Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr.

Akeel Ali Wannas

2 Chapter 2: Static Stability and Control

Lecture 3

Topics

2.1 Longitudinal Stability and Control

2.1.1 Longitudinal Control for Velocity Change

2.1.2 Maneuvering Flight

2.2 Lateral-Directional Stability and Control

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2.1. Longitudinal Control for Velocity Change

Static stability associated with an aircraft's longitudinal axis normally is

addressed by the sign of the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 stability derivative. A minus sign implies that a
perturbation increase in angle of attack from the flight trim setting will result in a

negative pitching moment being developed, where Δ𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 Δ𝛼 will be in a

direction to restore the aircraft 𝛼 back to 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 · The degree of longitudinal static
stability for an aircraft will depend on the location of the aircraft c.g. relative to
the neutral point.

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Design problems associated with the c.g. location are legendary; two early
examples are as follows.

1. An early U.S. Air Force jet fighter/trainer had many internal fuel tanks,
which required careful fuel management by the pilot throughout the flight
mission in order that the aircraft remain within acceptable c.g. boundaries.
2. An early supersonic jet bomber required careful fuel management during
transition between subsonic and supersonic flight.

Aircraft longitudinal control brings many requirements into play. These

requirements include the following.

1. The aircraft should be trimmable at a given value of CL, c.g. location, and
airframe configuration (e.g., flaps up, flaps down, flaps down with gear
extended, etc.).
2. The flight velocity should increase by pilot application of nose-down (+δ)
longitudinal control and decrease by a reversal of the control direction.
3. The aircraft must have a maneuvering capability to do either pull-ups or
turns subject to staying within the maneuvering (V-n) enyelope.
4. Recovery from transient maneuvers, such as incurred by aircraft wake and
turbulent gust encounters, must be possible using longitudinal control.

2.1.1 Longitudinal Control for Velocity Change

The trim velocity of an aircraft determines the equilibrium lift coefficient, which
in turn is established by the use of longitudinal control. There are two
independent variables, 𝛼 and 𝛿, which are determined by satisfying equilibrium
in lift and pitching moment for a given aircraft configuration. A graphical sketch

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

(Fig. 2.2) shows the Cm and 𝛼 variation with CL for fixed values of longitudinal
control as might be obtained from wind-tunnel tests on a scale model of the
aircraft. The zero-lift pitching-moment coefficient, when control 𝛿 = 0, is denoted
as 𝐶𝑚𝑜 in Fig. 2.2. The zero-lift intercept for a Cm-CL curve corresponding to a
positive trim CL value must be a positive value for a statically stable aircraft. The
𝛼 = const line on the Cm-CL plot is shown for various control angles. It is not at a
constant value of airplane CL due to a Δ𝐶𝐿 term arising from (𝐶𝐿𝛿 Δ𝛿). A stable
stall break also is shown in Fig. 3.1, which implies that when the airplane a
reaches and exceeds 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 , a negative change in pitching moment occurs to lower
the aircraft's nose for the initiation of stall recovery. A stall demonstration is a
dynamic maneuver used in the determination of the minimum flying speed for a
given airplane weight, configuration, and e.g. position.

It is customary in data plots of Cm vs CL to show (-) Cm toward the right, as in Fig.

2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Sketch of the Cm and 𝛼 variation with CL·

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

The initial trim point at CL1 may be found by considering the static equilibrium
relations in Cm and CL using Fig. 2.2 to clarify the expressions.

Moment equilibrium is given by

Lift equilibrium is given by

Where 𝛼𝑜 = 𝛼 for zero lift when control 𝛿 = 0 and 𝐶𝑚𝑜 is the pitching-moment
coefficient when 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑜 and 𝛿 = 0. Note that Cmo is invariant with respect to
c.g. position.

The two equilibrium equations may be combined in matrix form as

or symbolically as

……(2.1)

A solution for 𝛼1 and 𝛿1 at the trim value of CL, is found by premultiplying both
sides of Eq. (2.l) by the inverse of the matrix [A], i.e.,

….(2.2)
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

where

and

It can be seen from Eq. (2.2) that trim at a second value of lift coefficient, CL2 ,
will require 𝛼 and 𝛿 to satisfy Eq. (2.2) by the following relation

The determination of the 𝛼 and 𝛿 values at a given trim CL, assumed that thrust
induced lift force and pitching moments were negligible. Coupling of the trim
relation Eq. (2.2) would be handled by introducing thrust-related stability
derivatives. The thrust values used with these derivatives would primarily depend
on maintaining x-axis force equilibrium and would reflect whether the aircraft
was in level flight or in a climb/descent condition.

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Example 2.1

An aircraft described by

W/S = 2394.012 N/m2 Stick fixed neutral point at 0.35c

𝑪𝒎𝒐 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝑪𝒎𝜹 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅−𝟏 𝑪𝑳𝜶 = +𝟓. 𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅−𝟏
𝑪𝑳𝜹 = +𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅−𝟏 𝜶𝒐 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝑽𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟏𝟏𝒎/𝒔𝟐 1
𝑽𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
Initial c.g. position corresponds to a 5.0% static margin,

Assume that linearity prevails and that both compressibility effects and
propulsion system interactions are negligible.

Determine

1) 𝛼 and 𝛿 for a given initial trim velocities and c.g. position and ;

2) the variation of 𝛿 required to change air speed at a given c.g. position.

Solution:

The dynamic pressure at trim is

𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝝆𝒐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝟐

The trim lift coefficient is

𝑾
( ) 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟏𝟐
𝑪𝑳 𝟏 = 𝑺 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟔𝟑
𝑸𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟔

Because the lift coefficient at trim point equal the weight

1
Equivalent airspeed (EAS)
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Then obtain 𝐶𝑚𝛼=

𝚫𝒙
𝑪𝒎𝜶= 𝑪𝑳𝜶 ( ) = 𝟓. 𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅−𝟏 ∗ −𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅−𝟏
𝒄 𝒏𝒑

Expanding the terms in accord with Eq. (2.2) for the assumed aircraft trim
condition yields

𝜶𝟏 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔
{ 𝜹 } = [𝑨]−𝟏 { } + [𝑨]−𝟏 { }
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟔𝟑 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟑
where

[𝑨]−𝟏 = { 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟖 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟒

} 𝒓𝒂𝒅
−𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟗 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟖
Completion of the matrix operations gives

𝜶𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗𝟑 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖
{𝜹 } = { } 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = { } 𝒅𝒆𝒈
𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒
Reconsider the previous steps for V = 192.6 m/s2 and find 𝛼2 and 𝛿2

for (x/c)cg = 0.30 from Eq. (2.2),

𝟏
𝑸𝟐 = 𝝆𝒐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 ∗ 𝟗𝟐. 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟐. 𝟎𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝟐

𝑾
( ) 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟒. 𝟎𝟏𝟐
𝑪𝑳 𝟐 = 𝑺 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟖
𝑸𝟐 𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟐. 𝟎𝟒

𝜶𝟐 𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟔
{ 𝜹 } = [𝑨]−𝟏 { } + [𝑨]−𝟏 { }
𝟐 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟑
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

𝜶𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟗 𝟒. 𝟐𝟑
{𝜹 } = { } 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = { } 𝒅𝒆𝒈
𝟐 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟐
Application of Eq. (2.2) to two CL values gives the change in both 𝛼 and 𝛿 to
change the aircraft trim CL from CL1 to CL2 • Here

𝜶𝟐 − 𝜶𝟏 𝟎
{ 𝜹 − 𝜹 } = [𝑨]−𝟏 { }…(2.3)
𝟐 𝟏 𝑪𝑳𝟐 − 𝑪𝑳𝟏

Or

𝚫𝜶 𝟎
{𝚫𝜹 } = [𝑨]−𝟏 { } …..(2.4)
𝚫𝐂𝐋

Dividing all column elements in Eq. (3.4) by 𝚫𝐂𝐋 and taking the limit as 𝚫𝐂𝐋
tends to zero leads to a sensitivity analysis; i.e.,

𝒅𝜶
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝟎 −𝑪
{ 𝒅𝜹 } = [𝑨]−𝟏 { } = 𝟏/𝚫 { 𝒎𝜹 }…(2.5)
𝟏 𝑪𝒎𝜶
𝒅𝑪𝑳

The controllability term of interest is the slope of the 𝛿 vs V curve shown in Fig.
2.3 at the trim velocity. Here

𝒅𝜹 𝒅𝜹 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝟐𝑪𝑳 𝑪𝒎𝜶

= . =− . ….(2.6)
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑽 𝑽 𝚫

where

𝑪𝑳 𝑪𝑳 𝑪𝑳 𝑽−𝟐
𝑪𝑳 = − = = 𝝆
𝑸𝑺 𝚫 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑺
𝑺 𝟐
𝟐

𝒅𝑪𝑳 −𝟐𝑪𝑳 𝑽−𝟑 −𝟐𝑪𝑳 𝟐𝑪𝑳

= 𝝆 = = −
𝒅𝑽 𝑺 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑽
𝟐 𝑺. 𝑽
𝟐
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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Conclusions from above example 2.1

The analyses just shown were extended to a velocity range of V from 180
knot to 320 knot with trim at V = 𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟏𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 and for e.g. locations at 0.30c,
0.25c, and 0.20c. Figure 2.3 summarizes the effect of e.g. location on longitudinal
control demands when changing airspeed from a trim position for the assumed
aircraft in steady flight.

Fig. 2.3 Longitudinal control for airspeed change.

The airspeed changes from level-flight trim shown in Fig. 2.3 will result in
the airframe either descending or ascending unless thrust changes are made.
𝜕𝐶𝐿
Example 2.1 assumed that thrust related derivatives were zero; i.e., = 0 and
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 0. Also, the matrix [A] in Example 2.1 varied only with respect to the
𝜕𝑇

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Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 3 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

influence of c.g. position on the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 derivative in order to illustrate first

principles.

When Eq. (2.6) is applied to Example 2.1 at the trim velocity of V =

𝟏𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟏𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 with a 5% static margin, the 𝑑𝛿/𝑑𝑉 derivative determination
provides a slope of +0.0074 deg/kn as noted in Fig. 2.3. A low 𝑑𝛿/𝑑𝑉 gradient
may make holding a trim velocity difficult.

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