12
Applying Newton’s second law gives

or

Also we have

or

That gives . Therefore

Fig. 8.19 A solid sphere in static equilibrium inside a wedge

Problems
1. A uniform cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius of 0.05 rolls without
slipping along a horizontal surface. Find the total energy of the
cylinder at the instant its speed is 2
2.
A uniform solid cylinder of mass 10 kg and radius of 0.2 rolls up
the incline of angle with an initial velocity of 15 . Find the
height in which the cylinder will stop.
3.
A wheel of mass 2 kg and radius of 0.05 rolls without slipping
with an angular speed of 3 on a horizontal surface. How
much work is required to accelerate the wheel to an angular speed
of 15
4.
A block weighing 1000 is held by a cable that is attached to a
uniform rod of weight 500 (see Fig. 8.20). Find (a) the tension in
the cable, (b) the horizontal and vertical components of the force
exerted on the base of the rod.
5.
A uniform sphere of radius r and mass m is held by a light string
and leans on a frictionless wall as in Fig. 8.21. If the string is
attached a distance d above the center of the sphere, ind (a) the
tension in the string, (b) the reaction force exerted by the wall on
the sphere.
6.
Find the minimum force applied at the top of a wheel of mass M
and radius R to raise it over a step of height h as in Fig. 8.22.
Assume that the wheel does not slip on the step.
7.
Three identical uniform blocks each of length L are on top of each
other as in Fig. 8.23. Find the maximum value of h in order for the
stack to be in equilibrium.
Fig. 8.20 A block suspended by a cable attached to a uniform rod

Fig. 8.21 A uniform sphere suspended by a light string and leaning on a frictionless wall

Fig. 8.22 A wheel raised over a step


Fig. 8.23 Three identical uniform blocks on top of each other

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License
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adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
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The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_9

9. Central Force Motion


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

9.1 Motion in a Central Force Field


A force is said to be central under two conditions. First, the direction of
the force must always be toward or away from a ixed point (see
Fig. 9.1). This point is known as the center of the force. Second, the
magnitude of the force should only be proportional to the distance r
between the particle and the center of the force. The central force may
be written as
(9.1)

where is a unit vector in the direction of . Therefore, if ,


then the central force is an attractive force since it is directed toward
the center of the force (as shown in Fig. 9.1) and if , the
force is repulsively directed away from O.

Example 9.1 Which of the following forces are repulsive and which are
attractive?
Solution 9.1 (a) Attractive, (b) repulsive, and (c) attractive if
and repulsive if

9.1.1 Properties of a Central Force


1.
The resulting motion of the particle takes place in a plane. To show
that we have from Eq. 9.1

thus, a is parallel to and we may write

Hence,

or

Thus,
(9.2)

where is a constant vector. Therefore, and always lie in the


same plane where is perpendicular to that plane for every value
of t. As a result, the path of the particle takes place in a plane.
2. The angular momentum of the particle is conserved. From Eq. 9.2,
we have
or

Thus, the angular momentum is equal to a constant at all times


(conserved)
(conserved).
3.
The position vector of the particle with respect to the center of
force sweeps out equal areas in equal times or in other words, the
areal velocity is constant. To show that, consider the plane of
motion to be the x–y plane. During an in initesimally small time
interval dt, the radius vector sweeps out an area equal to dA.
From Fig. 9.2, this area is equal to half of the area of a
parallelogram with sides and dr. That is,

or

or

Thus,
Fig. 9.1 The central force
Fig. 9.2 During an in initesimally small time interval dt, the radius vector sweeps out an area
equal to dA

9.1.2 Equations of Motion in a Central Force Field


The most convenient coordinate system to describe the motion of a
particle, under the in luence of a central force, is the polar coordinate
system. This convenience lies in the fact that the central force is in the
-direction. In Sect. 2. 6, it has been shown that the acceleration of a
particle in a plane, in terms of its polar coordinates, is given by

Applying Newton’s second law to the particle gives


That gives
(9.3)

(9.4)
In Sect. 2. 6, we’ve also seen that the velocity of a particle in polar
coordinates is given by

Therefore, we have

Taking the plane of motion to be the x–y plane, then is parallel


to the -direction and we have

Hence,
(9.5)
and Eq. 9.2 can be written as

or

Substituting Eq. 9.5 into Eq. 9.3 gives

(9.6)
Let , then . Since , we have . Thus

(9.7)

And

(9.8)

Substituting Eq. 9.8 into Eq. 9.6 gives

or

(9.9)

This is the equation of path in a central force ield.

9.1.3 Potential Energy of a Central Force


Consider a particle moving from point to (see Fig. 9.3) while a
central force that has its center at the origin acts on it. The path of the
particle may be considered as a combination of radial and curved
segments. The central force is always acting in the direction of the
radial segments and is perpendicular to the displacement along any of
the curved segments. Thus, the work done by the central force along
any curved segment is zero and the total work done in moving the
particle along any path is equal to the work done along a radial line
from to (see Fig. 9.4). That is, the work done by a central force is
independent of path. It depends only on the initial and inal positions of
the particle.
Fig. 9.3 A particle moving from point to , while a central force that has its center at the

origin acts on it

Fig. 9.4 The central force is always acting in the direction of the radial segments and is
perpendicular to the displacement along any of the curved segments. Therefore, the total work
done in moving the particle along any path is equal to the work done along a radial line from to
From this, we conclude that the central force is a conservative force.
You may also prove that . Hence, there exists a potential
energy and the work done by the gravitational force may be written as

The work done in moving the particle from to is

Since , we have

or

(9.10)

9.1.4 The Total Energy


Since is a conservative force, it follows that the total energy is
conserved (constant), that is,

Since

we have

(9.11)

Substituting Eqs. 9.5 and 9.7 into Eq. 9.11 gives


or

(9.12)

9.2 The Law of Gravity


In 1687, Isaac Newton made a remarkable discovery. Newton stated
that the force that holds planets in their orbit is the same force that
makes an apple fall from a tree. Newton’s law of gravity states that
every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The magnitude of this gravitational force is given by

where and are the masses of the particles, r is the distance


between them, and G is the universal gravitational constant. G has the
same value if the particles (or objects) are located anywhere in the
universe and it is given by

The gravitational force is effective when one or both the masses are
very large. This is because G is a very small number. Note that, the
gravitational force is not a contact force; it is a ield force that can act
through any medium. The direction of the gravitational force is along
the line joining the two particles.
Therefore, the gravitational force is a central force since its
magnitude is proportional only to the distance between the two
particles (where one of the particles can be considered as the center of
force), and its direction is along the line joining them (toward the
center of force).

Fig. 9.5 Two particles of masses and . Each particle exerts a gravitational force on the

other

Figure 9.5 shows two particles of masses and . Each particle


exerts a gravitational force on the other. Let the gravitational force
exerted on by to be , and that exerted on by to be
. From Newton’s third law of action and reaction, we have

That is, the two forces form an action and reaction pair. In terms of unit
vectors, we may write

and

where is a unit vector that is directed along the line joining the two
particles (directed from to ) and is a unit vector directed
from to . The negative sign indicates that the force is attractive.
That is, the force exerted on by will move in the direction
opposite of , i.e., toward . Where the force exerted on by
will move opposite to (toward ). If particle of mass of
interacts with a system of particles, the resultant gravitational force
exerted on particle due to all particles in the system is the vector sum
of the individual forces that each particle in the system exerts on
particle :

where is a unit vector directed from the ith particle in the system
toward the particle and is the force exerted on particle by the
ith particle. If particle of mass m interacts with an extended body of
mass M, the resultant gravitational force exerted on particle is
the vector sum of the individual forces exerted on particle due to
each mass element dM in the object, but in this case, the sum is
replaced by an integral

where is a unit vector directed from the mass element dM to the


particle as shown in Fig. 9.6. The force of gravity gives planets and
other heavy celestial bodies their spherical shape. That is because as
the mass of the body becomes larger the force of gravity becomes
stronger and all particles from all sides are attracted evenly toward the
center. As a result, the body tends to have a spherical shape.
Fig. 9.6 A particle of mass m interacting with an extended body of mass M

Example 9.2 Two particles of masses kg and kg


are separated by a distance of 0.05 . Find (a) the gravitational force
that each particle exerts on the other; (b) at what distance a third
particle kg must be placed at the other side of such that
the net gravitational force on is zero. (All particles lie on a straight
line).

Solution 9.2
(a)

(b)
If the net force on is zero, we have

or

that gives

9.2.1 The Gravitational Force Between a Particle and a


Uniform Spherical Shell
Case I: A Particle outside the Shell Consider a particle of mass m
located outside a uniform spherical shell at point as in Fig. 9.7.
Imagine this shell to be made of a large number of thin rings each of
outer thickness and inner thickness l. The ring is so thin (since
is used) that every particle in the ring is at a distance s from P
Furthermore, each particle in the ring exerts a gravitational force on the
particle at P.
Fig. 9.7 Because and are equal in magnitude, then their components cancel each other

out and their components add up

From the symmetry of the ring, if a particle (1) on the upper side
exerts a gravitational force on m, there is always another particle
(2) at the opposite side of the ring exerting another force ( ) on the
particle. Because and are equal in magnitude, then their
components cancel each other out and their components add up (see
Fig. 9.7). Thus, the resultant force exerted on m due to all particles of
the sphere is the sum of the components of their forces. Therefore
the resultant force on m is along the direction (toward the center of
the shell). The gravitational force exerted on m by a thin ring of mass
dM is

To express dM in terms of the density of the ring, we ind the volume of


the thin ring

Since the shell has a uniform volume density is given by


Thus,

(9.13)

From Fig. 9.7,

(9.14)

From the cosines law, we have


(9.15)
Substituting Eqs. 9.14 and 9.15 into Eq. 9.13 gives

(9.16)

From Eq. 9.15, we have

To integrate over all rings, will change from to . From


Eq. 9.15, we have at since , and at
. Also, we have from Eq. 9.15

Thus

Substituting this into Eq. 9.16 gives

(9.17)
Since , it follows that

That is, the spherical shell behaves as a particle of mass M located at its
center.
Case II: A Particle inside the Shell If a particle is inside a uniform
spherical shell, the derivation of the gravitational force exerted on the
particle by the spherical shell is the same as if the particle were outside
the shell, except that the lower integration limit is different. At
since . Thus, we have

where . That is, if the particle is inside the shell, the gravitational
force exerted on it by the shell is zero. However, objects outside the
shell may still exerts forces on the particle. In summary, we have

Figure 9.8 shows the force exerted on a particle as a function of its


location.
Fig. 9.8 The force exerted on a particle as a function of its

9.2.2 The Gravitational Force between a Particle and a


Uniform Solid Sphere
Case I: A Particle outside the Sphere Consider a particle of mass m
located outside a uniform solid sphere. The sphere may be considered
to be made of a series of concentric spherical shells. The force exerted
on the particle by each shell is given by

The mass of each shell is . Where is the

volume density of the sphere and a is the distance from the shell to the
center of the sphere and da is the thickness of the shell, Hence,

The total force exerted on m by the sphere is


(9.18)

Thus, the solid sphere behaves as a particle of mass M located at the


center of the sphere.

Fig. 9.9 If a particle of mass m is located inside a uniform solid sphere of mass M, then the
gravitational force exerted on the particle is due only to the part of the sphere of radius and
of mass of

Case II: A Particle inside the Sphere If a particle of mass m is


located inside a uniform solid sphere of mass M, then the gravitational
force exerted on the particle is due only to the part of the sphere of
radius and of mass of (see Fig. 9.9). The remaining part of the
sphere is a spherical shell which exerts no force on the particle since
the particle is located inside it. From Eq. 9.18, the gravitational force
exerted on the particle due to a sphere of radius r and mass is given
by

(9.19)

Since the sphere has a uniform density, we have

or

or

(9.20)

Substituting Eq. 9.20 into Eq. 9.19 gives

where . Therefore at the center of the sphere,

Figure 9.10 shows the force exerted on a particle as a function of its


location.
Fig. 9.10 The force exerted on a particle as a function of its

Example 9.3 (a) Find the gravitational force exerted on a particle of


mass m that is at a distance of a from a thin rod of mass M and length L
as in Fig. 9.11; (b) ind the force in (a) if

Fig. 9.11 The force exerted on a particle of mass m that is at a distance of a from a thin rod of
mass M and length L

Solution 9.3
(a)

since the rod is uniform we have


Thus

Integrating from a to gives

In vector form,

(b) if , then

That is, the rod can be considered as a particle of mass M that is at a


distance a from m.

Example 9.4 Find the gravitational force exerted on a particle of mass


m that is at a distance a from the center of a uniform solid disk of radius
R and mass M as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Fig. 9.12 The gravitational force exerted on a particle of mass m that is at a distance a from the
center of a uniform solid disk of radius R and mass M

Solution 9.4
Let us divide the disk into thin concentric rings of radius r and
thickness dr. By symmetry, the resultant force on the particle is directed
along the axis of the ring, since the -components of the forces exerted
by all particles of the ring will cancel out, where their -components
will add up. That is,

Since the mass element dM is given by , we have

or

The total force is


Example 9.5 A uniform solid sphere has a mass of 4.7 kg and a radius
of 0.05 . Find the magnitude of the gravitational force that the sphere
exerts on a 0.02 kg particle located at (a) 0.5 from the center of the
sphere; (b) 0.03 from the center of the sphere; (c) at the surface of
the sphere; (d) at the center of the sphere.

Solution 9.5
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Example 9.6 Three concentric spherical shells have masses of ,


and and radius of , and , respectively, as in Fig. 9.13. Find
the gravitational force exerted on a particle of mass m located at (a)

Fig. 9.13 Three concentric spherical shells

Solution 9.6
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Example 9.7 A spaceship of mass is moving along a straight line
path between the earth and the sun. At what distance from the center of
the earth will the gravitational force of the sun balances that of the
earth?

Solution 9.7
At that point, we have

or

Example 9.8 An arti icial satellite is moving in a circular orbit about


the earth at a distance of 1500 km above the earth’s surface. Find its
speed and period.

Solution 9.8
where r is the distance between the center of the earth and the satellite.
That is,

Hence,

9.2.3 Weight and Gravitational Force


In Chap. 4, we’ve seen that the weight of an object is de ined as the
gravitational force exerted on the object by the earth (or any other
astronomical object) and it is directed toward the center of the earth.
The weight of an object is given by , where is the free-falling
acceleration and its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 . The

exact form of the gravitational force between any two objects was given
earlier in this chapter by Newton’s law of gravity In the case of an
earth–particle system, the gravitational force that each one exerts on
the other is

where is the mass of the earth and m is the mass of the particle
that is at a distance r from the center of the earth. Note that, it is
assumed that the earth is a perfect sphere of uniform mass distribution,
and therefore behaves as a particle. In reality, the earth is not a perfect
sphere but rather an ellipsoid. Furthermore, the earth’s density is not
uniform since it varies with the radius of earth.
The earth’s density also varies at the earth’s surface from one region
to another. In addition, if the earth’s rotation is included, then the
resultant force on an object will be its weight plus the centripetal force
exerted on the object due to the rotation. However, these variations are
often neglected. From the de inition of weight, we have

therefore

(9.21)

As you can see the free-falling acceleration does not depend on the
mass of the object as was predicted before. If the object is falling near
the earth’s surface, then distance r in Eq. 9.21 can be replaced by
which is the radius of the earth and we have

If the object is at a distance h from the earth’s surface, we may write

Thus, the weight of an object decreases with increasing altitude. Table


9.1 shows the variation of g with altitude.
Table 9.1 Variation of with altitude

Altitude h (km)

1000 7.34
6000 2.6
10000 1.49
30000 0.3
Altitude h (km)

60000 0.09

Example 9.9 A man can jump vertically upward from the earth’s
surface and reach an altitude of 0.2 . Find the altitude the man can
reach if he jumps with the same initial velocity on the surface of the
moon.

Solution 9.9
Using the formula and by taking at the earth’s

surface and at the maximum height and that there, we


have

Since the initial velocity of the man is the same on earth and on moon,
we have

At the surface of the moon

That is, the maximum height reached by the man on the moon is six
times the height reached on earth.

Example 9.10 A neutron star of radius of 12 km has a gravitational


acceleration of at its surface. Calculate its average
density.

Solution 9.10
The gravitational acceleration of a particle near the surface of the star is

Example 9.11 Find the free-fall acceleration of a body that is at a


distance of above the surface of the earth.

Solution 9.11

9.2.4 The Gravitational Field


As mentioned previously, the gravitational force is a ield force that can
act through empty space, i.e., physical contact between objects is not
necessary for such a force to act. An alternative way in describing the
gravitational attraction is by introducing the concept of the
gravitational ield. Suppose a test particle of mass is placed at
different points from another mass M(which represents the center of
the gravitational force). At each point, the test particle will experience a
gravitational force that depends on its distance from M and is given by
where is a unit vector that points radially outwards. Therefore, M
may be considered as producing a gravitational ield in the space
around it. This ield can be sensed by the force that the test particle
experience when placed in the vicinity of M. The gravitational ield
produced by M at any point in space is thus given by

That is, the gravitational ield at a point is de ined as the gravitational


force per unit mass at that point. A map of the ield can be drawn
showing the gravitational ield at any point in space. Figure 9.14 shows
the gravitational ield vectors near the earth’s surface and at large
distances from the earth. Note that, the gravitational ield is an example
of a static ield since the ield at any point is constant with time.
Fig. 9.14 The gravitational ield vectors near the earth’s surface and at large distances from the
earth

Example 9.12 Find the magnitude and direction of the gravitational


ield at the point in the arrangement shown in Fig. 9.15, where all
particles have equal masses.

Solution 9.12
Since all masses are equal, the net gravitational force at is due to the
sum of the -components of and . That is,
Fig. 9.15 Finding the magnitude and direction of the gravitational ield at P

9.3 Conic Sections


Conic sections are produced if a double right circular cone intersects
with a plane. It may be a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, or a hyperbola.
Fig. 9.16 A conic section has the property that the ratio e (called the eccentricity) of the distance
between any point on the curve (for example point P) and another point called the focus (F) to the
distance between P and a line called the directrix is equal to a constant

9.3.1 The Polar Equation of a Conic Section


A conic section has the property that the ratio e (called the eccentricity)
of the distance between any point on the curve (for example point P)
and another point called the focus (F) to the distance between P and a
line called the directrix is equal to a constant (see Fig. 9.16). This
constant differs from one conic section to another. Consider Fig. 9.16
where the focus is at the origin of the and coordinate system
and the directrix is at . Since the distance between P and F is

then, the nearest distance between P and the directrix is

The eccentricity is therefore given by

Hence,

(9.22)

This equation is the polar equation of a conic section.


1. Ellipse: From Fig. 9.17, you can see that at
and at . Substituting this into Eq. 9.22 gives

and
Since is the length of the major axis which is equal to 2a, (a is the
length of the semimajor axis) we have
(9.23)
or

Fig. 9.17 In an ellipse, at and at

Hence,

Or

Substituting into Eq. 9.22, the polar equation of an ellipse is


That gives

(9.24)

and

(9.25)

The distance C between the center of the ellipse and the focus is

Since from Fig. 9.17, we have , i.e., the distance between the foci is
less than that between the vertices, then . Furthermore, you can
prove that or where b is the length of the

semiminor axis of the ellipse.


2. Parabola: Since , Eq. 9.22 becomes

(Polar Equation of a Parabola) As approaches becomes in inite


and hence (see Fig. 9.18).
Fig. 9.18 In a parabola, as approaches becomes in inite and hence

3. Hyperbola: The hyperbola has two branches as shown in


Fig. 9.19. For the gravitational force, only the irst branch (I) represents
a possible motion of the particle since must be positive. The

polar equation of a hyperbola is given by


Fig. 9.19 The hyperbola

9.3.2 Motion in a Gravitational Force Field


The path of a particle in any central force ield can be found by solving
the equation of motion (Eq. 9.9) if

the form of the force is known. In the case of a gravitational force, we


have

where M is assumed to be ixed and that it is attracting a particle of


mass m and r is the distance between them. In terms of u, we have

Substituting this into the equation of motion gives

or
(9.26)
This equation is a nonhomogeneous linear differential equation. Its
solution may be given by

where C and are integration constants. is known as the phase angle


and it can be chosen to be if the -axis is chosen such that at
is a minimum. That gives

(9.27)

or

Thus, the path of the particle under the in luence of the gravitational
force ield is a conic with and and

. If a planet is moving in elliptical orbit about the sun, then the


maximum and minimum distances of the planet from the sun (OV and
are called the aphelion and perihelion respectively If a satellite is
moving about a planet in an elliptical orbit, the maximum and
minimum distances of the satellite from the planet are called the
apogee and perigee respectively.

9.3.3 The Gravitational Potential Energy


Consider a particle of mass m moving under the in luence of a larger
particle of mass . By using Eq. 9.10
and noting that ,

the change in the gravitational potential energy of the system as m


moves from to in the ield of M is

That is, as the particle of mass m moves toward or away from M, the
potential energy of the system decreases and increases respectively
Note that, the lighter particle (m) gains most of the kinetic energy as
the potential energy changes. By choosing the reference point at in inity
then and taking gives

For more than two-particle systems, there is more than one


gravitational force (one for each pair of particles). Hence, there is more
than one potential energy The total potential energy is the sum of the
potential energies of each pair. For example if there are three particles,
the total potential energy is

Force from Potential Energy The gravitational force may be obtained


from its corresponding potential energy. That is,
Example 9.13 Find the potential energy of the system as shown in
Fig. 9.20.

Solution 9.13

Fig. 9.20 The gravitational potential energy of a system of three particles

Example 9.14 Two particles of equal masses are separated by a


distance of 0.3 Find the potential energy of the system; (b) how
much work is required to reduce their separation to 0.1 to
increase their separation to 0.5

Solution 9.14
(a)

(b) The work done by the gravitational force is

that gives J. The work done by an external agent is

J.

(c) The work done by the gravitational force is

The work done by an external agent is

9.3.4 Energy in a Gravitational Force Field


The equation of motion in terms of energy is given by Eq. 9.12:
The gravitational potential energy of a two-particle system of masses M
and m is given by

In terms of u we may write


(9.28)
Furthermore, the solution of the equation (Eq. 9.26) of motion in the
gravitational force ield is

(9.29)

Substituting Eqs. 9.28 and 9.29 into Eq. 9.12 gives

That gives

or

Substituting this value of C into Eq. 9.29 gives


or

(9.30)

Comparing this equation with the polar equation of a conic section


(Eq. 9.22), we have

Fig. 9.21 Different paths

Thus the trajectory of the particle is an ellipse if , that is if


. Therefore, if the potential energy of the particle is greater than
its kinetic energy the particle’s path is an ellipse since it does not have
enough energy to reach in inity. The trajectory of the particle is a
parabola if and hence if . In that case, the kinetic energy of
the particle is equal to its potential energy and thus it can reach in inity
with zero kinetic energy. Finally, the trajectory of the particle is a
hyperbola if and therefore if . That is, if the kinetic energy
of the particle is greater than its potential energy, then it will reach
in inity with positive kinetic energy
Elliptical Orbit
Parabolic Orbit
Hyperbolic Orbit

Different paths are shown in Fig. 9.21.

9.4 Kepler’s Laws


After analyzing the astronomical data of the Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe, the German astronomer Johannes Kepler formulated his three
laws of planetary motion.

9.4.1 Kepler’s First Law


Every planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus as
shown in Fig. 9.21.
Fig. 9.22 From the irst property of a central force we have constant, where is a

constant vector perpendicular to the x-y plane

Proof
The gravitational force between the sun and a planet is

where and are the masses of the sun and the planet,
respectively The acceleration of the planet is

From the irst property of a central force, we have constant,


where is a constant vector perpendicular to the x–y plane (see
Fig. 9.22). Since and
we have

Using

Since and , we have

Also we have

since is a constant vector. That gives

or

where is a constant vector. Since


and since

we have

or

This equation is of a conic section and since the only closed conic
section is an ellipse the law is proved.

9.4.2 Kepler’s Second Law


The radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal periods of time.

Proof
This was proved in Sect. 9.1 as a property of a central force, where
we’ve seen that for any central force, the position vector of the
particle from the center of force sweeps out equal areas in equal
times. That is,

or

Here, the center of force is the sun and the particle is the planet, hence
we have
9.4.3 Kepler’s Third Law
The square of the period of revolution of any planet about the sun is
proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

Proof
The area of an ellipse is given by , where a and b are the
semimajor and semiminor axis of the ellipse, respectively. From
Kepler’s second law, the areal velocity is a constant given by

Therefore, the period of revolution may be considered as the time it


takes the radius vector to sweep an area of

From Sect. 9.3, we have . That gives

Also, we’ve seen that the eccentricity for the gravitational force is given
by or in the case of the planet–sun

system. Since , we have

or
Thus,

or

where is a constant that has a value given by

This proves Kepler’s third law. Note that, Kepler’s laws apply also for
satellites. In such cases, the mass of the sun in the previous equations is
replaced by the earth or any other planet about which the satellite
revolves.

9.5 Circular Orbits


The orbits of most planets in our solar system are almost circular. Next,
we will ind the total energy of a body of mass m moving in a circular
orbit about a massive body of mass M that is assumed to be ixed (at
rest) in an inertial frame of reference. From that energy, we will ind the
eccentricity and prove that the orbit is circular. The potential energy of
such system is

where r is the radius of the circular orbit. Applying Newton’s second


law to m gives
(9.31)
Therefore, the kinetic energy of the particle is

The total energy of m is therefore given by

or

(9.32)

In Sect. 9.4, the eccentricity of orbit in terms of energy was given by

(9.33)

Substituting Eq. 9.32 into Eq. 9.33 gives

Since for a circular orbit and since and thus

, we have

and
Hence the orbit is circular. The potential, kinetic, and total energy as
functions of r of an object in circular orbit are shown in Fig. 9.23.

Fig. 9.23 The potential, kinetic and total energy as functions of r of an object in a circular orbit

Example 9.15 A satellite of mass of 1000 kg is in circular orbit about


the earth at an altitude of . What is the amount of work required
to move the satellite to an altitude of

Solution 9.15

9.6 Elliptical Orbits


For an elliptical orbit, we have

(9.34)

Substituting Eq. 9.33 into Eq. 9.34 gives


That gives

The speed of an object in an elliptical orbit can be found from

9.7 The Escape Speed


The escape speed is the speed required for an object to escape
from the in luence of the gravitational ield of an astronomical object or
system. Suppose an object of mass m is projected from the surface of a
planet of mass M. The minimum speed for the object to escape the
gravitational ield of the planet is that in which the object has zero total
mechanical energy at in inity. From conservation of energy, we have

Table 9.2 Planetary data escape speeds

Body Mass (kg) Radius (m) Semimajor axis a (m) Escape speed (km/s)
Body Mass (kg) Radius (m) Semimajor axis a (m) Escape speed (km/s)
Mercury 4.3

Venus 10.3

Earth 11.2

Mars 5

Jupiter 60

Saturn 36

Uranus 22

Neptune 24

Pluto 1.1

Moon 2.3

Sun 618

Hence

where R is the radius of the planet. If the object’s initial speed is greater
than the escape speed from that planet, then the object will still have
some kinetic energy at in inity. Table.9.2 shows planetary data escape
speeds

Example 9.16 What is the escape speed from the surface of: (a) Earth;
(b) Mars; (c) Pluto.
Solution 9.16
(a)

(b)

(c)

Example 9.17 What must be the minimum speed of a spacecraft that is


at a distance of from the center of the earth in order for it to
escape the gravitational ield of the earth?

Solution 9.17
The minimum speed is that in which the spacecraft has zero total
mechanical energy at in inity,
Example 9.18 Given that the period of Mars in its orbit about the sun
is 1.88 years and its semimajor axis of the orbit is , ind

the mass of the sun.

Solution 9.18
The period in seconds is

From Kepler’s second law, we have

Example 9.19 Halley’s Comet moves in an elliptical orbit about the


sun. Its semimajor axis of orbit is and its farthest distance

from the sun (the aphelion) is . Find its

period and its closest approach to the sun (the perihelion ).

Solution 9.19
From Kepler’s third law,

From Eq. 9.23, we have

or
Example 9.20 If Pluto’s distance from the sun at perihelion is
, ind (a) the ratio of its speed at perihelion to its speed at

aphelion; (b) the eccentricity of orbit; (c) the total energy.

Solution 9.20
From Table. 9.2, we have , therefore

From the conservation of angular momentum,

hence,

(b) From Eq. 9.24 , we have

(c)

Example 9.21 Two stars of equal mass M revolve about their center of
mass with a speed v as shown in Fig. 9.24. Find the period of motion of
each star.
Fig. 9.24 Two stars of equal mass M revolve about their center of mass with a speed v

Solution 9.21
The gravitational force that one star exerts on the other is

where r is the radius of orbit. Therefore,

and

Example 9.22 A spaceship is ired from the surface of Mars with a


speed of ind its speed at a very far distance from Mars.

Solution 9.22
That gives

Problems
1.
Calculate the gravitational force between the earth and (a) the
sun, (b) the moon.
2.
Calculate the gravitational acceleration at the surface of Mars.
3.
Three particles of masses kg, kg, and kg
are located at the points (0, 0), (0, 5), and (5, 0), respectively. Find
magnitude and direction of the resultant gravitational force
exerted on
4.
The Geosynchronous satellites move in a circular orbit in the
equatorial plane of the earth. They move in such a way that they
always remain over the same point on the earth. Find the height
and velocity of this satellite.
5. If the eccentricity of the orbit of Mercury about the sun is
and its semimajor axis is AU, ind (a) the
distance of its farthest and closest approach to the sun (the
aphelion and perihelion), (b) its period, (c) its total energy, (d) its
angular momentum. .
6.

A body is released at a distance r from the center of the earth.
Find its velocity just as it hits the surface of the earth.
7.
Show that the speed of a satellite in an elliptical orbit about the
earth at apogee and perigee are given by

and

8.
An arti icial satellite moves in an elliptical orbit about the earth.
Its perigee and apogee altitudes are 1100 km and 4100 km
respectively Find (a) the velocity of the satellite at perigee and
apogee, (b) its semimajor axis, (c) its eccentricity, (d) the equation
of its orbit, (e) its period, (f) its speed when it is at a distance of
3000 km above the earth’s surface.
9.
A satellite is at a distance of from the center of the earth.
Find the speed required for the satellite at this altitude (where it
represents the orbit perigee) to be in (a) circular orbit, (b)
parabolic orbit, (c) elliptical orbit of eccentricity of
10.
Suppose the earth suddenly stops moving about the sun, ind the
time it would take the earth to fall to the sun.
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons
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The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative
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from the copyright holder.
© The Author(s) 2019
Salma Alrasheed, Principles of Mechanics, Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation: IEREK
Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15195-9_10

10. Oscillatory Motion


Salma Alrasheed1

(1) Thuwal, Saudi Arabia


Salma Alrasheed
Email: salma.alrasheed@kaust.edu.sa

10.1 Oscillatory Motion


A motion repeating itself is referred to as periodic or oscillatory
motion. An object in such motion oscillates about an equilibrium
position due to a restoring force or torque. Such force or torque tends
to restore (return) the system toward its equilibrium position no
matter in which direction the system is displaced. This motion is
important to study many phenomena including electromagnetic waves,
alternating current circuits, and molecules. For a vibration to occur, two
quantities are necessary to be present—stiffness and inertia.

10.2 Free Vibrations


When a system vibrates, a restoring force must be present. In addition
to that force, there is always a retarding or damping force such as
friction. If the effect of the damping force is small and can be neglected,
then the motion is classi ied as free and undamped motion. Otherwise,
the motion is classi ied as free damped motion. In both cases, the
motion is known as free vibration since no forces other than the
restoring and damping forces exist during vibration. If a driving force
that does positive work on the system exists, the motion is classi ied as
forced vibration.
This force may be applied externally to the system or sometimes is
produced within the system. In this chapter, the case in which a
restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement is
considered. The resulting motion is then known as a harmonic
vibration and the system is said to be linear. If the restoring force
depends on the displacement in some other way, the resulting motion is
known as anharmonic vibration and the system is said to be nonlinear.

10.3 Free Undamped Vibrations


This kind of motion is known as the simple harmonic motion. Next, we
will examine examples of such motion in physics.

10.3.1 Mass Attached to a Spring


Consider a block of mass m attached to a light spring of spring constant
k that is ixed at the other end (see Fig. 10.1). Suppose that the system
lies on a frictionless horizontal surface. For small displacements, the
restoring force acting on the block by the spring is given by Hook’s law

As we’ve mentioned in Sect. 4. 1, if the block is displaced slightly to the


right (for example to ), the restoring spring force will accelerate
the block to the left transferring its potential energy into kinetic energy
As the block reaches its equilibrium position , all of its potential
energy will be transformed into kinetic energy and it will overshoot to
the other side. Again, as it moves left, the spring force decelerates the
block to the right, transferring its kinetic energy into potential energy
until all of its energy is potential at where it comes to rest. At
that point, it accelerates back to and regains all of its kinetic
energy where it overshoots again to . Therefore, stiffness restores
the mass where inertia is responsible for the mass to overshoot. From
Newton’s second law we, have
or

or

(10.1)

where is called the natural angular frequency of the

system. The general solution of this equation is of the form


(10.2)

where and are arbitrary constants that can be found from the
initial conditions. Therefore, there are many possible motions with the
same angular frequency . By multiplying and dividing Eq. 10.2 by
, you can show that the solution may be written as

(10.3)

where is called the amplitude of motion and

is called the phase constant. In general, is chosen

such that and can be determined from the initial


conditions, i.e., from the values of the displacement and velocity when
the motion starts. The mass therefore oscillates between A and .
The quantity is called the phase angle. If this angle is
increased by , all physical quantities such as the displacement,
velocity, and acceleration repeat themselves. The plot of x versus t is
shown in Fig. 10.2. If A is ixed and is changed the motion will be the
same except that the same physical quantities will appear either earlier
or later than the preceding motion.

Fig. 10.1 A block of mass m attached to a light spring of spring constant k that is ixed at the other
end

Fig. 10.2 Plot of x versus t for a simple harmonic oscillator

10.3.1.1 The Period and Frequency of Motion


The period of motion is the time required for one complete cycle or
oscillation. Since the phase angle is changed by after one complete
cycle, we have for the mass–spring system,

or
The frequency is de ined as the number of complete cycles per unit
time

This frequency is called the natural frequency of the motion. The unit of
the frequency is cycles/s or hertz (Hz).

10.3.1.2 The Phase Difference


The phase constant is important when comparing two or more
oscillations of the same frequency Suppose a certain vibration has
, this means that at the displacement is maximum . If
a second vibration has also , then the two vibrations are said to
be in phase (see Fig. 10.3 part a). Otherwise, the two vibrations are out
of phase. If the phase constant of the second vibration is , then
the second vibration is leading the irst vibration in phase by . If
, then the second vibration is lagging the irst by . If , the
two vibrations are said to be in antiphase with each other (see Fig. 10.3
part b).
Fig. 10.3 a Two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency and same phase constant

but differing in amplitude. b Two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency and amplitude
but differing in phase by

10.3.1.3 The Velocity and Acceleration


The velocity of the mass is

(10.4)

This can also be written as

(10.5)

The acceleration of the mass is

(10.6)

or
(10.7)

Hence, the velocity and acceleration also vary harmonically with time
with amplitudes and , respectively, but they all have the same

angular frequency From Eqs. 10.5 and 10.7 you can see that the velocity
leads the displacement by or 90. The acceleration on the other
hand leads the velocity by and the displacement by or 180.
Figure 10.4 shows the displacement, velocity, and acceleration versus
time.
Fig. 10.4 The displacement, velocity and acceleration versus time

10.3.1.4 Boundary Conditions


Boundary conditions are used to ind A and for a speci ic vibration.
Suppose that the vibration is measured when the stopwatch is set to
zero, i.e., at and that at that instant the mass is released from rest
at a distance of from its equilibrium position. Substituting these
conditions into Eqs. 10.3 and 10.4, we have
(10.8)
(10.9)
Dividing Eq. 10.9 by Eq. 10.8 gives

Squaring and adding Eqs. 10.9 and 10.8 gives

or

Example 10.1 An object oscillates in simple harmonic motion


according to the expression . Find (a) the
amplitude, phase constant, period, and frequency of motion; (b) the
displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the object at the
time when the object irst reach

Solution 10.1
(a)
and

(b) At

At

at

(c) at

or

that gives
Example 10.2 A 9 kg object is moving along the -axis under the
in luence of a force given by N. Find (a) the equation of
motion; (b) the displacement of the mass at any time if at
and

Solution 10.2
(a)

hence,

(b) The general solution of this equation is

Since at , then and

also we have at , or

and therefore . Thus,

Example 10.3 A 0.3 kg block is attached to a spring of force constant


20 on a frictionless horizontal surface. If the initial displacement
and velocity of the system is 0.02 and 0.2 , respectively, ind the
period, amplitude, and phase constant of motion.

Solution 10.3

Example 10.4 A particle of mass m is dropped in a straight tunnel that


is drilled through the earth and which passes through the center of
earth as shown in Fig. 10.5. Show that the motion of the particle is
simple harmonic motion and ind its period.

Solution 10.4
Assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere of uniform density and
since the particle is inside the earth, then from Sect. 9. 2, the
gravitational force exerted on the particle by the earth is

Because this force is directly proportional to the displacement and is


opposite to it, then the particle will move in simple harmonic motion
about the center of the earth. The equation of motion is
hence,

Fig. 10.5 A particle of mass m is dropped in a straight tunnel that is drilled through the earth and
which passes through the center of earth

Example 10.5 A 0.4 kg block is connected to two springs of force


constants and as in Fig. 10.6. Find (a) the
total force acting on the block; (b) the period of motion.

Solution 10.5
The force that each spring exerts on the block acts in the opposite
direction of the displacement, therefore we have

Thus the two springs can be considered as one spring of a force


constant of . The period of motion is therefore

Fig. 10.6 A block connected to two springs

Fig. 10.7 A second block on top of a block connected to a spring

Example 10.6 A 6 kg block is connected to a light spring of force


constant of 300 on a frictionless horizontal surface. On top of it a
second block of mass of 2 kg is placed. If the coef icient of static friction
between the two blocks is 0.4 (see Fig. 10.7), ind the maximum
amplitude the system can have when it is in simple harmonic motion
such that there is no slipping between the blocks.

Solution 10.6
The maximum acceleration of the lower block is . In order

for the upper block not to slip, the force of static friction between the
two blocks must produce the same acceleration as the lower block. The
maximum statistical frictional force that can be exerted on the upper
block is and hence, the maximum acceleration that the force of
static friction can produce is . Therefore, . Since

we have

Fig. 10.8 A particle in uniform circular motion

10.3.2 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular


Motion
Consider a circle of radius A centered at the and axes as shown in
Fig. 10.8. Let A be the position vector of a particle rotating with a
constant angular speed in the anticlockwise direction. The particle
is thus in uniform circular motion. Suppose starts the rotation at
at an angle of measured from the positive -axis. At any time,
the angular position of the particle is given by , therefore the
vector position of the particle at any time is

Hence,

and

That is, as moves in uniform circular motion, its projection on the


x-axis moves in simple harmonic motion where the radius of the circle
is equal to the amplitude of motion. The projection of along the -
axis also undergoes simple harmonic motion. Thus, uniform circular
motion may be considered as a combination of the simple harmonic
motions of the projections of on each axis. These two simple
harmonic motions have equal amplitudes and angular frequencies but
are in quadrature with each other (they differ in phase by ). The
linear tangential velocity of the particle in this uniform circular motion
is given by

The component of the velocity is from Fig. 10.9 given by

The acceleration of the particle in uniform circular motion is just the


radial (centripetal) acceleration that is given by

The components of the acceleration (see Fig. 10.10) is


Hence as you can see, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the
projection of onto the (or axis) are the same as that of a simple
harmonic motion. From this, we conclude that the simple harmonic
motion can be represented as the projection of uniform circular motion
along a diameter of the circle.

Fig. 10.9 The velocity components of the particle

Fig. 10.10 The acceleration components of the particle


10.3.3 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Since in a simple harmonic oscillator, there aren’t any dissipative forces,
the total mechanical energy of the system is conserved and is equal to
the sum of its kinetic and potential energies, that is

Thus,

or

The equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillator can be obtained


from the total mechanical energy of the system as follows:

(10.10)

or

Hence
where . As the mass moves, its kinetic energy is

transformed into potential energy and vice versa. Figure 10.11 shows
the kinetic energy and potential energy of the system as a function of
time and as a function of the displacement respectively Note that the
variation of U and K with time is at twice the angular frequency of the
variation of x, v, and a with time. This is because the potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy twice in each cycle. The velocity of the
simple harmonic oscillator can be obtained from the total energy of the
system. From Eq. 10.10, we have

Hence, the maximum speed is at and is zero at which are


called the turning points as discussed in Chap. chap444.
Fig. 10.11 As the mass moves, its kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy and vice
versa

Example 10.7 A 0.3 kg mass is attached to a light spring. If the total


energy of the system is 0.025 and the amplitude of motion is 5 cm,
ind the period and frequency of motion.

Solution 10.7

hence

The period of motion is therefore

and the frequency is

Example 10.8 A 0.2 kg block is attached to a light spring of force


constant of 11 on a horizontal frictionless surface. If the block is
displaced a distance of 8 cm from its equilibrium position, ind (a) the
amplitude, the angular frequency, the period and the frequency of
motion when the block is released; (b) the maximum force exerted on
the block; (c) the total mechanical energy of the system; (d) the
maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the block; (e) the
velocity of the block when its displacement is 2 cm; (f) the acceleration
of the block when its displacement is 3 cm.

Solution 10.8
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Example 10.9 An object connected to a spring is in simple harmonic


motion on a frictionless surface. If the object’s displacement when
is , ind the amplitude of motion.

Solution 10.9

therefore

Example 10.10 A solid cylinder is connected to a light spring as in


Fig. 10.12. If the cylinder rolls without slipping along the surface, show
that the motion of the cylinder is simple harmonic motion and ind its
frequency.

Solution 10.10
At any instant the total mechanical energy is

Since the total mechanical energy is conserved

or
this equation is of a simple harmonic motion with

Fig. 10.12 A solid cylinder connected to a light spring

10.3.4 The Simple Pendulum


The simple pendulum is an example of an angular vibration in which
the restoring effect is due to a restoring torque. A simple pendulum
consists of a mass (called the bob) suspended by a light string of length
L that is ixed at the other end (see Fig. 10.13). If the mass is pulled to
the right or left from its equilibrium position and released, then the
pendulum will swing in a vertical plane about an axis passing through
O. The resulting motion is then a periodic or oscillatory motion. The
restoring torque is due to gravity and is given by

The minus sign indicates that the torque is a restoring torque, since it
always tends to decrease . The moment of inertia of the bob about an
axis passing through is
From Newton’s second law in angular form, we have

Hence,

or

(10.11)

This equation does not represent a harmonic motion. That is because


the torque is not directly proportional to the angular displacement.
Thus, the system is nonlinear. However for small angular
displacements, we have since

and Eq. 10.11 becomes

or
(10.12)

where . Hence for small angular displacements, the motion

is a simple harmonic motion. The solution of Eq. 10.12 is of the form

where is the maximum angular displacement and is the phase


constant. The plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 10.14. The period of
the simple pendulum is therefore given by
Fig. 10.13 The simple pendulum

Fig. 10.14 The displacement versus time of a simple pendulum

10.3.4.1 Energy
The kinetic energy of the simple pendulum is
Taking the reference point of potential energy of the system to be zero
when the bob is at the bottom, we have

The total energy is therefore given by

For small , we have since

thus

Since

we have

or

Therefore, the total energy of the system is constant. Figure 10.15


shows the variation of the kinetic and potential energies with the
displacement.
Fig. 10.15 The total energy of a simple pendulum

The equation of motion may also be obtained from energy as


follows:

or

Example 10.11 A simple pendulum is 0.5 long. Find its period at


the surface of Mars and compare it to its period at the earth’s surface.

Solution 10.11
At Mars’s surface, the gravitational acceleration is

The period at Mars is therefore

At the earth’s surface,


Thus,

Example 10.12 A simple pendulum of length of 2 is displaced


through an angle of and released. Find (a) the angular frequency of
motion; (b) the maximum angular speed and maximum angular
acceleration.

Solution 10.12
(a) The amplitude of motion is

The angular frequency is

(b) The maximum angular speed is

The maximum angular acceleration is

Example 10.13 A simple pendulum 1.4 in length is displaced


through an angle of and released. Find the velocity of the bob when
it reaches the bottom.

Solution 10.13
Taking the potential energy to be zero at the bottom, we have

Since is small, and therefore

and

Fig. 10.16 The physical pendulum

10.3.5 The Physical Pendulum


The physical pendulum is a rigid body that oscillates about an axis
passing through a point in the body other than its center of mass (the
center of mass is assumed to be located at the center of gravity).
Figure 10.16 shows a rigid body pivoted at point that is at a distance
d from the center of mass. The equilibrium position of the body is when
its center of mass is directly below the pivot O. If the body is displaced
either to the right or left from the equilibrium position, a restoring
torque due to gravity will act on it. As a result, the body will oscillate in
a vertical plane where the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the page.
The restoring torque is given by

where M is the mass of the body and d is the moment arm of the
tangential component of the weight . From Newton’s second
law, we have

For small angular displacements and hence

or

This equation is of a simple harmonic motion with an angular


frequency of

and a period of motion of

Thus,
Therefore, the moment of inertia of a body can be found by measuring
its period when it is in simple harmonic motion as a physical pendulum.
Note that, the simple pendulum is a special case of the physical
pendulum since for a simple pendulum of mass m, the moment of
inertia is

and thus, the angular frequency is

This angular frequency is of a simple pendulum where d represents the


length of the string.

Example 10.14 A uniform rod of length of 0.6 that is suspended at


one end oscillates with a small amplitude as in Fig. 10.17. Find the
frequency of motion.

Solution 10.14
Fig. 10.17 A uniform rod suspended at one end oscillated with a small amplitude

Fig. 10.18 A uniform square plate pivoted at one of its corners and oscillates in a vertical plane

Example 10.15 A uniform square plate of length a is pivoted at one of


its corners and oscillates in a vertical plane as in Fig. 10.18. Find the
period of motion if the amplitude is small.

Solution 10.15
The moment of inertia of a uniform rectangular plate about its center of
mass is
Thus for a uniform square plate, we have

From the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia of the plate about
an axis that is parallel to the center of mass axis and passing through
one corner is

and hence

Fig. 10.19 The torsional pendulum

10.3.6 The Torsional Pendulum


The torsional pendulum consists of a rigid body suspended by a wire
from its center of mass where the other end of the wire is ixed as
shown in Fig. 10.19. The body is in equilibrium if the wire is untwisted.
If the body is rotated through an angle it will oscillate about its
equilibrium position (the line OP) due to a restoring torque exerted by
the twisted wire on the body. This torque is found to be directly
proportional to the angular displacement of the body. That is

where k is called the torsional constant. Its value depends on the


property of the wire. Note that this equation is the rotational analogue
of Hook’s law in linear form . From Newton’s second law, we
have

or

That gives

or

where and the period is

Example 10.16 A uniform solid sphere of mass of 4.7 kg and radius of


5 cm is suspended at its midpoint by a light string (see Fig. 10.20)
where it oscillates as a torsional pendulum. If the period of motion is
3.5 , ind the torsion constant.

Solution 10.16
for a uniform solid sphere

hence,

Fig. 10.20 A uniform solid sphere suspended at its midpoint by a light string

10.4 Damped Free Vibrations


In this section, we will discuss the case in which the effect of damping
that is due to a nonconservative force cannot be neglected. An example
of such a force in mechanical systems is the force of friction. In this
case, the mechanical energy of the system will be lost, the amplitude of
motion will decrease to zero, and the oscillation dies out eventually.
Here, we will discuss damping due to friction in the simplest case,
where the frictional force is proportional to the irst power of the
velocity of the oscillating body. An example of such a frictional force is
the force that an object experience when moving in a luid with a low
speed and is given by

where b is a positive constant called the damping coef icient. Its SI units
is . The negative sign shows that the direction of the

force is always opposite to the velocity. Now consider the spring–mass


system as shown in Fig. 10.21, the cylinder shown in the igure contains
a viscous luid and a piston moving in it. Such device is known as the
viscous damper. The net force on the oscillating body is

Fig. 10.21 A mass-spring system with damping

hence

or
(10.13)
where and . The units of is . This equation

is a second order linear differential equation of constant coef icients.


We may assume a solution of the form
Substituting this solution into Eq. 10.13 gives the characteristic
(auxiliary) equation given by

The roots of this equation are given by

and

From superposition, the general solution is given by


(10.14)
Three possible solutions arise depending on whether the sign of the
bracket is positive, negative or zero, i.e., depending on the

size of the damping force. The roots and are either distinct real
roots, equal real roots or a conjugate complex roots. Therefore, there
are three possible motions of the system.

10.4.1 Light Damping (Under-Damped)


If the resulting roots are complex roots given by

and
where

Hence, Eq. 10.14 may be written as

Since we have

(10.15)

where and . As mentioned earlier


Eq. 10.15 can be written as

(10.16)

where A is the initial amplitude of motion. is called the amplitude

of motion and is the phase constant and is the angular frequency


of the damped motion. This equation shows that the system oscillates
in a decreasing harmonic motion where the amplitude of motion
decreases exponentially with time until eventually the oscillation dies
out (see Fig. 10.22). The dashed lines in Fig. 10.22 are called the
envelope of the oscillation curve. The period of motion in light damping
is therefore given by
If and thus the period of motion is reduced to that of a
simple harmonic oscillator. If , the situation is referred to as
very light damping and . Furthermore if there are two
amplitudes and separated by the period of motion, then their
ratio is given by

A quantity known as the logarithmic decrement is de ined as

Fig. 10.22 In A lightly damped oscillator, the system oscillates in a decreasing harmonic motion
where the amplitude of motion decreases exponentially with time until eventually the oscillation
dies out

Example 10.17 An 8 kg block is attached to a light spring and a light


viscous damper. If at and , ind (a) the
displacement at any time; (b) the logarithmic decrement.
.

Solution 10.17
(a)

and

since , the damping is light. The displacement as a function of


time is given by

or

since at , then

(10.17)

the velocity of the block at any time is


at and thus

(10.18)

Solving Eqs. 10.17 and 10.18 for A and gives rad and
Therefore,

(b)

10.4.2 Critically Damped Motion


If , then the roots are equal real roots

In that case, the motion decays without oscillation (see Fig. 10.23) and
the general solution of Eq. 10.13 is

and are found from boundary conditions. If at , and


then

and
or

That gives

Fig. 10.23 In a critically damped motion, the motion decays without oscillation

10.4.3 Over Damped Motion (Heavy Damping)


If , the roots are distinct real roots given by

and

The general solution is given by

or
where

and are found from boundary conditions. As critical damping,


the resulting motion here is nonperiodic but the system returns to its
equilibrium position at large values of t unlike critical damping (see
Fig. 10.24).

Fig. 10.24 As critical damping, the resulting motion here is non-periodic but the system returns
to its equilibrium position at large values of t unlike critical damping

Example 10.18 In Example 10.17, ind the range of values of the


damping coef icient for the system to be: (a) over damped; (b) critically
damped.

Solution 10.18 (a) over damped if , i.e., if

critically damped if

10.4.4 Energy Decay


In damped free vibrations, the total mechanical energy is not constant
since the damping force opposes the motion and dissipates the energy
of the system. Now, consider the mass–spring system, the total
mechanical energy of the system is
The rate of change of energy is

For damped vibrations in which the damping force is directly


proportional to the velocity, we have

Hence,

Thus, the energy decreases with time in any damped motion and the
rate in which it decreases is not uniform.

10.5 Forced Vibrations


In the previous sections, only free vibrations have been considered (i.e.,
vibrations in which only a restoring and damping force act within the
system during motion). This section considers the case in which an
external driving force is applied to the vibrator. This force is given as a
function of time and we have
(10.19)
Here, we will consider the case in which the force is a simple periodic
force given by
(10.20)
where is the amplitude and is the driving frequency. This force
does positive work on the system to balance the energy loss due to
damping. Substituting Eq. 10.20 into Eq. 10.19 gives
(10.21)
or

Let us assume that the solution of Eq. 10.19 is given by

then, we have

and

Substituting into Eq. 10.19 gives

That gives

and

Solving for and gives

and
Hence,

The term in brackets is of the form and thus it can


be written as where

i.e.,

and

where . Hence,

(10.22)

If the driving force is applied for a long time compared with the time
that the damped vibration dies out, then the system will eventually
vibrate at the same frequency of the deriving force. Therefore, the
general solution of Eq. 10.13 is called the transient solution since it
approaches zero in a relativity short time whereas Eq. 10.21 is called
the steady-state solution where the system oscillates with the same
frequency as the deriving force. Therefore, the amplitude of a steady-
state vibration is
When the deriving frequency approaches the natural frequency of
the system , the amplitude of the resulting forced oscillation will
increase. This is known as resonance. If the damping is very light, the
amplitude reaches its peak when the deriving frequency is nearly equal
to the natural frequency . As the damping becomes heavier, the
maximum amplitude shifts to lower frequencies (see Fig. 10.25). In the
case where there is no damping at all , the amplitude of
resonance is in inite at

Fig. 10.25 When the deriving frequency approaches the natural frequency of the system ,

the amplitude of the resulting forced oscillation will increase. This is known as resonance. If the
damping is very light the amplitude reaches its peak when the deriving frequency is nearly equal
to the natural frequency . As the damping becomes heavier, the maximum amplitude shifts to

lower frequencies

Example 10.19 In Example 10.17, if a driving force of the form


is applied to the system, ind the steady-state
displacement as a function of time.

Solution 10.19

Hence,

Therefore, the forced vibration has the same frequency as the deriving
force but lag in phase by

Example 10.20 In Example (10.17), ind the steady-state displacement


as a function of time if there is no damping.

Solution 10.20
The amplitude of the forced oscillation when the angular frequency
of the deriving force is varied.

Problems
1. A 2 kg block is fastened to a spring of force constant 98 on a
horizontal frictionless surface. If the block is released a distance

of 6 cm from its equilibrium position, ind (a) the angular
frequency, the frequency and the period of the resulting motion,
(b) the time it takes the block to irst reach cm and its
velocity at that time, (c) the maximum speed and maximum
acceleration of the oscillating block, (d) the total mechanical
energy of the oscillator.
2.
A 10 kg block is attached to a light spring of force constant 200
on a smooth horizontal surface. Find the amplitude of
motion if at the velocity of the block is
3.
A particle rotate counterclockwise in a circle of radius 0.2 with
a constant angular speed of 2 . If at the -coordinate
of the particle is 0.14 , ind the displacement, velocity and
acceleration of the particle at any time.
4.
If a simple pendulum has a period of 2 , ind its period when its
length is increased by .
5.
A simple pendulum of length lm and mass of 0.4 kg oscillates in a
region where . If the amplitude of oscillation is ,

ind (a) the angular displacement, angular velocity and angular


acceleration of the pendulum as a function of time.
6.
A uniform solid cylinder of radius R and mass M rolls without
slipping on a track of radius 4R as shown in Fig. 10.26. Find the
period of oscillation when the cylinder is displaced slightly from
its equilibrium position.
7.
A planer body of mass 3 kg oscillates as a physical pendulum. If
the period of oscillation is 3 and if the pivot point is at 0.2
from the center of mass, ind the moment of inertia of the body.
8.
A uniform hollow cylinder of radius R and mass M is suspended at
its midpoint from a wire and form a torsional pendulum. If the
period of motion is T, ind the torsion constant.
9. For the system shown in Fig. 10.27, determine the displacement of
the block at any time if at and
.
10.
For the system shown in Fig. 10.28, ind the steady-state
displacement as a function of time.

Fig. 10.26 A uniform solid cylinder of radius R and mass M rolls without slipping on a track of
radius 4R

Fig. 10.27 A damped oscillator


Fig. 10.28 A forced oscillator

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