Definition of Political Science

“Political Science is the systematic study of state, government and politics, and the scientific analysis of
political thought, political behaviour and political activities.”
 Michael G. Roskin in Political Science: An Introduction
“Political Science begins and ends with state.”
 James Wilford Garner
“Political Science studies who gets what, when and how.”
 Harold Lasswell
A Brief History of Political Science
1. Ancient Greeks
Political Science originated with the ancient Greeks. The term Political Science is derived from the Greek
word ‘polis’ which means city-state. Therefore, Political Science is that branch of social science which
discusses the matters related to a state.
All knowledge begins with a question. The science of politics began when ancient Greeks began to ask
questions about the affairs of the city-states. Plato wrote numerous dialogues about politics, asking about the
nature of justice, what constitutes good government, and what is truly best for humanity. In his world-famous
book, The Republic, Plato explained that the ideal State was based upon justice.
While Plato’s method was speculative and idealistic, his student Aristotle worked in a more scientific way,
observing and describing the types of governments systematically in his famous work The Politics. Aristotle
is, therefore, termed as the father of political science.
Aristotle said, “Man is by nature a social animal” and “Man without society is either a beast or a God”. As
people progressed through evolutionary process of civilization, they organized themselves into states. Man
became aware of his rights and duties, all the laws of the state and the scope of the rule of state. From this
political knowledge originated the subject of Political Science.
2. Renaissance and Niccolò Machiavelli
Renaissance was a period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages. It marked the
revival of European art and literature in 14th-16th centuries. Niccolò Machiavelli was the first political
thinker to differentiate politics from morality in his book The Prince (1513). Therefore, he is termed as the
father of modern political science.
In his book, The Prince, Niccolò Machiavelli treated politics as an art of statecraft, by which a ruler could
successfully defend his throne against internal and external enemies by deceit, diplomacy, merciless persecution
of his enemies, and maintaining a powerful army.
3. Jean Bodin and the Concept of Sovereignty
The father of the modern theory of sovereignty was the sixteenth century French political philosopher, Jean
Bodin. His work Les Six Livres de la République, published in 1576, contained the first systematic presentation
of his theory. According to Bodin, “Sovereignty is the supreme authority over citizens and subjects,
unrestrained by law.”
4. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) also advocated the absolute and unlimited form of sovereignty as a guarantee
against the lawlessness of the ‘state of nature’. He was in favour of absolute monarchy.
John Locke (1632-1704) put arguments to defend the rights of life, liberty and property. He gave the concept
of representative democracy.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) advocated the idea of popular sovereignty by declaring that the will of
the people was supreme, absolute and sovereign in the state.
5. Foundation of Modern Political Science
At the start of the seventeenth century, people began to apply the methods of the scientific revolution to
politics. Thus, it laid the foundation of modern political science in true sense. In the nineteenth century,
thinkers such as Karl Marx and Max Weber used sociological methods to analyze politics. Today, many
political scientists use statistics and other quantitative methods to study a variety of issues
 Nature of Political Science/ Is Political Science a Science?
In ancient Greece, Political Science was known as politics i.e. the study of the affairs of polis/city-state.
With the passage of time, politics assumed the name of Political Science. There is considerable disagreement
among political scientists as to whether to consider political science as a science.
If we want to judge whether political science is a science or not, we have to understand the meaning of science.
And accordingly, whether it can be called science is also to be judged.
What is Science?
Science is the systematic knowledge of a particular phenomenon. This knowledge is gathered through
experimentation, observation, and experience. In the case of scientific analysis, the emphasis is on
measurement and the establishment of accuracy.
Arguments in Opposition
These are the reasons given by people who do not consider Political Science as science.
1. Absence of Laboratory
Biology, Physics and Chemistry are subjects which have modern laboratories and new experiments are being
carried out in these laboratories. The results achieved by these experiments are of definite nature. However, such
laboratories are absent in Political Science. Therefore, Political Science is not a true science.
2. Absence of Universal Principles
There are universal principles in Biology, Physics and Chemistry. For instance, in Chemistry, Hydrogen and
Oxygen always react together to produce water by a chemical reaction. There are no such principles in
Political Science because of the complex nature of the subject.
Topics in political science are particularly uncertain, extensive, and complex. As a result, diagnostic
research and classification of content is not possible.
3. Influence of Values on Research
The study of Political Science is always influenced by the values of the political thinker involved. In pure
sciences, research is always impartial and objective because every fact is experimented in laboratories.
However, in Political Science, the researcher’s feelings and values affect the research, which is, in turn,
accepted by some and rejected by others.
4. Changing Nature of the Subject Matter
As the subject matter in pure sciences exhibits uniformity, the subject matter in Political Science is subject to
constant changes. There it is impossible to infer generalizations in Political Science. For instance, freezing and
melting points of water are same all over the world. But, the political culture varies from state to state.
Arguments in Favour
1. Presence of Observation and Experiment
With the help of scientific methods like analysis, observation, experiment, etc., political science seeks to reveal
the relationship between the ruler and the ruled, the behavior of the citizens, etc. The present State is the result
of historical observations and experiments. Therefore, we can say history as the laboratory of Political Science.
2. Presence of Terminologies
Political Science has terminologies like those of other sciences. For example, the terms sovereignty, liberty,
democracy and rule of law are accepted everywhere in the world.
3. Presence of Definite Principles
Just like other sciences, Political Science has definite principles. For example, in Chemistry, H ₂O is accepted as
the universal formula of water. Similarly, in Political Science, population, territory, government and
sovereignty are important elements of state in the whole world.
4. Presence of Predictions
Just as predictions can be made in natural sciences, we can make predictions in Political Science. Harold
Lasswell said in this regard:
“The prediction by statistical analysis is possible in the realm of Political Science.”
Conclusion
The above arguments show that Political Science is not a pure science but it can be given the status of a social
science.
Utility/Importance of Study of Political Science
In the modern age, the study of Political Science is of great importance. This can be guessed from the fact that
today, every incident occurring around us directly or indirectly relates to politics. Robert Dahl rightly said that
“A citizen encounters politics in the government of a country, town, school, business firm, trade union, political
party, civic association and a host of organizations. Politics is one of the unavoidable facts of human existence.
Everyone is involved in some fashion at some time in some kind of political system.”
1. Awakening of Political Consciousness
The study of Political Science keeps individuals of a State politically well-informed. It helps them understand
the role of government, political parties and pressure groups. It gives them clear idea of questions which help
them to understand how government is formed and run, and what’s their role in the decision-making process
of the government, etc. Individuals participate in the decision-making process of government in the name of
election and form a government under which they are governed. The people of different states have different
level of political consciousness. Somewhere there is democracy and somewhere there is communism,
socialism, or authoritarianism, etc. The restrictions on the minds of people because of these systems, affect
individuals. The people of Britain and United States are politically more conscious and they take part in politics
actively.
2. Protection of Rights
The study of Political Science keeps people aware of their rights and various legal structures that are in place
which guarantee such rights. It was political awakening among the English people that forced King John to
sign Magna Carta (1215) and grant them individual liberties. Similarly, Chapter 1 of the Constitution of
Pakistan (1973) deals with the fundamental rights of the people.
3. Awareness of Duties
Rights and duties cannot be set apart. If the individuals of a state do not do their duties, they cannot demand
their rights. The study of Political Science keeps individuals informed of their duties towards the state. When
people realise their duties, welfare becomes the destiny of the state. In advances states, people fulfill their duties
diligently and that is why their governments are able to ensure a welfare society.
4. Tolerance and Understanding
The study of Political Science produces a sense of tolerance and understanding in an individual. It encourages
people to give importance to the thoughts of other people, because intolerance spurs chaos in the society.
5. Rule of Law
A state makes laws to run its administration in a better way. Every individual of the state is to abide by those
rules. Political Science gives us awareness about these laws and their importance and benefits. It upholds the
principle of rule of law which asserts that all citizens and institutions within a state are equal before the law. The
rule of law has three meanings:
i. Absolute supremacy of law, or no arbitrary punishment.
ii. Equality before the law, or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land administered by
the ordinary courts.
iii. Ordinary law guarantees individual rights and liberty.

6. Development of Democracy
Tolerance and understanding promote democracy in a state. If the people of a state are ignorant about Political
Science, they will not be able to understand these values and this produce lawlessness and confusion in a state,
and everyone would aim at getting political power at the expense of others.
7. Awareness of National Interest
National Interest is a key concept in Political Science. National interest refers to a state’s goals and ambitions
whether economic, military, or cultural. The foreign policy of each nation is formulated on the basis of its
national interest. All the nations are always engaged in the process of fulfilling or securing their national
interests. A state always tries to justify its actions on the basis of its national interest.
8. Awareness of Domestic Political Dynamics
The study of Political Science allows people to analyse domestic political dynamics and develop a sound
viewpoint on national issues. It not only makes people aware of the national issues but also equips them with
relevant knowledge so as to find a solution of these problems.
9. Awareness of International Relations
The study of Political Science makes people aware of the global political dynamics. It helps people in
developing a understanding of matters related to international relations such as the role of diplomats, the crafting
of treaties and alliances, the development and deployment of military capabilities, international organisations,
global economic structures, etc.
10. Constitutional Awareness
All the nations of the world frame laws to run the government in a disciplined and organised manner. The
collection of such principles and laws is called a constitution. Only the study of Political Science makes a citizen
aware of the importance of constitution. Because of this constitution, the people of a country become aware of
their rights and duties. If there is no such awareness, progress and welfare of that country would suffer.
11. Political Training of Citizens
In Political Science, practical politics comes under discussion. It provides citizens with a lens to judge the
policies of their representatives. Consequently, it allows them to make decision accordingly in the next
elections. People can get complete understanding and awareness about the politics and political issues of the
state through Political Science.
Sub-fields of Political Science
1. Political Philosophy/Theory
Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of state and government. The central
problem of political philosophy is how to exercise power so as to maintain the survival and enhance the
quality of human life.
The study of political philosophy began when ancient Greeks began to ask questions about the affairs of the
city-states. Plato wrote numerous dialogues about politics, asking about the nature of justice, what constitutes
good government, and what is truly best for humanity. In his world-famous book, The Republic, Plato
explained that the ideal State was based upon justice. Other important political philosophers include Aristotle,
Niccolò Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, etc.
2. Comparative Politics
Comparative Politics is the systematic study and comparison of the diverse political systems in the world. It can
include questions relating to political institutions, political behaviour, constitutional development and the
comparative analysis of economic development.
The scope of Comparative Politics includes the study of all the formal and informal, governmental and non-
governmental elements, which are directly or indirectly involved in the struggle for power taking place in
each state. It is not only to the study of the three formal governmental organs i.e. legislature, executive and
judiciary. Along with these, bureaucracy, interest groups, pressure groups, elites and political parties form
a part of the scope of Comparative Politics.
Comparative Politics has a long and distinguished history dating back to ancient Greece. Aristotle was the first
political scientist who employed the comparative method in analyzing the constitution of 158 Greek city-states.
3. International Relations
According to the narrow concept, International Relations is related to the relationships and interactions among
the national governments of different states.
“International Relations is the way in which two or more nations interact with and regard each other, especially
in the context of political, economic, or cultural relationships”.
– Thomas C. Schelling
According to the vast concept, International Relations is not only confined to the relationships and interactions
among the national governments of different states but also includes the activities and policies of inter-
governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multi-national corporations
(MNCs).
“International Relations is the study of interactions among various actors that participate in international
politics, including states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, subnational entities like
bureaucracies and local governments, and individuals.”
– Karen A. Mingst
4. Public Policy and Administration
Public Policy/Public Administration is the scientific study of the politics of institutions, organizations and
governance structures. It seeks to explain how various institutions and organizations interact with the public to
develop the policies that they follow. It is also concerned with the evaluation and impact of these policies on
citizens, governing institutions, and organized interests. Public administration is concerned with the
organization, activities, and behavior of administrative agencies and officials in the conduct of government.
5. Local Government
Local government refers to the lowest tier of public administration within a particular sovereign state. It refers
to a level of administration that is both geographically-localised and has limited powers. It may be defined as:
“A public organisation authorized to decide and administer a limited range of public policies within a relatively
small territory which is a subdivision of regional or national government.”
The term local government is always used specifically in contrast to national government (which may be known
as central government or federal government). This sub-field of Political Science related to the question of
local autonomy, and election and functions of the local government.
Scope of Political Science
1. Study of State
The most commonly used definition is by Max Weber who describes the State as:
“A compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate
use of force within a certain territory.”

 The State as it has been. Political Science surveys the historical development of the State and considers the
changes and forms which the State assumed in the past ages and in the present time. We cannot know the
present without knowing the past. This means we must study the origin and evolution of the State and of its
various institutions.
 The State as it ought to be. Political Science also studies the changes which are imperative for an efficient
state so that it responds to the needs of the people effectively.

2. Study of Government
Political Science is the study of the government. Government is the machinery or agency through which the will
of the State is formulated and expressed. Just as a man cannot exist without a head, a state cannot exist without a
government. Each government has three organs:
a. Legislature formulates the laws of the State.
b. Executive enforces and implements the laws.
c. Judiciary interprets the laws and applies the laws to specific cases and settles the disputes.

3. Study of Power Process

Political Science also studies the power process which means the activities of the people organised in various
groups, such as political parties, who struggle for power and use power to achieve personal and group
objectives. It involves conflict which may include violence, propaganda, pressure, frauds and character
assassination. By power is meant the capacity to influence events and thereby to control the behaviour of
others. The greater the influence, the greater the power and ultimately the greater the actor. Without power, no
leader, or ruler can realise his own interests or the interests of a small minority or of his state.
4. Study of Political Behaviour
The study of political behaviour refers to the systematic approach that attempts to quantify and explain the
influences that define a person's political views, ideology, and levels of political participation.
Behaviouralism in political science was systematically developed after the Second World War, particularly
through the writings of American Political Scientists such as David B. Truman, Robert A. Dahl and David
Easton. Behaviouralism is a scientific approach that emphasizes the systematic and value-free inquiry of the
world of politics.
5. Study of Individual Rights and Liberty
Political Science studies individual rights and liberties. It considers the problems of adjusting political authority
to individual liberty, the relations among people, and their relations to the State. It also deals with the rights and
duties of the citizens towards one another and towards the State.
6. Political Philosophy/Theory
Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of state and government. The central
problem of political philosophy is how to exercise power so as to maintain the survival and enhance the
quality of human life.
The study of political philosophy began when ancient Greeks began to ask questions about the affairs of the
city-states. Plato wrote numerous dialogues about politics, asking about the nature of justice, what constitutes
good government, and what is truly best for humanity. In his world-famous book, The Republic, Plato
explained that the ideal State was based upon justice. Other important political philosophers include Aristotle,
Niccolò Machiavelli, Jean Bodin, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, etc.
7. Comparative Politics
Comparative Politics is the systematic study and comparison of the diverse political systems in the world. It can
include questions relating to political institutions, political behaviour, constitutional development and the
comparative analysis of economic development.
The scope of Comparative Politics includes the study of all the formal and informal, governmental and non-
governmental elements, which are directly or indirectly involved in the struggle for power taking place in
each state. It is not only to the study of the three formal governmental organs i.e. legislature, executive and
judiciary. Along with these, bureaucracy, interest groups, pressure groups, elites and political parties form
a part of the scope of Comparative Politics.
Comparative Politics has a long and distinguished history dating back to ancient Greece. Aristotle was the first
political scientist who employed the comparative method in analyzing the constitution of 158 Greek city-states.
8. International Relations
According to the narrow concept, International Relations is related to the relationships and interactions among
the national governments of different states.
“International Relations is the way in which two or more nations interact with and regard each other, especially
in the context of political, economic, or cultural relationships”.
– Thomas C. Schelling
According to the vast concept, International Relations is not only confined to the relationships and interactions
among the national governments of different states but also includes the activities and policies of inter-
governmental organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multi-national corporations
(MNCs).
“International Relations is the study of interactions among various actors that participate in international
politics, including states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, subnational entities like
bureaucracies and local governments, and individuals.”
– Karen A. Mingst
9. Public Policy and Administration
Public Policy/Public Administration is the scientific study of the politics of institutions, organizations and
governance structures. It seeks to explain how various institutions and organizations interact with the public to
develop the policies that they follow. It is also concerned with the evaluation and impact of these policies on
citizens, governing institutions, and organized interests. Public administration is concerned with the
organization, activities, and behavior of administrative agencies and officials in the conduct of government.
10. Local Government
Local government refers to the lowest tier of public administration within a particular sovereign state. It refers
to a level of administration that is both geographically-localised and has limited powers. It may be defined as:
“A public organisation authorized to decide and administer a limited range of public policies within a relatively
small territory which is a subdivision of regional or national government.”
The term local government is always used specifically in contrast to national government (which may be known
as central government or federal government). This sub-field of Political Science related to the question of
local autonomy, and election and functions of the local government.

Muhammad Umar Aman

Lecturer
Department of Political Science
Government Islamia Graduate College, Civil Lines, Lahore