8614 All Slides
8614 All Slides
Ehtesham Abbas
The term statistics refers to a set of methods and rules
for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information.
statistics is a way of gathering information and data.
Data -> statistics ->information
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
. Inferential Statistics
As the name implies, describes
the data. Descriptive statistics are techniques that
consist of methods for
organizing and summarizing allow a researcher to
information. study samples and then
These are statistical procedures
that are used to organize, make generalizations
summarize, and simplify data.
about the populations
Descriptive statistics organizes
scores in the form of a table or from which they are
a graph
selected.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
“It is the parameter, characteristics or attribute which is
usually recorded in an experiment.”
For example, variable is gender and attributes may be male
and female.
The variables that yield numerical
information/measurement are called quantitative
or
numerical variable and the variable that yield non-
numerical information or measurement
are called qualitative or categorical variable
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
There are two basic types of variables –
quantitative and categorical.
Each uses different type of analysis and
measurement.
There are four types of measurement scales:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
A scale of a variable gives certain structure to
the variable and also defines the meaning of
the variable. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Types of measurement scales
Nominal Measurement
is the values “name” the attribute uniquely.
Ordinal Measurement
Ordinal level variables are nominal level variables with a
meaningful order.
True differences are not possible just order possible
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Types of measurement scales
Nominal – categories
Gender, ethnicity, etc.
Ordinal – ordered categories
Rank in class, order of finish, etc.
Interval – equal intervals
Test scores, attitude scores, etc.
Ratio – absolute zero
Time, height, weight, etc.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
The Scientific Method
i) Ask a question
ii) Define the Problem
iii) Forming a Hypothesis
iv) Conducting the Experiment / Testing the Hypothesis
v) Analyzing the Results
vi) Drawing Conclusions
vii) Communicate the Results
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Basic Terms
VARIABLES
Variables are characteristics of an item or individual and are
what you analyze when you use a statistical method.
DATA
Data are the different values associated with a variable. Data
is plural its singular is Datum.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Data values are meaningless unless their variables have
operational definitions, universally accepted meanings that
are clear to all associated with an analysis.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Basic Terms
POPULATION
A population consists of all individuals about which you want
to draw a conclusion. The population is the “large group.”
SAMPLE
A sample is the portion of a population selected for analysis.
PARAMETER
A parameter is a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of a population.
STATISTIC
A statistic is a numerical measure that describes a sample
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Variable
effect
Variables in Research Context
In research, change variables are referred as
independent variables while the outcome variables are
known as dependent variables.
In cause effect relationship, there are some unmeasured
variables affecting the relationship. These are called
extraneous variables.
The variables linking cause-effect relationship are called
intervening variables. 7/16/2020 8
Design of Study
A study that investigates causation or association may be
controlled, experimental, quasi-experiment, an ex post facto or
non-experimental study.
Active Variables: these variables can be changed or
controlled; and
Attribute Variables: these variables can be controlled or
changed and refer to characteristics of study population.
Demographic features like age, gender, education,
7/16/2020 9
qualification and income etc. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Some Common Variables
Binary Variables:
They are also called dichotomous variables. These
variables take only two values. For example, male or
female, true or false, yes or no, improved or not improved.
Polychotomous variables:
If the variables have more than two values, they are called
polychotomous variables.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
7/16/2020 10
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Variables Types
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
a Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
7/16/2020 11
Variable Types…..
Categorical Variables:
Usually an independent variable or predictor contains
values indicating membership in more than one possible
categories. For example, gender (male or
female), marital status (married, single, divorced, widow),
or brand of a product
and criterion.
Variable Types…..
Moderating variable: changes the strength of an effect
between independent and dependent variables. For example,
psychotherapy may reduce stress levels for women more than
men, so sex moderates the effect between psychotherapy and
stress levels.
Nuisance Variable: an extraneous variable that increases
variability overall.
Outcome variable: similar in meaning to a dependent variable,
but used in a non-experimental study.7/16/2020 23
Variable Types…..
Predictor variable: similar as independent variable, but used
in regression and in non-experimental studies.
Responding variable: an informal term for dependent
variable, usually used in science fairs.
Scale Variable: same as measurement variable.
Study Variable (Research Variable): can mean any variable
used in a study, but does have a more formal definition when
used in a clinical trial. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
7/16/2020
After Saving 24
this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Data
Data is any information collected by the researcher.
Primary Data is originated by the researcher for the first time
for addressing his research problem.
The data can be collected using various methods like survey,
observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaire,
questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators, personal
interviews, telephonic interviews, focus groups discussion,
case studies.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And7/16/2020 25
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Secondary Data
The information already collected and recorded by any other
person with a purpose not relating to current research problem.
It is readily available form of data and saves time and cast of
the researcher. This data may be limited in a number of ways
like relevance and accuracy.
Examples of secondary data are censuses data, publications,
internal records of the organizations, reports, books, websites,
journal articles.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And 7/16/2020 26
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Diff. bet. Primary & Secondary Data
The Primary data refers to the data originated by the researcher
for the first time.
Secondary data is already existing data, collected by other
researchers, agencies, and organizations.
Primary data is collected to address the problem in hand.
Collection of primary data is a laborious process.
On the other hand, collection of secondary data is easy and
rapid. For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
7/16/2020 27
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Diff. bet. Primary & Secondary Data
Sources of primary data are survey, observations, physical
testing, mailed questionnaire, personal interviews, telephonic
interviews.
On the other hand, sources of secondary are censuses data,
publications, internal records, reports, journal articles, websites
Collection of primary data requires large amount of resources.
On the other hand collection of secondary data is expensive
and easily available.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And 7/16/2020 28
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Diff. bet. Primary & Secondary Data
Primary data is specific to the researcher’s needs. He can
control the quality of research.
On the other hand, secondary data is neither specific to
researcher needs nor has he control over the quality of data.
Primary data is available in the raw form while secondary data
has undergone statistical procedures and is in refined from.
Data collected from primary sources are more reliable and
accurate than the secondary sources.
7/16/2020 29
Population and Sample
A research Population is a large collection of individuals or
objects to which the researcher wants to apply the study results.
Population is the main focus of a research question. Aresearch
population is also known as a well-defined collection of
individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Sample: Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
7/16/2020 31
Types of Population
The Target Population is referred to the entire group of
individuals or objects to which a researcher is interested
to generalize the conclusions. This type of population
usually has varying degree of characteristics.
The Accessible Population is also known as the study
population. It is the population to which a researcher can
apply the conclusions of the study. This population is a
subset of the target population. 7/16/2020 32
Sampling Methods
Sampling
Methods
Non-
Probability
Probability
Sampling
Sampling
7/16/2020 33
Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, each individual in chosen with a
known probability.
This type of sampling is also known as random sampling
or representative sampling; and depends on objective
judgment.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
7/16/2020 34
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Cluster Sampling
7/16/2020 35
Simple Random Sampling
In random sampling each member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected as subject.
Each member is selected independently of the other member
of population.
In a commonly used method each member of the population is
assigned a unique number. All assigned numbers are placed in
bowl and mixed thoroughly.
The researcher, then blind-folds and picks numbered tags from
7/16/2020 36
the bowl.
Pros & Cons of Random Sampling
Advantages of Simple Random Sampling
It is an easy way of selecting a sample from a given population. This
method is free from personal bias. As each member of the population
is given equal opportunities of being selected so it a fair way and one
can get representative sample.
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling
One of the most obvious limitations of random sampling method is its
need of complete list of all members of population. For larger
population, usually this list is not available. In such case, it is better to
use other sampling techniques. 7/16/2020 37
Systematic Sampling
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly
picks the first item or the subject from the population. Then he
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
selects each 9th subject from the list.
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
7/16/2020 50
Self Assessment Activity
Q. 1. Define variable. Write commonly used types of variable?
Q. 2. What do you understand by the term “data”?
Q. 3. Write down the types of data?
Q. 4. What is population?
Q. 5. What do you understand by the target population?
Q. 6. What do you mean by the assessable population?
Q. 7. What do you mean by the term “sample”?
Q. 8. Write down the types of probability sampling.
Q. 9. Write down the types of non-probability sampling.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And 7/16/2020 51
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
7/16/2020 52
BY:
Ehtesham Abbas
Graphical representation of data is for the
purpose of easier interpretation.
Facts and figures as such do not catch our
attention unless they are presented in an
interesting way.
Graphical representation of data is the most
commonly used interesting modes of
presentation.
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
Bar charts are commonly used graphical
representations of data used to visually display to
compare values.
They are easy to create and interpret.
Data for a bar chart are entered in columns.
Each numeric data value becomes a bar.
X-axis represents the different categories, the y-axis
does have a scale and indicates the units of
measurement.
By:
Ehtesham Abbas
An average is a single value, which represents
the set of data as whole. Since the average
tends to lie in the center of distribution they
are also called measure of central tendency.
There are three methods of measuring the
center of any data.
Arithmetic mean
The Median
The Mode
For Daily Updates Regarding Allama Iqbal Open University And
Different Educational Institue, Save This Contact 03127644396.
After Saving this Contact Reply With "Yes Saved"
And Get Daily Alerts. (In Sha Allah)
It is defined as the sum of all the observations
divided by the number of observations. It is
denoted by X.
When to use Arithmetic Mean:
We use arithmetic mean, when we are required
to study social, economic and commercial
problems like production, price, export and
import. It helps in getting average income,
average price, average production etc.
5,
10, 12, 16, 8, 42, 25, 15, 10, 7
Solution:
5+10+12+16+8+42+25+15+10+7=150/10
Mean = 15