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J Relig Spiritual Aging. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2020 December 16.
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Published in final edited form as:

J Relig Spiritual Aging. 2019 ; 31(2): 168–186. doi:10.1080/15528030.2018.1532859.

Spiritual resilience: Understanding the protection and promotion

of well-being in the later life
Lydia Manning, PhDa, Morgan Ferris, MAb, Carla Narvaez Rosario, MDa, Molly Prues, MAa,
Lauren Bouchard, MSa
aConcordia University Chicago, Division of Human Services, USA
bArgosy University Chicago, Chicago, USA
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Abstract
Spirituality is important to a large percentage of the older adult population and serves as a key
factor of resilience. Using qualitative research, we conducted and analyzed interviews with 64
participants willing to discuss their experiences with adversity; ranged in age from 52 to 93 with a
mean age of 74. For the purposes of this study, we analyzed 46 of the 64 interviews selecting
participants who indicated that spirituality was an important resource for managing hardship. The
researchers examined the connections between spirituality and resilience. Using in-depth
interviews, we explored the interplay between spirituality and resilience and the importance
spirituality plays in dealing with adversity and hardship. A grounded theory analysis of the 46
interviews was performed. Major findings include participants’ use of spirituality as a tool to
promote and maintain resilience in late life in five key domains: reliance on relationships, spiritual
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transformation, spiritual coping, power of belief, and commitment to spiritual values and practices.
Results are presented as an interpretation of the participants’ perceptions of their spirituality, and
indicate their reliance on spirituality to overcome hardship. In addition, we discuss the connections
between spirituality and resilience and how these connections play out in the lives of older adults
when considering their generational and cohort status. The roles these two constructs play in the
lives of older adults are considered.

Keywords
spirituality; resilience; well-being; qualitative methods
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Introduction
Resilience is universally understood as a form of adaptation, or flourishing in the face of
adversity (Hildon, Smith, Netuveli & Blane, 2008; Van Kessel, 2013). Resiliency is achieved
through the utilization of various internal and external resources (Van Kessel, 2013).
Although resilience appears to be a common phenomenon, there is still a lack of clarity on
how it is achieved on an individual basis (Seery, 2011). The importance of resiliency stems

Corresponding author/bio: Lydia Manning is an Associate Professor of Gerontology at Concordia University-Chicago. She can be
contacted at lydia.manning@cuchicago.edu; College of Graduate and Studies, Concordia University-Chicago, 7400 Augusta Street,
River Forest, IL 60305.
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from evidence that, ‘As individual grow older, greater resilience may lead to a more
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meaningful and satisfying old age’ (Wagnild & Collins, p.32, 2009). Several studies focused
on resilience as a contributor of longevity, and that it becomes even more profound at a very
advanced ages (Zeng & Shen, 2010). A burgeoning interest in resilience among the aging
population from different cohorts and demographics, allows for an opportunity to understand
and identify coping tools and associated characteristics. More specifically, coping, a key
component of the resilience process, is a universal human activity, for opportunity and
adversity are universal human experiences.

Additionally, interest in resilience among older adults from different cohorts and population
demographics allows us to better understand and identify the importance of spirituality as a
coping tool, a way of being, or an expression of meaning and purpose. Wagnild and Young
(2009) argued that as individual grow older, greater levels of resilience may lead to a more
meaningful and satisfying old age. According to research, we know that resilience and
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spirituality are linked. It is plausible that both spirituality and resilience may vary across
cohorts. Several studies have focused on resilience as a contributor of longevity, and that it
becomes even more profound at a very advanced ages (Zeng & Shen, 2010).

Within the last two decades, spirituality has been identified as one such factor that might
play a role in promoting and fostering positive outcomes in aging. Despite the secularization
of society over the last fifty years, studies show that there has been an increase in spiritual
growth and religious activity in older adults (Lavretsky, 2014). Within the United States,
which was founded in the Judeo-Christian tradition, religious practice and participation is
predominant (Lavretsky, 2014). Over 90% of Americans believe in a God or higher power;
69% belong to a church or synagogue; and 82% acknowledge a need for spiritual growth
(Lavretsky, 2014). As Ramsey (2012) noted, “the scholarly interest in the spiritual
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dimension in psychology is relatively recent” (p.134). Despite the growing interest in

research on spirituality and resilience, much of the current body of research is “atheoretical,
contradictory, and underdeveloped” (Ramsey, 2012, p. 134). In the research presented here,
we aim to theorize and develop the construct of spiritual resilience and the meaningfulness it
provides to the aging experience.

Resilience and Aging

Relative to our inquiries, resilience is thought to be a dynamic process, changing over time
in response to various life experiences (Van Kessel, 2013). As Ramsey (2012) posited,
resilience should be viewed as both a process and an outcome because the ability to cope
under adverse circumstances is partly a result of the experience of living through difficult
experiences throughout a lifetime. Thus, resilience is not a static concept, but rather
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continually accumulates over the life course (Lavretsky, 2014). When investigating
resilience, the challenge then becomes not only comprehending resilience as a whole, but
also gaining a better understanding of how older adults master the challenge of aging and
experience well-being. With aging there are negative associated losses such as decline of
body and mind, loss of friends and family, and a higher prevalence of physical diseases and
impairments (Nygren et. al., 2005). With more challenges to face than any other segment of
the population, it is crucial we explore sources of resilience for the aging and older adults.

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Therefore, as Ramsey (2012) argued, the definition of resilience must include “temporal and
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spatial dimensions” (p. 132). Further, as diverse populations are studied through “multiple
cosmological lenses,” researchers are coalescing around the idea that “a rigorous definition
of resilience is multi-level, process-focused, evidence-based, context-respectful, and
spirituality-inclusive” (O’Grady, Orton, White, & Snyder, 2016 p. 166).

In previous bodies of research, the concept of resilience is ambiguous and remains ill-
defined, with much of it limited to those who are medically ill, who have experienced recent
loss, or children overcoming adversity (Greene, 2002; Van Kessel, 2013; Nakashima, 2005;
Vahia, 2010). There are few studies considering how older adults might seek to achieve and
maintain their resilience (Hildon, Smith, Netuveli & Blane, 2008). Subsequently, this gap in
the literature further limits our understanding of resilience and that factors that bolster if
over the life course. Ultimately, more needs to be understood about the nature of adversity.
Further qualitative research could seek insight as to how the aging experience adversity,
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what they perceive to be adversity, and what tools they use to overcome adversity (Van
Kessel, 2013). Manning (2013) argued that the response to these challenges is beyond
merely coping; but rather “it is about learning, growing, and being positively transformed by
adversity” (p. 1). Within this framework, resilience is not a process of merely “making it
through” an adversity, but rather the process of being transformed by it (Manning, 2013).
Resilience from trauma or loss encompasses recovery, sustainability, and growth that occur
over a period of time (Ramsey, 2012; Manning, 2013). The “emotional and cognitive aspects
of resilience can be innate or learned” (Lavretsky, 2014, p.14). This allow us to study
acquired coping tools and mechanism during the life course experiences of this older adults
confronting adversity, and identify factors that influence resilience.

Relationship Between Spirituality and Resilience

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Spiritualty and resilience are correlated. Faigin and Pargament (2011) argued, “reliance on
spirituality also provides consolation and comfort throughout life and hopes for recovery
during times of illness” (p.172). Among older adults specifically, it is reported religion holds
the greatest presence and influence on daily life than any other age population (Faigin &
Pargament, 2011; Pickard & King, 2011). Studies have shown that there is a complex and
dynamic relationship between spirituality and resilience (Tuck & Anderson, 2014). As an
aspect of resilience, spirituality provides a framework that guides individuals through the
challenges of life, facilitating the positive from the negative (Ardelt, Ai, & Eichenberger,
2008). In the qualitative study conducted by Manning (2013), the participants experienced
spirituality as a means or pathway to resilience. In addition, the study found that spirituality
and resilience were “instrumentally linked” to having and maintaining well-being (Manning,
2013, p. 6). Although there are different theories of faith development, researchers agree that
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spirituality is a life-long process (Lavretsky, 2014).

The importance of understanding spirituality as a source of resilience extends past the moral
guidance or belief system it provides many. Religion and spirituality are alternatives to
medical treatment gaps, or may complement existing treatments (Pickard & King, 2011).
Religiousness, belief systems, and spirituality sources have been associated in several
studies to increased levels of happiness, well-being, and life satisfaction strengthening

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resilience (Faigin & Pargament, 2011; Pargament & Cummings, 2010; Pickard & King,
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2011). These beliefs are particularly useful because they are not lost or impaired with
physical disability, unlike many other coping resources that are dependent on health (e.g.
hobbies, social relationships, or job; Koenig, 2012). In addition, finding meaning in life,
reframing loss narratives, and building community are some of the ways in which
spirituality reinforces resilience and supports individuals as they age (Ramsey & Blieszner,
2013). Spirituality is comprised of cognitive, affective, and relational elements that work in
tandem to support an individual’s ability to handle the challenges of later life, such as illness
and loss, as well as to enhance the experience of aging (Ramsey, 2012). With the research
presented here, we seek to better understand the interplay between spirituality and resilience
for adults as they navigate hardship and deal with adversity later life.

Spirituality, Resilience, Well-Being and Aging

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Additionally, the term well-being is frequently used interchangeably, whether it is denoting

one’s health or their quality of life (George, 2011). In older adults specifically, examining
well-being is essential. Spirituality in itself is often perceived as a state of well-being
(Schwarz & Cottrell, 2007). As individuals age, spiritual well-being has been reported to
become more significant as a source of strength (Schwarz & Cottrell, 2007). Benefits of
maintaining a spiritual well-being often include positive health outcomes, discovering
meaning and purpose, and facilitating coping mechanisms (George, Kinghorn, Koenig,
Gammon & Blazer, 2013).

Much like resilience, the role spirituality provides in the context of older adults’ mental
health is not well understood (Vahia, 2010). Previous bodies of literature indicate spiritual
beliefs and practices have the potential to enhance personal strengths and support growth
and healing (George, 2000). Spirituality can also benefit health (Nakashima, 2005).
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Research suggests spirituality increases as the individuals age, especially if an older adult is
active and engaged in their own spiritual development (Wink & Dillon, 2002).

When examining the relationship between spirituality and resilience, we discovered the
importance spirituality could play in dealing with adversity and hardship for older adults.
Additionally, we explored this variation across age groups for participants in the study. It is
essential we continue to explore new pathways of resilience in older cohorts, particularly
those pertaining to spirituality. From our narratives, accounts of internal and external
spirituality emerged, many that appeared to be present throughout the individuals’ life spans.
We thoroughly investigated how these various forms of spirituality could fit into a resilience
framework. The key themes and conceptual framework are discussed in the remaining
sections.
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These detailed narratives exemplified that many participants used a form of spirituality as a
source of resilience. Varied responses showed participants used spirituality in a myriad of
ways in order to achieve resiliency throughout their lives. Spirituality can be defined as
encompassing beliefs, practices, and experiences in a quest to find meaning or purpose. It
allows humans to make sense of complex experiences within the search for significance
while allowing for connection to something greater than themselves (Atchley, 2009; Nelson-
Becker, 2006; Pickard & King, 2011). In the broadest sense, resilience is fluid, dynamic, and

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partially understood process of bouncing back. This process reflects a person’s ability to
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adapt well in the face of adversity and recover from distressing events while managing the
related hardships (Manning, 2013).

Spiritual resilience is the ability to sustain one’s sense of self and purpose through a set of
beliefs, principles or values while encountering adversity, stress, and trauma by using
internal and external spiritual resources. In seeking to better understand these constructs, the
following research questions were asked: 1. How do older adults experience adversity and
what internal and external resources do they draw on to deal with tragedy and hardship? 2.
What is the relationship between spirituality and resilience for participants? 3. How did they
experience their spirituality in relation to hardships, challenges, or adversities in their lives?

Methods
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Design and Sample

In this qualitative study we employed a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss,
1990) to understand and theorize how older adults experienced and navigated hardship and
adversity. Data were collected using an interview format and findings from the data
emerged. Participants were not randomly selected or predetermined during the initial
planning stages of the project; rather older adults were selected to participate in this study
based on the first-hand experience with the phenomenon of interest – having experienced
hardship and adversity at some point in their lives. This study used a theoretical sampling
approach, common in qualitative design and in this case for the use in a grounded theory
approach (Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The participants in this study
illustrate a convenience sample of older adults ages 52 to 94, who were willing and able to
discuss their experiences of adversity and hardship. Older adults were sought based on a
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variety of settings and living arrangements, and the participants resided in the Southeastern
region of the United States and were community dwelling.

After participants identified themselves as being interested in participating in the project,

each participant was contacted by email or telephone. We introduced ourselves, and
explained the nature and intent of our study. The date, time and location for the first meeting
were agreed upon. The sample size was 64. Initial interviews lasted from one to two hours.
Participants were asked a series of questions about how they defined resilience, what were
recent and earlier experiences with adversity and hardships, and what were the internal and
external resources used in dealing with these experiences of overcoming. The findings we
present here come from the portions of the interviews were participants addressed their
understanding of the connections between spirituality and resilience in which they focused
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on how their experiences of hardship are most shaped by their spirituality.

A grounded theory approach was then employed to analyze the narrative data from
interviews. This approach examines the contents of the data for the common themes or
patterns, which evolve from the narrative (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
The themes and patterns were either observations or a concept that are repeatedly reported
by informants. Grounded theory is an appropriate qualitative method for this project. Strauss
and Corbin (1990) explained that grounded theory is an approach that uses a systematic set

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of procedures to develop an inductively derived emergent theory about a phenomenon, or to

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refine concepts in order to construct theory. The primary objective of grounded theory is to
expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that
phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the social context
out of which they are derived and using the systematic process of constructivism
accordingly. In this case, we were expanding on the phenomenon of resilience, and the
connections between spirituality and resilience in late life. We arrived at an emergent theory,
conceptualizing the relationship between resilience, spirituality, and subjective well-being
for the participants. This theory is discussed below in the findings section.

Through constant-comparison analysis, interpretations, and syntheses of our emergent

themes, as well as taking into consideration the existing literature on spirituality, resilience,
and aging several main findings emerged. These are presented below. Emergent findings
were then categorized into larger concepts or major themes from the data, reflecting the
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substantive nature of spiritualty and the implication it has for resilience.

These analyses incorporated how the participants in this study experienced and lived their
resilience in a manner that allowed us as the researchers to arrive at an emergent theory
regarding the interplay between spirituality and resilience, or how spirituality is a pathway to
resilience that ultimately leads to subjective well-being and spiritual growth for the
participants in this study. We present the key domains of spiritual resilience as described by
participants, discuss the process of how spirituality impacts the protection and promotion of
subjective well-being, and the extent to which this process strengthens spirituality all within
the larger context of spiritual resilience. These are our primary findings. Additionally, we
present secondary findings that examine connections between spirituality, resilience, age,
and gender. We discuss how these findings are also part of the spiritual resilience process for
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the participants in this study.

Findings
When asked about navigating adversity, many of the participants in the study indicated that
spirituality was an important and vital aspect of managing hardship. Additionally,
spirituality served as a powerful tool and resource that promoted resilience and protected
subjective well-being for these individuals. For several participants this process resulted in
spiritual growth. Specifically, the participants discussed how spirituality enabled them to be
more resilient when faced with adversity, how these struggles offered opportunities for
growth and expansion in terms of their abilities to overcome and cultivate a sense of well-
being, and ultimately lead them to a place of spiritual strengthening, deepening, and in some
cases spiritual transformation. This process as presented in our conceptual model (see Figure
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1) was deliberate for most individuals in the study. Furthermore, this process was shaped by
age and gender.

Primary Findings
In detailing the particulars of their spiritual resilience, all demonstrated a sense of agency
and intention about their process of tapping into key domains of spirituality for the purposes
of spiritual utilization, the promotion and protection of well-being, and for spiritual

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strengthening. For participants, the key domains for their spirituality as they relate to
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spiritual resilience were relationships rooted in spirituality, a belief structure and

complementary worldview, spiritual coping, a commitment to spiritual values and practice,
and openness to spiritual growth and transformation. Essentially, we theorize that for the
participants in this research spirituality is a vital component of their resilience, leading to
subjective well-being and as they age and experience hardship they accumulate resilience
over the life course. In other words, spiritual resilience is a tool aiding in how these
participants recover from adversity, sustain a sense of well-being, and grow spirituality and
developmentally as they age (Zautra et al., 2010). As a result, we arrived at our conceptual
framework theorizing spiritual resilience.

When inquiring about participants’ experiences with adversity and the role spirituality
played in the management of hardship, several key themes emerged that resulted in our
conceptualization of significant domains of spirituality. The domains include relationships
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rooted in spirituality, a belief structure and complementary worldview, spiritual coping, a

commitment to spiritual values and practice, and openness to spiritual growth and
transformation. Five key themes emerged from the data.

Several participants articulated the importance of relationships in relation to spiritual as

significant in navigating adversity and hardship. All participants discussed the importance of
relationships with members of their social support system or with their divine support
system as vital to dealing with adversity and openly described their reliance on these
relationships in the context of spirituality as being beneficial in their ability to negotiate
difficulty and struggle within their lives. For example, one participant explained her reliance
on her the members of her spiritual community as key players in her social support system.

P: My relationships embody compassion and empathy and justice. Those kinds of

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things are common elements to all great religions, and then there’s the whole social
side. I find that people in church, not just the ministers or priests, but also many of
the people who attend church in the various groups are often caring. I mean if
somebody gets sick they’ll you know bring food over and so that’s support. I have
been supported by these people in my faith community and have depended on them
over the years. I take comfort in knowing they are there.

Several participants also discussed their reliance on their relationship with God as vital to
their resilience. For example, one participant explained, “reliance upon God is essential, not
only for hardships but for getting thorough daily life.” Participants also discussed
intentionality when accessing and activating these relationships when called upon to manage
hardship. Agency and choice on the part of the person was an active ingredient for tapping
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into specific relationships at specific times in relation to a particular type of adversity.

Another important domain of spirituality in relation to resilience for participants was the
importance of a firm and foundational belief structure or in some cases a larger worldview
rooted in the belief of something greater than the self for understanding hardship in the
context of a larger and divinely directed process. When discussing adversity, individuals
described with confidence in their belief structure and many illustrated an openness and
contentedness to sit in the space of ambiguity and uncertainty in relationship to the identified

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adversity. For example, one participant described her belief framework as important for
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making sense out of hardship.

P: At one point, I had difficulty making sense of hardship until I developed my

philosophy for being alive… I guess a framework of sorts and it’s important. This k
enables me to make sense of what happens to me – the good and bad.

In relation to belief in a larger and divinely driven process, one participant explained, “I just
that I have faith that I can survive whatever bad thing is happening and just make the most of
it and trust that it is meant to be.” There’s some overall purpose in everything and I know
that things will work out.” Another participant described this trust, illuminating a belief
structure of confidence, “there’s some overall purpose in everything and I know things will
work out.” These statements reflect a belief fit that enables participants to negotiate the
uncertainty and anxiety associated with hardship and management difficult and often
unknown realities. One participant explained the importance of belief and having faith as
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important to their resilience.

P: I have faith that I can survive whatever it is and make the most of it - the best of
it. I believe that there is some overall purpose in everything, and that things will
work out, as they need to.

For some participants, that belief structure involved the reliance on ritual and a firm
commitment to trusting in their larger belief structure. Another participant described their
trust and belief in the power of the divine as a learned and continual practice of belief work.

P: You learn that you got through that and you can get through this. Keep praying -
keep trusting that the Lord will work it out. You know holding on that the Lord has
gotten you through that and He will get you through this.”
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This learned and continual process reflects a process of cumulative spiritual resilience.
Participants in this study commonly explained that this process grew stronger and more
nuanced as they navigated adversities in life; each hardship enabled them to deepen their
trust in the larger process and to shift and persist with their belief fit. This accumulation and
adjustment within the belief framework also served as a coping mechanism for many of the
participants.

Coping emerged as central domain of spirituality in participants’ narratives of navigating

hardship. These descriptions of coping reflected the use of spirituality as a mechanism for
making meaning of adversity and as a source of comfort and emotional nourishment. One
participant reflects on how they learned elements of spiritual coping and how the continually
use them in addressing adversities.
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P: I learned a great deal of how I handle and address hardships, which is about
taking responsibility for your actions, forming good relationships with other
people, and exploring and finding God, from church and from the people in my
church. My spirituality has served me well in that regard.

Another participant reflects on their strong belief in God as an important instrument in their
ability to cope with hardships and adversities in life. Spiritualty as a mechanism for coping

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was a life-long component and was relied on as a source of strength and support in how this
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person dealt with adversity.

P: My faith in God and my strong Christian belief are how I’ve coped with tragedy.
I grew up as a PK [a preacher’s kid]. My mom and dad were both pastors so my
spirituality has never left me. There are times that I’ve left God but he has never left
me. And I realize that now. It’s the whole footprints in the sand, that, that whole
thing. He’s carried me through it all. And even though I thought I couldn’t make it,
he was carrying me. I look back and I know that if I had to do it on my strength I
couldn’t do it. So my ability to survive the hard times in life has to be a divine
intervention.

This participant’s reflection on the role spiritual continuity has played in her life,
particularly as she has negotiated hardship, illustrates spiritual coping. Spirituality served as
a buffer for dealing with life-related stress; this was true for many of the participants in this
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study.

Commitment to Spiritual Values and Practices

As participants described their ability to develop and utilities spirituality in a manner that
promoted resilience and protected well-being, many explained the importance of being
committed to their spiritual values as well as being intentional and dedicated to their
spiritual practice, particularly during times of hardship. This commitment and dedication
embodied elements of intention, choice and everyday decision-making to belief and ritual-
based practice concerning spirituality. The rituals included prayer, meditation, contemplative
journaling, self-care and spiritualty wellness in the form of fitness, and cultivating an ethos
of gratitude and forgiveness. One participant illustrated the importance of prayer and
meditation in relationship to managing adversity. Agency was important part of the
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commitment to spiritual values and practices; participants discussed the role of choice when
describing their commitment to spirituality and being resilient.

P: I’m a meditator and when I don’t meditate on life’s problems, it’s more difficult
to deal with them. I meditate to keep my balance. I pray every day morning and
night and I go to church services regularly.

Another participant discussed the importance of prayer and forgiveness in dealing with
hardship and adversity.

P: I learned to forgive. Once I grew up I found the Lord. I knew better and come to
know that if I didn’t forgive her he wouldn’t forgive me. I know the importance of
prayer and having faith. I’m still working on it every day. And to me prayer is the
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key. I don’t care who you are or what race, creed or color, prayer is the key to
dealing.
Many of the participants expressed the importance of spiritual practices as important in
being able to manage the stress related to adversity, and beyond importance to an extent that
could be characterized as intentional and diligent, a strategic use of spiritual practices to aid
in coping.

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Openness to Spiritual Growth and Transformation

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Being and remaining open to opportunities for spiritual growth and transformation was
another key domain of spirituality that emerged as significant for participants in relation to
how they negotiated adversity. As individuals in the study reflected on their abilities to deal
with hardship, their narratives reflected openness to growth and expansion. Adversities were
often reframed from problem to possibility. Additionally, participants in this study discussed
key and defining experiences with spiritual transformation and several described experiences
with adversity as catalyst for spiritual growth, strengthening and in some case, spiritual
conversion. One participant reflected on spiritual growth:
P: I’ve managed quite a bit of hardship over the years and as a result have lived all
over and had exposure to other ways of viewing life. Learning from others and
being exposed to all kinds of hardship invite me to consider my spirituality and
even recognize the growth that comes from this.
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A participant with a strong faith convicted reflected on the value of her relationship with
God as a way overcome adversity and considered how this process deepened her faith and
strengthened her spirituality and connection to God.

P: My faith in God and my strong Christian belief is what sustains me. There were
times of struggle and I left God but he never left me, and I realize that now. He
carried me through it all. And even though I thought I couldn’t make it, he was
carrying me so I look back and I know that if I had to do it along and on my own
strength, I couldn’t have managed. Divine intervention was what carried me
through and now I look back and see where my faith has improved and gotten
stronger because I can look back and think of the experiences and say, “Wow!”

In addition to several key domains of spirituality emerging as significant for participants in

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their experiences with adversity and hardship, themes concerning spiritual utilization and as
a promoter of resilience and a protector of well-being also emerged within the narratives.
Furthermore, this process resulted in spiritual growth for several participants. The nature of
this process emerged in the context of spiritual resilience and is depicted in our conceptual
framework (see figure 1). Accounts from participants illustrated the process of spiritual
resilience as it was influenced by the intentional and agentic use of spirituality as a
mechanism that promoted and protected subjective well-being. As this process unfolded for
participants, many described accounts with hardship that enable them to understand their
adversities with hardships as opportunities for spiritual growth. While this process was
unique for each participant, this general process reflects many of the participants’
experiences, particularly for those who indicated that spiritual and or religion were
important to how they managed adversity and hardship. Participants expressed the
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importance of actively engaging with their spirituality as they described the ways in which
they utilized their spiritual beliefs and practices. This reflects a well-developed intentionality
and active use of their belief framework.

Secondary Findings
During the second phase of analysis we returned to the narratives to explore the constructs of
spirituality and resilience as participants in the study described them. We were interested in

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exploring similarities and differences in spirituality accounting for age group (characterized
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by birth year and assignment to a generation), gender and race and used the entirety of the
dataset, n = 64 for the second phase of analysis. For this phase, we focused on a
demographic and descriptive analysis of the data using Dedoose, a mixed methods analystic
software tool, for qualitative and mixed methods analysis. The oldest adults were
characterized as the Greatest Generation-GI Cohort (GGI), older adults as Greatest
Generation- Silent cohort (GGS), and the younger old-adults grouped as Baby Boomers
Generation (BBG).

Demographic Patterns Pertaining to Spirituality, Religion and Resilience

After analyzing the initial data and excavating themes related to spirituality and the process
of resilience, we also explored the extent to spirituality, religion and resilience varied
according to age group, race, and gender. “Resilience has numerous meanings in prior
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research, but generally refers to a pattern of functioning indicative of positive adaptation in

the context of significant risk (Fry & Keyes, 2010, p.239).” Common age brackets share a
special meaning, personality, behavior shaped by history and definition over time, translated
to cohort generation (Strauss & Howe, 1991; Carlson, 2008). Findings in this study indicated
that the 53 % (n=34) of participants in this study were older adults belonging to the Greatest
Generation-Silent cohort, oldest adults were represented by the 16% (n=10) belonging to the
Greatest Generation- GI cohort, and the 31 % (n=20) reflected the Baby Boomers
Generation (BBG).

These empirical findings suggest that the data criteria did not permit bias to this grounded
theory analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Creswell, 2007) into the topics about religion and
spirituality as coping mechanisms when facing adversity, as well as the obtained data on
race, gender, religious practices, and cohort differences and similarities. Dedoose
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representation of Approximately 68% (n=43) of participants were White and 32% (n=21)
were African American. Data reflected in general that 81% (n=52) of both populations were
identified as being affiliated with a religion or belief and 19 % (n=12) were not affiliated to
any religion. ‘

Pickard and King indicated “spirituality is based on cultural influences that run deeply in
individuals, families and societies (p.262, 2011). This is important when comparing racial
differences. The African American population was 90% (n=19) religiously affiliated while
Whites were 15% less likely to be religiously affiliated (77%; n==33). Generally, African
Americans tended to be more religiously affiliated; while only 9% of African Americans
identified as non-religious compared to 23% of Whites identified as non-religious.
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Older people tended to be more religious than younger people—a trend which held for
both groups.
The Greatest Generation (GGI; born between 1907–1928) represented 16% (n=10) of all
participants (Carlson, 2008; Moody & Sasser, 2015). Unintentionally, there were no African
Americans represented in this group. In terms of gender representation, the GCI cohort was
60% women, which is consistent with findings on life span longevity in terms of gender
(Bond & Coleman, 1993). This age cohort showed utilization of spiritual resilience as a way

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of coping with adversity The Greatest Generation is in their eighth and ninth decade of life,
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and their insights on resiliency is salient in understanding a resilience framework. Even if

this cohort’s spirituality may have been detached from religion, we observed a link between
spirituality and other individualized practices such as ethical humanism, meditation, and
prayer. They reported feeling alienated from church and religious support, yet were still able
to continue developing spiritually based resilience mechanisms.

Participants who are in the Greatest Generation Silent (GGS; 53% n=32) were born between
1929–1945 (Carlson, 2008). For this study, this cohort included 76% (n=26) White
participants, and 23% (n=8) African Americans. More than 60% (n=22) of this cohort
affirmed the idea that spirituality and religion help them to deal with adversity and gain
resilience. Pargament and Cummings (2010) indicate the value of religiosity in enduring life
crises. About 20% of the same did not relate to religion at all, but they still maintained some
kind of belief system which helped them cope with adversity and enhance their resilience.
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The Baby Boomers Generation were born between 1946 and 1964 and represented 31% of
the population of this study (n=20); 55% (n=11) of the sample were women while 45%
(n=9) were men. The sample included 65% African American (n=13) participants and 35%
(n=7) White participants. This age cohort exhibited diverse perspectives on religion and
spirituality as tools to help cope with hardship. Baby Boomers often deal with a complex
web of anxiety regarding work, caregiving, and financial and health concerns (Wagnild &
Collins, 2009). Often resiliency in this cohort was evidenced by setting goals rather than
fearing the future.

In combined cohort analyses, 81% (n=52) of older adults were religiously affiliated while
19% (n=12) endorsed no religious affiliation. As we grow older, vulnerability and reliance
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on others becomes greater, thus personal spirituality can overcome organized religion in
order to cope with transition process. Older adults who are more engaged with religion and
spirituality are often still engaged and active in society. This finding is salient of the GGS
and GGI participants in this study, while Baby Boomers seem to be open to different
religions, cultures, and ideologies if they themselves have experienced life adversity and
difficult situations. The scientific community is now beginning to see resilience as an
important component of successful aging (Yee-Melichar, 2011). Spirituality is often used to
deal with negative life experiences based on trust in something greater, inner peace, and self-
confidence in dealing with challenges.

Discussion
Participants in this study demonstrated their ability to access domains of their spirituality in
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a processual nature that enabled them to utilize their spirituality to protect and promote their
subjective well-being while demonstrating spiritual growth. We have characterized this
process largely as spiritual resilience. Participants demonstrated a solid proficiency in their
ability to manage life’s circumstances, challenges, and hardships while relying on their
components and processes embedded in their spiritual resilience. A large portion of the
overall subject pool articulated how important spirituality was for them as a part of their

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 Manning et al. Page 13

action and thought process related to the hardships and stress they have experienced
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throughout their lives and in older ages.

Participants explained that many of their experiences with enduring adversity and
overcoming hardship were mediated by their spiritual resilience (Clark, Burbank, Greene,
Owens & Riebe, 2010). In other words, spiritual resilience was a process where the key
domains of spirituality (including relationships rooted in spirituality, a belief structure and
complementary worldview, spiritual coping, a commitment to spiritual values and practice,
and openness to spiritual growth and transformation) along with their intentional use of
spirituality as tool and mechanism to protect and promote well-being and for some resulting
in spiritual growth all work together to create experiences resulting in spiritual resilience.
This process resulted in the ability to endure hardships over the life course and gain more
confidence in doing so as they aged.
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Regarding secondary findings and difference in religion and spirituality, it is plausible that
relation to culture, environment, or migration affect the narratives. It is of the utmost
importance for future studies to understand the cultural impacts as well as life experience on
resilience (Yee-Melichar, 2011). Spirituality itself seems to have no effect unless attaches to
some religious bond or any kind of belief (e.g. self-trust, meditation, inner peace, ethical
humanism, philosophical framework, etc.). Religious and spiritual practices appear to play
an important role and influence in each current cohort (Pickard & King, 2011; Pargament &
Cumming, 2010). There is not a ‘in between’ state, even when people express that they are
neither religious nor spiritual as there is a part of them that relates to spirituality. Older
adults typically appear more religious than younger cohorts, and this trend was evidenced in
this study for Caucasians and African Americans (Pickard & King, 2011).
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As with all studies, there are limitations. When recruiting older adults to participating in this
project, we used recruitment materials explaining we were looking for older adults willing to
talk about their hardships and adversities. By default, people already comfortable discussing
these issues are the ones that responded to the call for participants. We likely captured a self-
select group who may have been more resilient than the average population due to
willingness for self-disclosure. Also, we initially used a subject registry as the main means
of recruitment. While grateful for this resource, it is important to point out that most all the
subjects in the registry are White, educated, affluent, and are familiar to being in research
studies, which may also be a limitation.

Furthermore, the limited representation of each cohort was a finding as we analyzed the
data. It was not intended as main purpose of the pool to recover equal samples of
generations. In future studies regarding generational cohorts and population demographics
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could be developed for deep analysis, and theoretical development. Two main racial groups
emerged, which also could be limiting when considering the diversity of racial and ethnic
groups in the United States. Future studies may include more nuanced groups in order to
ascertain the lived experience of cultural groups who practice diverse religious traditions or
represent other regions of the country.

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 Manning et al. Page 14

Conclusion
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Initial analyses of spiritually based coping mechanisms can potentially lead to applied
utilization of those tools to promote subjective well-being and successful aging (Lavretsky,
2014). Resilience can be viewed as an adaptive and potentially learned process, which is
good news for anyone aiming to age successfully regardless of adversity. Cultural
considerations, including generational trauma, early life experiences, and other variables
continue to shape old age and the aging process (Yee-Melishar, 2011; Gonzalez & Murray,
2010). Despite the potential for adverse life experiences, resilience, aided by spiritual
coping, as a learned process will continue to be an important research venture.

Spirituality as a “forgotten factor” needs to continue at the forefront in promoting successful

aging and interventions, which incorporate spirituality, can be an opportunity for growth.
Organizations offering services for older adults have the unique opportunity to include
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spirituality with a myriad of populations (e.g. underserved populations) and in training

health professionals working with elders. Finally, as Ramsey and Blieszner (2013) assert: “It
is time to look- more carefully and consistently- at the lives of spiritually resilient elders, at
congregations and communities around the world. They can teach us how to live, seek
justice and show mercy in spite of our hard hearts (p. 118).”

Acknowledgments
Funding:

The author disclosed receipt of the following partial financial support for the research, authorship, and publication
of this article by NIH [grant 5T32 AG00029-35].

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Figure 1:
Conceptual Framework of Spiritual Resilience
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Figure 2:
Domains of Spirituality in Relation to Resilience
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