Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

A review on solar greenhouse dryer: Design, thermal modelling, energy,

economic and environmental aspects
G. Srinivasan, P. Muthukumar *
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This article provides an extensive review on design, thermal modelling approaches, and economic, energy and
Drying environmental aspects of solar greenhouse dryers developed for drying various agricultural products. Further,
Solar greenhouse dryer the selection and usage of solar photovoltaic panels and thermal energy storage units in the solar greenhouse
Thermal energy storage
dryers for achieving continuous and grid-independent drying are discussed in detail. Performances of the various
Thermal modelling
Energy
configurations/shapes of the greenhouse dryers in terms of energy requirements are compared. Thermodynamic
Economic and environmental assessment and thermal modelling studies reported on the performance prediction of solar greenhouse dryers and drying
kinetics studies on various agriculture products are summarised. A detailed report on the economic (payback
time, cost of the greenhouse dryer, and product drying cost), energy (embodiment energy, specific energy
consumption) and environmental (CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation, and carbon credit) aspects of the solar
greenhouse dryer based on the dryer type, mode of operation and product dried are presented.

different mechanism viz., capillary flow, pressure gradient, diffusion,

and gravity (Mujumdar, 2014). The drying process in a product is
1. Introduction divided into various stages, as shown in Fig. 1 (Maloney, 2007; Visavale,
2012).
Drying is a post-harvesting process carried out for preserving agri­ The lines A’B and AB represent the warming-up period or initial
cultural products like crops, vegetables, fruits and spices. Drying is adjustment period. During this period, the temperature of the product
carried out mainly to increase the storage life of the harvested crops and increases due to the supply of heat energy, and subsequently, the
to preserve their nutrition values. Open sun drying is one of the tradi­ product surface is cooled due to the evaporation of moisture content.
tional drying methods used by farmers across the globe for preserving The heating and subsequent cooling of the product gets stabilized after a
the agricultural products (Mujumdar, 2014). Most of the agricultural time period, and the temperature of the product remains constant. Line
products possess a certain amount of moisture content. Drying removes BC represents the constant drying period and during this period, a
the moisture content present in the product by evaporation using the constant rate of evaporation per unit surface area takes place. The
heat received from the sun’s incident solar radiation (Belessiotis and constant drying rate occurs when the water at the surface of the products
Delyannis, 2011; Di Pretoro and Manenti, 2020). The removal of mois­ gets evaporated, and it gets replaced by the migration of the water
ture contents present in the agricultural products results in reducing the molecules from the product to the surface. The constant drying rate is
growth of microorganisms, which causes decaying and deterioration of not exhibited in organic products. Point C represents the end of the
the product. Another advantage of removing the moisture content of the constant rate drying period, and it is called first critical moisture con­
product is reducing the weight to volume ratio, which in turn leads to a tent. Line CD represents the first falling rate period. The falling rate
reduction in storage space, packaging, and transportation of dried crops period occurs when the water at the surface is depleted, and the capillary
which are essential requirements in many developing countries (Al- force stops the migration of water to the surface, and hence the moisture
Kharabsheh and Goswami, 2004; Cohen and Yang, 1995; Okos et al., diffusion is controlled by the internal liquid movement within the
2006). Simultaneous heat and mass transfer processes occur during the product. During this period, the drying rate reduces continuously. Point
drying process. The water content present in the product is heated, and D represents the second critical moisture content, and line DE represents
evaporated as vapour from the product surface during the drying pro­ the second falling rate period during which the drying rate reduces
cess. The movement of water vapour within the product is governed by

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: srinivasang@iitg.ac.in (G. Srinivasan), pmkumar@iitg.ac.in, pmkumariitg@gmail.com (P. Muthukumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.04.058
Received 4 October 2020; Received in revised form 19 February 2021; Accepted 22 April 2021
0038-092X/© 2021 International Solar Energy Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: G. Srinivasan, P. Muthukumar, Solar Energy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.04.058
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Nomenclature EBS energy based simulations

PVC polyvinyl chloride
Symbols PCM phase change material
MR moisture ratio (%) PV photovoltaic
L transmission loss NIR near InfraRed
E embodiment energy (kWh) a-Si amorphous silicon
DR drying rate (kg hr-1) CIGS copper indium gallium selenide
a,b,c,g,k empirical constants in the drying models DC direct current
LDO light diesel oil
Abbreviations LPG liquefied petroleum gas
CFD computational fluid dynamics TES thermal energy storage
c-Si crystalline silicon
nc-Si nanocrystalline silicon Subscripts
mc-Si monocrystalline silicon t time (h)
p-Si polycrystalline silicon a domestic appliances
CdTe cadmium telluride td transmission and distribution
PEM proton-exchange membrane in input
SEC specific energy consumption
UDF user defined function Superscripts
EPBT energy payback time n drying exponent

hours in a day in the developing countries are shown in Fig. 2

(Mujumdar, 2014; Rao, 1983; Visavale, 2009). As illustrated in Fig. 3,
based on nature of heat transfer, solar dryers are divided into four major
types: (i) direct, (ii) indirect, (iii) hybrid, and (iv) mixed-mode type
dryers (Kumar et al., 2016; Sharma et al., 2009a). Direct type solar dryer
is operated by passing the solar radiation directly on the product
through a transparent cover. The primary limitation of direct type solar
dryer is the direct exposure of solar radiation on the product (Sharma
et al., 2009a). This leads to deterioration in the quality and colour of the
product. Further, during the drying process in the direct dryer, the
condensation of removed moisture content from the products on the
transparent cover reduces the transmitivity of radiation into the drying
chamber.
In indirect solar dryers, the products are not directly exposed to solar
radiation. The received solar radiation is passed through a solar air
collector for producing the hot air, which is then fed into the drying
chamber containing the products. This method provides better control
over the drying temperature to be maintained inside the drying cham­
ber, and the quality of the dried product due to the absence of direct
exposure of solar radiation (Kreider and Kreith, 1981; Lakshmi et al.,
2019a; Phadke et al., 2015). Hybrid dryers incorporate various tech­
Fig. 1. Various stages of drying process (Maloney, 2007; Visavale, 2012).
nologies like the integration of solar photovoltaic panels with the solar
dryer for providing the required energy to operate blowers and thermal
rapidly. Point E represents the equilibrium moisture content. It is the
limiting moisture content level below which a product cannot be dried
(Belessiotis and Delyannis, 2011; Tiwari, 2016).
Traditionally, the drying of agricultural products is carried out under
the open sun. Open sun drying has several drawbacks, including long
drying time, wastage of products due to rain, dust, bird drops and
growth of fungi, reabsorption of moisture due to interrupted drying, and
deterioration of the colour. The availability of non-renewable energy
and grid-connected electricity is still a primary concern in rural areas.
The major barrier in adapting the dryers powered by fossil fuel in rural
locations are higher investment and running cost (Ekechukwu and
Norton, 1999). To overcome these difficulties, in the past few decades,
continuous efforts have been made to improve the design of solar-based
drying equipment and methods. Drying of agricultural products in solar
dryers overcomes most of the drawbacks of the open sun drying and also
reduces the drying time significantly.
Majority of the developing countries are situated in climatic zones
having higher solar insolation than the average solar insolation (3.8
kWhm− 2/day) of the world. The average solar insolation and sunshine Fig. 2. Average solar insolation and sunshine hours in different developing
countries (Mujumdar, 2014; Rao, 1983; Visavale, 2009).

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G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

(CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation, and carbon credit) aspects of the solar
greenhouse dryer are presented in detail. The utilization of solar
photovoltaic panels and thermal energy storage technologies in solar
greenhouse dryer are summarised. Further, this article also provides a
detailed discussion on the scope for future developments in solar
greenhouse dryer followed by broad conclusions.

2. Selection of cladding material and design of solar greenhouse

dryer

2.1. Influence of cladding material

In solar greenhouse dryers, the commonly used cladding materials

are glass (single and double glazing), plastic (polyurethane, poly­
carbonate), and thin-film sheets (Briassoulis, 2004; Briassoulis et al.,
1997). The selection of cladding material depends on the radiometric,
thermal, and mechanical properties. The heat received by the product
depends on the cladding material selected, which controls the relative
humidity, incident solar radiation, air and product temperature inside
the greenhouse dryer (Alsadon et al., 2016). The heating and cooling
requirements largely depend on the cladding materials selected. Al-
Mahdouri et al. (2013) studied the effect of different covering materials
(polyolefin, PVC, silica glass, and polyethylene films) on the tempera­
ture inside the greenhouse dryer. It was observed that the silica glass
reported higher greenhouse air and soil temperature, followed by PVC,
polyolefin, and polyethylene. The covering material temperature was
Fig. 3. Classification of solar dryers (Kumar et al., 2016; Sharma et al., 2009a). reported to be higher in PVC, followed by silica glass, polyolefin, and
polyethylene. The usage of low-density polyethylene films stabilized
energy storage units. Hybrid solar dryers are used mainly to achieve with ultraviolet, infrared and anti-drop are commonly used in recent
continuous drying of products even during off sunshine hours. This helps times as cladding materials. It is reported that these stabilized films have
in achieving a constant drying rate and prevents the microbial growth in higher transmissivities, incident solar radiation, and lower accumula­
the products during night time when the drying process is stopped tion of dust and dirt (Geoola et al., 2004).
(Mumba, 1995; Rabl, 1985; Whitfield, 2000). Mixed-mode dryers are an
amalgamation of direct and indirect mode dryers. The solar radiation is 2.2. Influence of geometrical parameters
made to fall directly on the product to be dried and also through
convective drying, which is done by passing the hot air produced from The geometrical parameters of the greenhouse dryer, such as shape
the solar air heater or collectors (Forson et al., 2007a, 2007b; Lakshmi and orientation determine the maximum solar radiation received by the
et al., 2019b; Tiwari et al., 2016b). dryer. Sethi (2009) studied the effects of shape, (even, uneven, vinery,
Based on the mode of operation, solar dryers are categorized into two modified arch and Quonset), orientation (east–west and north–south)
methods (active and passive). In the passive mode, the air present in the and latitudes of greenhouse dryers having similar dimensions on the
drying chamber is heated by the incident solar radiation, and the heated greenhouse air temperature produced by the dryer using a mathematical
air becomes less dense than the ambient air. This creates a buoyancy modelling approach. It was observed that the uneven shape received
effect due to the difference in densities between the humid air present in higher solar radiation, and Quonset shape reported the lowest solar
chamber and ambient air. This phenomenon causes the air to be driven radiation at east–west orientation. Similarly, Dragicevic (2011) reported
out of the dryer. In active mode, the circulation of hot air is done by that the uneven shaped greenhouse dryer placed at east–west orienta­
using a blower or fan (Baniasadi et al., 2017; EL khadraoui et al., 2015). tion reported the maximum solar incident radiation compared to
The greenhouse drier falls under the direct type, and when the north–south orientation. It was reported that the uneven shape green­
greenhouse drier is combined with solar air heater and solar panels, it house dryer had lower energy and heating requirements when compared
comes under mixed-mode and hybrid types (EL khadraoui et al., 2015). with other shapes of greenhouse dyer (Gupta and Tiwari, 2002; Singh
A greenhouse dryer consists of an enclosed structure made of frames and Tiwari, 2010). Mobtaker et al. (2019) studied the effect of various
(plastic, metallic, wood, etc.) covered with suitable cladding material. shapes (even, uneven, single, vinery, modified arch, Quonset), and
The trays are placed inside the dryer to distribute the products needed to orientation on the performances of the solar greenhouse dryers. It was
be dried, and a vent is provided to allow the movement of air from inside observed that a single span shaped dryer with east–west orientation
the dryer to the atmosphere (Lamont, 2009). The primary design pa­ reported maximum solar incident radiation when compared with others.
rameters of a solar greenhouse dryer are the geometric configurations It was also reported that the radiation loss could be minimized by using a
like shape and orientation (Afou et al., 2015). The greenhouse dryer brick wall at the sun facing wall of the greenhouse dryer. Cakır and
traps the short-wavelength incident solar radiation in the dryer (Jain Sahin (2015) compared five different shapes (even, uneven, vinery,
and Tiwari, 2002; Kendirli, 2006). Solar greenhouse dryers are used semi-circular, elliptical) and orientation with varying the floor area (50
over 115 countries for various applications such as agricultural products to 400 m2), from which they observed that the elliptical shape per­
drying, sludge treatment, and poultry (Chauhan et al., 2017; Sabir and formed better than other shapes. Gupta and Chandra (2002) predicted
Singh, 2013). the better performing shape and orientation of dryer in cold climatic
In this paper, a comprehensive review on the design (configurations conditions for the northern part of India through mathematical models.
and shape), thermal modelling approaches, economic (payback time, It was observed that gothic shaped greenhouse dryer with east–west
cost of the greenhouse dryer, and product drying cost), energy orientation needed less energy for heating when compared with Quonset
(embodiment energy, specific energy consumption) and environmental and gable shaped dryers. The drying behaviour of grapes in a geodesic
dome greenhouse dryer under natural and forced mode was analysed.

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G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

The gravel particles were used as a thermal energy storage unit. It was rock, concrete, brick, gravel, and sand. These materials have low heat
observed that the geodesic dome performed better than gable and semi- storage capacity per unit volume when compared with phase change
cylindrical shaped greenhouse dryer. Goswami et al. (1991, 1990) re­ materials. The incident solar radiation on sensible storage material is
ported that the amount of incident solar energy received by the dryer transient. Hence, the temperature of the storage material and amounts of
depends on the shape of the dryer. The various shapes of solar green­ heat charged and discharged of the thermal storage unit are also tran­
house dryer are shown in Fig. 4 (Vivekanandan et al., 2021). sient. The advantage of sensible storage materials is their availability at
The literature review on selection of cladding material in a solar low cost. The properties of the commonly used sensible storage mate­
greenhouse dryer shows that glass, plastic, and thin-film sheets are the rials in the greenhouse dryer are listed in Table 2.
commonly used cladding material. Among various cladding materials In the greenhouse dryer, sensible heat storage materials are used to
tested, silica glass reported higher greenhouse temperature followed by cover the floor of the drying chamber. Ahmad and Prakash (2020)
PVC, polyolefin and polyethylene. Low-density polyethylene usage is compared the performance of different bed conditions (ground bed,
preferred nowadays due to its higher transmissivity of solar radiation gravel bed, black painted gravel bed and concrete bed) in a greenhouse
and low accumulation of dust and dirt. Further, the shapes (even, un­ dryer operated under natural convection mode. The greenhouse dryer
even, vinery, modified arch, Quonset, elliptical, golith, gable) and ori­ with black painted gravel type bed reported a maximum heat gain
entations (east–west and north–south) of a greenhouse dryer play a vital (53%), overall heat transfer coefficient (3.88 Wm-2C-1), and temperature
role in determining the maximum solar radiation energy incident on the (64 ◦ C) followed by gravel bed, concrete bed, and ground bed type
dryer and thereby controls the energy requirement for heating and respectively. Natarajan et al. (2017) observed that sand bed type had
cooling applications. The selection of shape and orientation of the dryer lower drying time and higher air temperature inside the greenhouse
are dependent on the location, (shown in Table 1). Among the various dryer when compared to the dryer without thermal storage unit and
shapes and orientations of solar dryers investigated, the even span shape open sun drying method. Ayyappan et al. (2016) compared different
with east–west orientation is preferred for crop cultivation and drying sensible storage bed conditions in the greenhouse dryer and found that
process (Choab et al., 2019; Sahdev et al., 2019). rock bed with 4-inch thickness reported lower drying time (53 h) when
compared with the open sun drying method (174 h). Prakash et al.
3. Application of thermal energy storage units in solar (2016a) found that a double-layer PVC sheet was more conducive for
greenhouse dryer drying in both active and passive modes.
The thickness of sensible storage bed material plays a key role in
Variation in solar radiation throughout the day results in change in maintaining the temperature difference between the dryer and ambient
hot air temperature. Achieving continuous drying of products in the conditions. Ayyappan et al. (2016) studied the variation of rock and
greenhouse dryer during night time is a challenge. This can be overcome sand bed thickness (1 to 5 inch ) during day and night time in the
by integrating a thermal energy storage system in the greenhouse dryer. greenhouse dryer. It was found that rock and sand bed of 4-inch thick­
The types of the thermal energy storage methods and materials used in ness performed better than 5-inch thick bed.
the greenhouse dryer is shown in Fig. 5 (Kant et al., 2016).
3.2. Application of latent heat storage system in greenhouse dryer
3.1. Application of sensible heat storage system in greenhouse dryer
Phase change materials (PCM) materials are classified into organic,
The amount of heat stored in the sensible heat storage material de­ inorganic, and eutectic types. The selection of PCM depends on the
pends on three main parameters: (i) specific heat capacity of material; chemical (long term stability), kinetic (no supercooling), thermal
(ii) quantity of the material; and (iii) temperature difference. Depending (higher latent heat capacity), and physical properties (lower change in
on these parameters, the charging and discharging capacity of the ma­ volume) (Agrawal and Sarviya, 2016). The availability and cost-
terial varies. The commonly used sensible heat storage materials are effectiveness of the material also play a vital role in choosing a PCM

Fig. 4. Various shapes of solar greenhouse dryer (Vivekanandan et al., 2021).

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G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Comparison of various shape and orientation of solar greenhouse dryer at References Geometrical parameters Location Conclusions
different locations. compared in the study details and
References Geometrical parameters Location Conclusions Shape Orientation mode of study
compared in the study details and shape and north–south 12′ E gothic shaped
Shape Orientation mode of study gothic orientation longitude)/ greenhouse
Sethi Even-span, East-west All ranges of The maximum shape Thermal required less
(2009) uneven- and latitude/ solar radiation modelling amount of
span, north–south Thermal was reported in (energy balance heating when
vinery, orientation modelling un-even span equations) compared with
modified (energy balance shape, and other two
arch and equations) Quonset shape shapes. The
Quonset reported lowest gable and
value at Quonset shapes
east–west took 2.6% and
orientation. 4.2% higher
The rise of air heat
temperature requirement
depends on the than gothic
geometry of the shape
greenhouse respectively.
dryer. Kumari Even span, East-west Delhi (77.20 It was reported
Mobtaker Uneven East-west Iran, (38◦ 10′ It was observed et al. uneven orientation 28.58)Srinagar that uneven
et al. span, even and north latitude that 8% higher (2007) span and (74.83 34.08) shape suited
(2019) span, north–south and 46◦ 18′ east solar radiation modified Jodhpur (73.02 best for the
single orientation longitude)/ was received by IARI 26.30)Kolkata heating
span, Thermal a single span (88.33 22.53) requirements
vinery, modelling shape at Chennai (80.18 based on the
Quonset (energy balance east–west 13.00) - India/ thermal load
and arch equations) orientation Numerical levelling values
than other analysis (Matlab predicted.
shapes and and C++)
orientations. Singh and Even span, East-west Delhi, India/ The peak
The radiation Tiwari standard orientation Numerical uneven span
loss was (2010) peak computation shape reported
minimum when uneven using empirical higher solar
the brick wall span, formulas energy
was used in sun vinery, transmission
facing wall arch and than other
boundary. Quonset shapes. The
Ghasemi Even span, East-west Iran, (38◦ 10′ It was reported solar energy
Mobtaker uneven orientation north latitude that energy available from
et al. span, and 46◦ 18′ east requirement peak uneven
(2016) vinery, longitude)/ was lowest in span (128 MJ)
single Thermal east–west was higher
span, arch modelling oriented single- when
and (energy balance span shape. The compared with
Quonset equations) brick wall at even span (109
the north side MJ), vinery
of dryer (102 MJ), arch
reduced energy (103 MJ) and
(31.7%) Quonset (94
demand in the MJ) shape.
dryer.
Cakır and Even-span, East-west Bayburt - The total solar
Sahin uneven- orientation Turkey (39◦ 52′ radiation for the greenhouse dryer. The properties of the commonly used latent
(2015) span, to 40◦ 37′ gaining rate storage units in the greenhouse dryer are listed in Table 3 (Sharma et al.,
vinery, latitudes and was determined 2009b).
semi- 39◦ 37′ to 40◦ 45′ by evaluating
circular longitudes)/ the values of k
Azaizia et al. (2020) compared the drying performance of the
and Mathematical (ratio of length greenhouse dryer (with and without thermal storage unit) and open sun
elliptic modelling to width) and drying. It was found that the temperature of the air inside the green­
(Matlab) GAA house dryer with PCM was 5–19 ◦ C higher than the ambient condition
(greenhouse
for 11 hr. The drying time of red pepper in the greenhouse dryer with
azimuth angle).
The elliptical PCM (30 hr) was lower when compared to the dryer without thermal
shaped storage unit (55 hr) and open sun drying (75 hr) method. Berroug et al.
greenhouse (2011) studied the performance of calcium chloride hexahydrate as PCM
reported higher on north wall with different thickness (2–5 cm) and observed that
value of k (10
to 4) and GAA
thickness of 4 cm was optimum and found an increase of 6–12 ◦ C in air
(90◦ ) when temperature inside the greenhouse at night time under passive mode.
compared with Ozturk (2005) used the solar air heater to charge the PCM unit in a
other shapes. greenhouse dryer. The daily average total energy and exergy efficiencies
Gupta and Gable East-west New Delhi - At colder
of the system were reported to be 74.3% and 4.2%, respectively. Kurklu
Chandra shape, and India (28◦ 35′ N climatic
(2002) Quonset latitude and 77◦ conditions, et al. (1997) used the salt mixture as a PCM unit to avoid frost formation
in the greenhouse dryer at colder climatic conditions and achieved

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Fig. 5. Various thermal energy storage system used in greenhouse dryer (Kant et al., 2016).

1–2 ◦ C higher temperature than ambient conditions. Boulard et al.

Table 2
(1990) studied the usage of paraffin as PCM in the greenhouse dryer.
List of sensible heat storage materials used in greenhouse dryer.
They found that at low-temperature conditions, PCM did not melt, and
Storage Density (kg Specific heat References overheating occurred during spring climatic conditions leading to loss of
material m¡3) capacity (J kg-
1 ¡1 efficiency. Huang et al. (1986) studied ring and cross-type PCM
K )
arrangement and found that ring-type arrangement resulted in higher
Rock 2560 879 Sharma et al. (2009b); air temperature inside the greenhouse dryer. They observed that the
Laubscher et al. (2017); Kant
et al.(2016)
energy storage capacity of PCM was better than the water and gravel bed
Concrete 1900–2300 880 Sharma et al. (2009b); storage system. Nishina and Takakura (1985) operated a greenhouse
Fernandez et al. (2010); John dryer at the low ambient conditions (-1 to − 6 ◦ C) with sodium sulfate
et al. (2013); Rice et al. (1988); decahydrate as PCM material. They observed a temperature difference
Kant et al. (2016)
of 7.5 to 12 ◦ C between the air temperature inside the dryer and ambient
Brick 1600 840 Sharma et al. (2009b)
Gravel 1674 881 El-Sebaii et al. (2007) condition.
Sand 1640 830 Deshmukh and Thombre Baddadi et al. (2019) studied the effect of double packed PCM
(2017); Mahfoudi et al. (2014) (Calcium chloride hexahydrate) in solar air heater connected to a
greenhouse dryer. A comparison of air temperature inside the green­
house dryer showed an improvement of 3.5 ◦ C due to the presence of
Table 3 PCM in the dryer. They tested different thicknesses (2, 4, and 5 cm) of
List of latent heat storage materials used in greenhouse dryer. PCM and observed that 4 cm was an optimal thickness for the tested
Storage material Melting Latent Density References condition. Huang et al. (1986) compared the energy storage capacity of
point heat (kg PCM (calcium chloride hexahydrate) with sensible heat storage units
(◦ C) capacity m¡3) like water and rock. It was found that PCM had the highest energy
(J kg- storage capacity than rock and water. They found that the volume
1 ¡1
K )
occupied by PCM (calcium chloride hexahydrate) was 1/8th and 1/5th
Paraffin (18 28 244 Sharma et al. of the volume occupied by rock and water, respectively, as an energy
carbon atoms) (2009b); Shalaby
storage system. A detailed performance evaluation of thermal energy
and Bek (2014);
Devahastin and storage materials (sensible and latent) used in various type of green­
Pitaksuriyarat house dryers are summarised in Table 4. Among the various types of
(2006); Kant et al. sensible storage materials used, black painted gravel bed performed
(2016) better than ground bed, gravel bed and concrete bed. In case of PCM
Calcium Chloride 29.8 174 1710 Abhat (1983);
based thermal storage, the thickness of the PCM plays a significant role
Hexahydrate Sharma et al.
(CaCl2H12O6) (2009b) in determining the performance of the dryer as discussed in Table 4.
Sodium Sulfate 32.4 251 1460 Abhat (1983); Few researchers have explored the usage of heat pump and heat
Decahydrate Sharma et al. exchanger along with PCM units to enhance the drying behavior of
(Na2SO410H20) (2009b)
greenhouse dryers at colder climates. Benli and Durmus (2009) devel­
Barium hydroxide 78 265.7 2070 Kant et al.(2016);
octahydrate Ba Dincer and Rosen oped a greenhouse integrated with a heat pump unit connected to PCM
(OH)2⋅⋅8H2O (2010); Abhat (calcium chloride hexahydrate). The PCM unit was charged from the
(1983) heat pump, and an increase of 1 to 3 ◦ C was observed in air temperature
inside the greenhouse dryer. Kooli et al. (2011) developed a greenhouse

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Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Performance evaluation of thermal energy storage materials in greenhouse Reference Greenhouse Types of storage Performance
dryer. type/air flow/ medium studied
Reference Greenhouse Types of storage Performance product
type/air flow/ medium studied and average net
product energy efficiency of
Ahmad and Even span/Passive Gravel bed/ground The net heat gain the system were
Prakash mode/Tomato bed/concrete bed/ was maximum in 4.2% and 40.4%,
(2020) flakes (4 kg) black painted gravel black painted gravel respectively.
bed bed (53%) followed Kurklu et al. Active mode/No Salt mixture (NaCl The salt mixture
by gravel bed (49%), (1997) load and KCl) absorbed 30% of the
concrete bed (33%), incident solar energy
and ground bed (9 MJ). The
(29%). The temperature
maximum difference between
temperature inside the PCM and
the greenhouse dryer greenhouse air
was 64.4 ◦ C for black temperature was
painted gravel bed. 2 ◦ C.
Prakash Even span/Active Barren concrete It was reported that Boulard Semi cylindrical/ Paraffin wax (2.5 kg) A 10 ◦ C temperature
et al. and passive/ floor/black painted maximum COP in et al. Active mode/ difference between
(2016a) Tomato, potato concrete floor/ active and passive (1990) Tomato ambient and
and capsicum concrete floor mode was observed greenhouse dryer
flakes covered with PVC in barren concrete was reported. It
sheet floor (0.73) and helped to reduce the
concrete floor with a auxiliary heat loads
PVC sheet (0.87). in the dryer by 40%.
Berroug Even span/ Calcium chloride The performance of Huang et al. Arch type/Active/ Calcium chloride The PCM was stored
et al. Passive/Plants hexahydrate (777.6 various thickness (2, (1986) Tobacco hexahydrate (13 kg) in-ring and cross
(2011) kg) 4, 5 cm) of PCM was baffled arrangement.
studied. It was It was observed that
observed that 4 cm the ring baffled
thick PCM material arrangement had
in the north wall better performance
resulted in a 6 to than cross baffle.
12 ◦ C increase in Nishina and Venlo type/Active Sodium sulfate The dryer was
greenhouse air Takakura mode/no load decahydrate (2500 operated at − 6 to −
temperature and (1985) kg) 0.5 ◦ C ambient
product during night temperature. Due to
time. the use of PCM
Kooli et al. Tunnel type/ Earth water heat The greenhouse material, the
(2011) passive/Plants exchanger at dryer with heat minimum air
underground and exchanger resulted temperature inside
water air heat in 4 to 5 ◦ C increase the dryer was
exchanger inside the in dryer temperature maintained at 6 to
greenhouse when compared with 8 ◦ C.
dryer without heat Jaffrin and Multi span/Active calcium chloride A temperature
exchanger. A rise of 5 Cadier mode/Rose hexahydrate (13500 difference of 5 ◦ C
to 7.5◦ C was (1982) kg) was achieved
observed between between the ambient
the temperature and inside air
inside the drier and temperature. The
ambient air. storage benefit of the
Benli and Even span/ Calcium chloride The dryer was PCM was reported as
Durmus Active/Plants hexahydrate (300 incorporated with a 60 kWh.
(2009) kg) heat pump and PCM
material. The
greenhouse dryer dryer by incorporating two heat exchangers as a PCM unit to increase
was operated in an the temperature of floor and air present inside the dryer. The dryer floor
ambient temperature was heated using underground heat exchanger and air inside the
range of − 5 ◦ C to
− 20 ◦ C. Application
greenhouse was heated using water–air heat exchanger. It was observed
of heat pump that the dryer reported 4 to 6 ◦ C higher air temperature than dryer
resulted in a 5 to without a PCM arrangement. The integration of the thermal energy
10 ◦ C rise in dryer storage system with the greenhouse dryers permits continuous drying of
temperature when
the products during day and night time.
compared with
ambient. Similarly, The selection of sensible and latent heat storage materials depends
PCM resulted in a on various parameters like climatic condition, volume of the drying
rise of 1 to 3 ◦ C chamber, drying temperature requirement, etc. A comparison of drying
above the ambient time and air temperature inside the greenhouse dryer operated with and
temperature.
Ozturk Modified arch/ Paraffin wax (6000 The rate of heat
without thermal energy storage unit and open sun drying method are
(2005) active/No load kg) stored in the PCM discussed in Table 5. It is observed that the dryer with thermal energy
unit was in the range storage unit reported lower drying time and higher air temperature in­
of 0.65 to 2.1 kW. side the greenhouse dryer when compared with dryer operated without
The exergy efficiency
thermal storage unit. The open sun drying method reported higher
drying time and lower air temperature inside the dryer as shown in

7
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 5
Comparison of greenhouse dryer with and without thermal energy storage system (TES) and open sun drying method.
Reference Greenhouse type/air flow/product Types of storage Air temperature Open sun Drying time (hour)
medium studied inside the drying
greenhouse dryer
(◦ C)
With Without With Without Open sun
TES TES TES TES drying

Azaizia et al. Even span type/active mode at daytime and Paraffin wax (45 kg) 55 53 33 30 55 75
(2020) passive mode at night/Red pepper
Baddadi et al. Hydrophonic type/active mode/no load Calcium chloride 37.5 34 – – – –
(2019) hexahydrate(95 kg)
Natarajan et al. Solar tunnel dryer/passive mode/Momordica Sand bed/rock bed 67.5 55 5.3 7 10.2
(2017) charantia
Natarajan et al. Solar tunnel dryer/passive mode/Vitis vinifera Sand bed/rock bed 62.5 55 28 53 58
(2017) (3.96 kg)
Ayyappan et al. Modified arch/passive/Coconuts Concrete bed/sand bed/ 45 53 174
(2016) rock bed

Table 5. energy gain were high. It was observed that electrical energy gain and
thermal energy gain increased when the number of fans used in the dryer
4. Application of solar photovoltaic panels in solar greenhouse was increased.
dryer
4.1. Selection of solar PV cells for solar greenhouse application
Greenhouse dryers are also operated across the world on grid power
or fossil fuels. The growing demand for agricultural crop drying and a The CIGS PV technology has low payback time, and hence it is
decreasing trend in the fossils fuels resources have necessitated the preferred for rural areas, but the initial investment cost is high. The c-Si
usage of renewable energy resources. To operate the dryer with PV cell can be used if energy production is the primary objective in the
renewable and non-polluting energy sources, PV panels are used in the greenhouse dryer. Saini et al. (2017) studied the performances of
dryer (Carlini et al., 2012). PV panels consist of a larger number of various types of PV cells (c-Si, a-Si, p-Si, CdTe, and CIGS) placed on the
interconnected solar cells. The solar cell harnesses the incident solar roof of the solar greenhouse dryer operated under forced mode. It was
radiation and converts it into electricity (Riffat and Cuce, 2011). The observed that higher solar cell temperature resulted in lower cell effi­
roof of the greenhouse dryer can be covered with PV panels to meet the ciency. Perez-Alonso et al. (2012) studied the performance of the
electricity demand, and also it reduces the exposure of sunlight directly greenhouse dryer integrating a-Si type PV module and determined the
on the product. PV panels combined with the greenhouse dryer provide solar cell temperature, efficiency, and overall thermal energy of the
heating, cooling, and lighting to the system (Riffat and Cuce, 2011). The module. Ganguly et al. (2010) tested the operation of greenhouse dryer
main parameter to be considered for designing the PV panel system in integrated with Cell-PM75 PV module. The excess energy available after
the greenhouse dryer is the selection of PV cells. Numerous PV cells are meeting the power requirement of the dryer was passed to an electro­
available, and its selection depends on the cost-effectiveness of the lyzer to produce hydrogen gas, which was sent to the PEM fuel cell stack.
module and its energy-producing capacity (Cuce and Cuce, 2014a). The PEM fuel cell stack supplied power to the dryer during energy
Further, an extensive investigation must be carried out to study the deficient period. Tiwari et al. (2016a) studied the forced mode solar
modelling, selection, comparison and performance analysis of various greenhouse dryer integrated with the PV module (monocrystalline solar
PV solar cells to maximize the efficiency and cost-effectiveness for its cell) in the northern state of India (Delhi).They reported solar cell
application in solar greenhouse dryers (Cuce and Cuce, 2014b, 2015). temperature and efficiency were 54 ◦ C and 13.7%, respectively. The PV
Tiwari and Tiwari (2016) studied the effect of different weather integrated dryer produced an overall thermal energy gain of 12.76 kWh.
conditions on PV integrated solar greenhouse dryers. It was observed
that the proposed dryer had higher useful thermal energy, electrical 4.2. Orientation and arrangement of solar PV panels in greenhouse dryer
energy, and overall thermal energy and can be used for rural applica­
tions. Nayak and Tiwari (2008) analysed the exergy parameter of a PV Yano et al. (2010) studied two different arrangements of PV panels
integrated solar greenhouse dryer and found the proposed system had (straight line and checkerboard) in a single span greenhouse dryer to
4% exergy efficiency. The total exergy output (728.8 kWh) and net maximize the electrical energy received from PV panels. It was observed
electrical energy saving (716 kWh) were reported from the proposed that the checkerboard orientation of PV panels resulted in the uniform
system. Barnwal and Tiwari (2008a) studied the drying behaviour of distribution of sunlight received by the dryer. It was observed that with
grapes of two different grades in a hybrid PV integrated solar green­ careful arrangement of PV panels, electrical energy generation could be
house dryer. The heat transfer coefficients determined were in the increased within an allowable shading area for the products. Yano et al.
ranges of 0.26–0.31 Wm-2K− 1 (grade I) and 0.45–1.21 Wm-2K− 1 (grade (2014) conducted an experiment on greenhouse dryer integrated with
II). Sonneveld et al. (2010) studied the effect of using NIR reflecting silicon solar microcells in PV panels having two different cell densities
material and PV panels on solar greenhouse dryer and determined the (PV1 − 15.4 cell/cm2 and PV2 − 5.1 cell/cm2). They studied the
thermal conversion energy (65%) and electrical conversion energy importance of orientation and PV roof coverage and further calculated
(11.3%) of the system. Urena-Sanchez et al. (2012) studied the feasi­ the annual electrical energy production. It was observed that the annual
bility of using flexible solar panels on the greenhouse dryer under nat­ energy produced from PV panels placed in east (110 kWhm-2yr− 1) and
ural mode to dry tomatoes. It was observed that the usage of solar panels west (39 kWhm-2yr− 1) roof of north - south orientation reported better
did not increase the product cost, whereas it resulted in improving the performance than panels placed in south (102 kWhm-2yr− 1) and north
yield of tomatoes. Shyam et al. (2015) measured the useful thermal, (36 kWhm-2yr− 1) roof of east –west orientation.
electrical, and overall thermal energy gain of the greenhouse dryer in­
tegrated with the PV module under load and no-load condition. Under
the loaded condition, the useful thermal energy gain and overall thermal

8
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

4.3. Integration of PV module and heat exchanger in solar greenhouse cells used in photovoltaic module integrated with greenhouse dryer is
dryer summarised based on the solar cell temperature, solar efficiency, ther­
mal and electrical energy gain as given in Table 6. It is observed that the
Nayak and Tiwari (2009) studied the combined effect of PV module a-Si solar cell reported higher solar cell temperature and c-Si solar cell
and heat exchanger on the overall thermal energy gain achieved in an reported maximum solar efficiency. The electrical energy gain is re­
even span greenhouse dryer. It was found that the temperature inside ported to be maximum in CIGS solar cell along with lower payback time.
the greenhouse dryer was 7–8 ◦ C higher than the ambient throughout The overall thermal energy gain is maximum in c-Si solar cell module.
the drying process. The overall thermal energy (24728.8 kWh) obtained
was higher due to the combination of PV module and heat exchanger. 5. Economic, energy and environmental study on solar
This proposed dryer is suitable for drying crops in winter conditions. greenhouse dryers
Yano et al. (2010) studied the performance of earth to the air heat
exchanger in the greenhouse dryer. This heat exchanger can be used in The dryers used for agricultural products can be divided into con­
both winter and summer to provide heating and cooling effect to the ventional and non-conventional types based on the energy utilized. The
dryer, respectively. The total energy consumption of the entire system conventional dryer operates using electricity and fossil fuels. Operating
was 8.1 kWh, and out of which 34.5% was supplied from the solar PV cost of these dryers are very high and also emit harmful pollutants to the
panels. Ganguly and Ghosh (2011) studied the performance of PV in­ environment. Non-conventional dryers use solar energy to operate,
tegrated greenhouse dryer for floriculture. The excess energy produced thereby reducing the drying cost, pollution, and energy consumption
by the PV was utilized to produce hydrogen gas and passed to the PEM (Prakash and Kumar, 2013; Sharma et al., 2009a). Solar greenhouse
fuel cell stack to cover up the energy-deficient period. This proposed dryer is a non-conventional type dryer which utilizes solar energy to dry
system was suitable for winter months, and peak performance was the products. Sodha et al. (1991) found that non-conventional dryers
achieved in December. This standalone grid-independent system assis­ have a life span of 10 years and perform better than conventional dryers
ted in maintaining the greenhouse temperature within the limit to dry using fossil fuels.
flowers. An analysis on various economic indicators, environmental, and
energy parameters must be carried out for dryers. These analyses pro­
4.4. Fresnel lens integrated PV module in solar greenhouse dryer vide a clearer picture about the economic viability and sustainability of
a dryer (Chauhan et al., 2018a; Kumar et al., 2014). In view of the
Sonneveld et al. (2011) experimented with the use of a Fresnel lens in continuous increase in fossil fuel price, electricity demand and the
a wide span greenhouse dryer. Thus, usage of the Fresnel lens blocks the associated environmental impacts with the use of fossil fuels warrant a
maximum solar radiation which fall on the greenhouse dryer and passes detailed investigation on economic, energy, and environmental effects
only the diffuse radiation into it. The blocked solar radiation is directed from the dryers (Fudholi et al., 2015). Economic parameters include
to a PV module to generate electricity and helps to run the dryer without payback time, cost of the greenhouse dryer, and product drying cost. The
grid dependency. This prototype produced annual electricity of 29 energy parameters, like embodiment energy and specific energy con­
kWhm− 2. Among the various PV modules used in solar greenhouse sumption of the dryer need to be estimated. The environmental in­
dryers, the CIGS module provides lower payback time and embodiment dicators are CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation, and carbon credits earned.
energy. An analysis on the performance evaluation of the different solar The significance of energy, environment and economic parameters are

Table 6
Performance evaluation of photovoltaic module integrated solar greenhouse dryer.
Reference PV module Greenhouse Energy gain from PV module PV module performance
Specifications specifications and
product
Thermal Electrical Overall Solar cell Solar cell
energy gain energy gain thermal temperature efficiency
(kWh) (kWh) energy gain (◦ C) (%)
(kWh)
Saini et al. Semi-transparent PV c-Si Single slope/ 1109 255 4.57 83 15
(2017) module (1.8 m2) Active mode/
Crop (2 kg)
p-Si 1093 261 4.32 88 11
a-Si 1028 170 3.35 89 6
CdTe 1000 273 3.69 84 7.5
CIGS 987 381 3.77 82 9
Tiwari et al. Monocrystalline solar Single slope type (0.56 11.18 0.602 12.76 54 13.7
(2016a) cell 1260 Watts m3)/Active/No load
Tiwari and PV module (1.8 m2) Single slope/Active/ 1182 191.53 1686.2 – –
Tiwari Crop (2 kg)
(2016)
Tiwari et al. Semi-transparent PV Single slope (0.71 – – 2.03 58 12
(2016b) module (1.2 m2) m3)/Active/Grape (2
kg)
Perez-Alonso a-Si solar cell (1.54 m2) Even span (1.02 m2)/ – – 8.25 22 5.5
et al. (2012) Active/Tomato
Nayak and PV module (1.62*6.5 Even span/Active/No 22577.9 805.9 24728.8 – –
Tiwari m) load
(2009)
Yano et al. a-Si module (0.8*0.4 Single span – 122 – – 7
(2010) m2) (16*5.4*3.3 m3)/
Passive/Tomato
Shyam et al. Semi-transparent PV Single slope (5.2 m2)/ No Load 35 102 295 66 13.6
(2015) module (1.2*0.54 m) Active/Crop (2 kg)
With Load 65 96 325 77 13.3

9
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

briefly discussed in the following sections.

1 1
CO2 mitigation = Em × ×
1 − La 1 − Ltd
5.1. Embodied energy
× 1.58ofCO2 /kgofcoaltoproduceelectricity (1)
Embodied energy is the total amount of energy used in production,
processing, materials transportation, and extraction to manufacture a 5.3. CO2 mitigation
product or to provide a service (Ahmad and Prakash, 2020). It is
essential to know the CO2 emission embodied in the manufacturing of CO2 mitigation is carried out to maintain the level of CO2 in the at­
the greenhouse dryer. The embodiment energy coefficient of different mosphere. It is a tool used in determining the effect of climate change.
components used in the greenhouse dryer is summarised in Table 7. CO2 mitigation in the system is calculated using Eq.(2) (Luxmore et al.,
2013; Shrivastava and Kumar, 2017)
5.2. Carbon credit 1 1
CO2 mitigation = Em × and
1 − La 1 − Ltd
A carbon credit is a permit or a certificate given by the emission
× 1.58ofCO2 /kgofcoaltoproduceelectricity (2)
regulatory authority to industry to emit a mass equal to one ton of CO2 or
other greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. One carbon credit point is where1− 1La and 1
are the losses due to domestic appliances (La), and
1− Ltd
provided to the industry when they reduce or avoid the emission of one transmission and distribution losses (Ltd) while transmitting the energy
ton of carbon dioxide equivalent gasses to the atmosphere for a partic­ from the power plant. For electricity produced from coal, an average
ular product or a service. Carbon credit in the system is calculated using CO2 equivalent intensity (Indian condition) of 1.58 kg of CO2/kg of coal
Eq. (1) (Luxmore et al., 2013; Shrivastava and Kumar, 2017). is created (Ahmad and Prakash, 2020).

5.4. Specific energy consumption

It is defined as the ratio of input energy supplied to the drying

chamber to moisture content removed from the drying chamber.
Table 7
Embodiment energy detail of various components used in solar greenhouse Input energy supplied to the drying chamber
SEC = (3)
dryers. Moisture content removed from drying chamber
S. Substance Embodiment energy References
No. coefficient (kWhkg¡1) 5.5. Energy payback period
1 Glass 7.28 Ahmad and Prakash
(2020) It is defined as the ratio of total embodiment energy in a system to
2 Polycarbonate 10.19 Prakash and Kumar annual energy output (Nawaz and Tiwari, 2006; Neri et al., 2014; Pra­
sheet (2014b)
kash and Kumar, 2014a).
3 Plywood 2.88 Baird et al. (1997)
4 Glass wool 4.04 Eltawil et al. (2018b)
5 UV plastic sheet 25.64 Nayak et al. (2014) 5.6. Energy, embodiment and environmental aspects of solar greenhouse
6 DC Fan 19.44 Eltawil et al. (2018b) dryer
7 Silver coating 0.27 Shrivastava and Kumar
(2017)
8 Stainless steel wire 9.67 Shrivastava and Kumar
Ahmad and Prakash (2020) developed an even span greenhouse
mesh tray (2017) dryer under passive mode and estimated the embodiment energy
9 Paint 25.11 Shrivastava and Kumar (530.49 kWh) and CO2 emission (29.24 kg for every 1.5 kg of coal
(2017) burned). It was found that the embodiment energy of the proposed
10 Aluminum section
system was less than indirect mode type dryer and conventional active
(i) 1 × 1 mm 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014);
(section) Shrivastava and Kumar mode dryer. Eltawil et al. (2018a) estimated the specific energy con­
(2017) sumption, CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation, energy payback period, and
(ii) 4 × 1 mm 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014); embodiment energy for drying different thicknesses of peppermint (1, 2,
(section) Shrivastava and Kumar and 3 cm) in a solar tunnel type greenhouse dryer under active mode. It
(2017)
(iii) 1 × 3 mm 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014);
was reported that for products with larger thickness, the energy payback
(angle) Shrivastava and Kumar period of the dryer decreases, whereas the specific energy consumption
(2017) and CO2 mitigation increases. Nayak et al. (2011) studied the drying of
11 Fitting mint leaves in greenhouse dryers under active mode and estimated
(i) Hinges used 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014);
various economic and environmental parameters of the dryer. It was
Shrivastava and Kumar
(2017) observed that the proposed design had a higher carbon credit value.
(ii) Door lock 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014); Chauhan et al. (2018a) compared the embodiment energy distribu­
Shrivastava and Kumar tion, energy payback period, CO2 emission, and CO2 mitigation in a
(2017) greenhouse dryer operated under natural and forced mode. The total
(iii) Handle used 55.28 Nayak et al. (2014);
Shrivastava and Kumar
embodiment energy distribution in both forced and the natural mode
(2017) was mainly contributed by the usage of the aluminium section, poly­
(iv) Screw (steel) 9.67 Nayak et al. (2014); carbonate and PV module. It was observed that the embodiment energy
Shrivastava and Kumar and payback period were higher in forced mode dryer due to usage of
(2017)
exhaust DC fan, solar panel, charger controller and battery. The CO2
12 PVC sheet 19.44 Eltawil et al. (2018b)
13 Polycrystalline 1130.60 (kWh/m2) Prakash and Kumar emission and CO2 mitigation were also found to be higher for forced
solar cell (2014b) mode dryer. Prakash et al. (2016a) compared the economic and envi­
14 Battery 148.45 Eltawil et al. (2018b) ronmental parameters for forced and natural mode even span green­
15 Solar charge 33 Eltawil et al. (2018b) house dryers with different products (potato, tomato, and capsicum). It
controller
was found that CO2 mitigation, carbon credit, embodiment energy,

10
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

payback period and specific energy consumption of forced mode were energy density PV module (249 kWh) and aluminium casing (32 kWh/
higher than the passive mode. kg) had lower embodiment energy, CO2 emission and payback time.
Saini et al. (2017) studied the economic and environmental param­ Panwar et al. (2014) investigated the performance of solar tunnel dryer
eters on a forced convection greenhouse dryer integrated with different using different fuels light diesel oil (LDO) and liquefied petroleum gas
PV modules (c-Si, p-Si, a-Si, CdTe, CIGS). It was observed that the CIGS (LPG) and observed that CO2 emission and payback time of tunnel dryer
module has lower payback time and embodiment energy when operated with LDO fuel was low when compared with LPG operated
compared to other PV modules. The c-Si module showed larger energy dryer. A summary of the economic, energy and environmental assess­
output than other PV modules. Nayak et al. (2014) tested different PV ments of different types of solar greenhouse dryer operated under active
modules (c-Si, mc-Si, nc-Si, a-Si, CdTe, CIGS) integrated with the and passive mode is presented in Table 8.
greenhouse dryer operated in forced convection mode and found that c- From the literature, it is observed that the dryer operated under
Si module had better CO2 mitigation, carbon credit than other modules. active mode reported higher CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation, energy
Barnwal and Tiwari (2008b) studied the effect of the embodied energy payback period and embodiment energy when compared to the dryer
density of the PV module and aluminium casing used in the greenhouse operated in passive mode. The increase in CO2 emission, CO2 mitigation,
dryer. PV module with two different embodied energy densities (739 and energy payback period is attributed to the additional components
and 249 kWh) and aluminium casings (32 and 55 kWh/kg) were studied. like exhaust fan, solar panels, charge controller and battery. The selec­
It was found that the embodiment energy, CO2 emission and payback tion of these materials in the construction of greenhouse dryer results in
time were high when the PV module (739 kWh) and aluminium casing increased CO2 emissions. The embodiment energy is higher in mixed
(55 kWh/kg) with higher embodied energy density was selected for mode and hybrid type greenhouse dryers due to PV module usage,
experimental studies. Further, CO2 mitigation and CO2 credit were low polycarbonate sheet and aluminium casing. The product thickness in­
for the above case. A greenhouse dryer made with a low embodied fluences the payback time, specific energy consumption, CO2 emission

Table 8
Economic, Energy and environmental assessment in solar greenhouse dryer.
Reference Greenhouse type/ Environmental Assessment Cost Assessment Energy Assessment
product/mode/
Location
CO2 Emission CO2 CO2 Cost of the EPBT Specific energy Embodied
(CO2 kg per Mitigation Credit dryer (year) consumption Energy of the
kg of fuel) (tons) (Rupee) (Rupee) (kWhkg− 1) greenhouse
(kWh)
Ahmad and Even span/Natural/ 15.96 530.49
Prakash Tomato flakes/ India
(2020)
Eltawil et al. Tunnel GSD /Active/ 1 cm 53.38 17.48 3.63 15.25 1361.83
(2018a) Peppermint (1,2 and
3 cm)/Saudi Arabia
2 cm 21.40 3.01 19.12
3 cm 31.40 2.06 28.51
Chauhan Even span/Bitter Passive 15.53 33.04 11,068 to 1.68 554.65
et al. gourd/India 44,273
(2018a)
Active 21.01 36.34 12,173 to 2.35 750.41
48,695
Saini et al. Cabinet/Active/Crop c-Si 141.73 108.35 79,098 1.13 504.2
(2017) (2 kg)/India
p-Si 116.48 103.16 75,305 0.98
a-Si 85.51 80.21 58,553 0.93
CdTe 82.35 87.71 64,029 0.82
CIGS 40.96 92.37 67,379 0.39
Prakash et al. Even span type/Active Active 28.65 37,826 12844.5 1.51 1.92 687.7
(2016a) and passive/Potato
(3.5 kg)/India
Passive 28.69 37,826 8994.5 1.16 1.92 480.27
Capsicum (3.5 kg) Active 35.01 46,222 12844.5 1.24 2.99 687.7
Passive 33.36 43,620 8994.5 1.01 1.58 480.27
Tomato (3.5 kg) Active 38.06 50,245 12844.5 1.14 4.8 687.7
Passive 35.36 46,680 8994.5 0.94 2.58 480.27
Nayak et al. Even span/Forced/ c-Si 175.9 2199 2.12 4816.13
(2014) Mint/ India
mc-Si 172.4 2155 2.05
nc-Si 168.9 2111.8 1.97
a-Si 104.9 1311.5 2.01
CdTe 80.6 1008.1 1.91
CIGS 112.3 1404.3 1.66
Panwar et al. Tunnel/Passive/ LDO 2.75 2.12
(2014) Surgical cotton (run
by LDO and LPG
fuel)/India
LPG 1.52 3.03
Nayak et al. Forced/Mint/India 11,211 208,459 5555.13
(2011)
Barnwal and Roof type/Forced/ PV (739 kWh) + 877.71 7.92 8395 5.26 5555.11
Tiwari Grapes (100 kg)/India Aluminium (55
(2008b) kWh/kg)

11
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

and mitigation. Table 9

Thin layer models and equations used to predict drying behaviour in solar
6. Various thermal modelling techniques used in solar greenhouse dryer.
greenhouse dryer S. Thin layer model Equation References
No
The drying behaviour of products in the greenhouse dryer involves 1 Newton MR = exp( − k × t) Mujumdar (1987);
both heat and mass transfer phenomena. In the greenhouse dryer, solar Ayensu (1997);
radiation passes through the cladding material, and sensible heating of Jayas et al. (1991)
2 Page MR = exp( − k × tn ) Page (1949)
the product takes place. The moisture content present in the product gets
3 Modified Page MR = exp[( − k × tn ) ] White et al. (1978)
evaporated by the liberation of latent heat. The important parameters to
4 Henderson and MR = a × exp( − k × tn ) Henderson and
be considered in determining the design of the greenhouse dryer are:
Pabis Pabis (1961)
5 Logarithmic MR = a × exp( − k × t) + c Chandra and Singh
• Selection of greenhouse dryer shape and orientation based on the (1995); Yagcioglu
location, along with the nature of product and its quantity et al. (1999)
• The parameters to be predicted are the greenhouse air temperature, 6 Two-term MR = a × exp( − k0 × t) + c + Henderson (1974)
b × exp(k1 × t)
heat transfer coefficient to be achieved, drying rate and time.
7 Two-term MR = a × exp( − k × t) + (1 − Sharaf-Eldeen et al.
• These parameters can be predicted by the use of various thermal
exponential a) × exp( − k × a × t) (1980)
models (thin layer modelling and CFD simulations) for both active
8 Wang and Singh MR = 1 + a × t + b × t2 Wang and Singh
and passive types of greenhouse dryers. (1978)
9 Approximation of MR = a × exp( − k × t) + (1 − Kassem (1998)
diffusion a) × exp( − g × t)
6.1. Thin-layer drying modelling in solar greenhouse dryer 10 Modified MR = a × exp( − k × t) + b × Karathanos (1999)
Henderson and exp( − g × t) + c × exp( − h ×
Pabis t)
Several mathematical models have been developed for studying the
11 Verma MR = a × exp( − k × t) + (1 − Verma et al. (1985)
drying characteristics of the products. The drying process is modelled, a) × exp( − g × t)
considering the evaporation of water from the products occurs through 12 Midilli - Kucuk MR = a × exp(K × tn ) × b × t Midilli et al. (2002)
the diffusion mechanism. From the various thin layer drying models 13 Thompson Thompson et al.
t = a × In(MR) + b ×
available in the literature, the best fit and suitable drying model is (1968)
(In(MR) )2
determined by comparing the available models with the experimental
drying curve of the product. The sequence of steps involved in plotting
the experimental drying curve of the product is as given below; models. The drying curve showed a falling rate period, which was
attributed to the controlling mechanism due to internal diffusion in the
• The initial and final moisture content of the sample is determined, product. The New Model 2 showed the best fit with experimental data,
and the sample is weighed in between the drying process. and it was observed that the model fitted for various kinds of agricul­
• The weight of the sample is used to calculate the moisture content, tural products (potato, pomegranate, mint, carrot pomace, purslance).
and it is plotted as a function of corresponding drying time. Sacilik et al. (2006) studied the drying curve of tomato in a tunnel dryer
• The drying curve of the product is fitted with various available thin and found it exhibited a falling rate period. The approximation diffusion
layer models, and the statistical parameters are used to identify the model had the best fit when compared to various drying models.
best fit. Chauhan et al. (2018b) studied the modeling of bitter gourd in even span
greenhouse dryers operated in both active and passive conditions. The
From the experimental data, the moisture content ratio is plotted as a drying curve was compared with eleven different models, and it was
function of time, and by using statistical parameters, the data is fitted observed that the Logarithmic model suited better for passive mode
with the available theoretical models in the literature. The models are operation, and the Midilli-Kucuk model described the active mode
empirical, and the constants, as well as correlation coefficients, have no operation of the solar greenhouse dryer. Chauhan et al. (2018c) studied
physical meaning. The fitting of data and estimation of constants are the drying kinetics of bitter gourd in active mode greenhouse dryer. The
dependent on the moisture content plot. Additionally, the mean absolute drying curve was compared with the various model, and it was found the
error, root mean square error and reduced chi-square are computed for drying behavior was best fitted with Prakash and Kumar model. Eltawil
selecting the best suited model. The thin layer drying models are derived et al. (2018b) studied the drying kinetics of potato chips in an even span
from Newton’s law of cooling (Newton, Page, and Modified Page tunnel dryer in forced mode operated with PV solar panels. It was
model), Fick’s second law of diffusion (Henderson and Pabis model), observed that the Two-Term, Henderson and Pabis, and Page model
and few others are empirical models (Thompson and Wang model; Singh described the dehydration process of potato chips and were in good
model). The list of commonly used thin-layer drying models and their agreement with experimental drying curves. Sacilik (2007) interpreted
equations are presented in Table 9. the drying behaviour of pumpkin seed in a tunnel dryer and found that
the logarithmic model predicted the drying kinetics better than other
6.1.1. Thin-layer drying of vegetables, fruits, and spices in greenhouse dryer available models in the literature.
Djebli et al. (2020) developed two new models to predict the drying Hamdi et al. (2018) studied the drying behaviour of grapes and
kinetics of potato grown in arid and semi-arid regions. It was reported compared the drying rate with various models. The drying curve showed
that the boundary condition of the dryer was considered as an additional a falling rate period. The Two-term model was observed to be in good
assumption, and most of the models available in the literature were agreement to predict the drying curve of grapes. Tiwari and Tiwari
independent of the design and operating conditions of the dryer. The (2018) studied the drying behaviour of grape in open sun drying and
suitability of the developed model was tested for products like cassava, greenhouse drying. The drying curve was compared with various drying
grapes, bananas, mangoes, and chili pepper. Gurlek et al. (2009) studied models, and it was observed that the page model showed the best fit in
the drying curve of tomato in a tunnel dryer and found that the two-term both open sun and greenhouse drying methods. Lopez-Ortiz et al. (2018)
thin-layer drying model showed the best fit with the experimental dry­ studied the drying curve behaviour of basil and blackberry pulp in even
ing data curve. Badaoui et al. (2019) studied the solar drying charac­ span greenhouse dryers. It was observed that the page model showed
teristics of tomato pomace and compared the drying curve with various

12
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

good agreement with experimental data. Lopez Cerino et al. (2019) Table 10
analysed the drying kinetics of pineapple in a parabolic dryer in forced Thin layer models based on greenhouse shape, product, mode of operation and
mode and compared the drying curve with various models. The drying location.
curve showed constant drying and falling rate period mode. The Hasi­ S.No Greenhouse Product and Best fit with a
buan and Daud model was observed to be in good agreement with the Details Location theoretical model
drying curves followed by Sripinyowanich and Modified Midilli models. Djebli et al. (2020) Single slope/ Potatoes, grapes, Midilli-Kucuk
Patil and Gawande (2018) studied the drying kinetic of amla candy in a Active mode chili peppers, model
tunnel dryer under forced mode. The drying curve exhibited a falling bananas,
mangoes, and
rate period, and the modified page model was best suited for predicting
cassava/arid and
the drying curves of amla candy. Seerangurayar et al. (2019) modelled semi-arid regions
the shrinkage behaviour of date (fruit at various ripening stages of of Tunisia
khalal, rutab and tamr). It was observed that the shrinkage behaviour as Azaizia et al. Even span (4.5 Red pepper/ Midilli and Kucuk -
a function of moisture content of date was in good agreement with the (2020) m2)/Active region of Borj- with thermal
mode Cedria, Tunisia. storage.Two-term
quadratic equation model. Wilkins et al. (2018) found that the equilib­ model - without
rium moisture content and diffusivity are the main parameters that in­ thermal storage.
fluence the drying behaviour. A temporal model was developed, which Hempattarasuwan Parabolic Cayenne chili/ Midilli and Kucuk –
used the drying rate and predicted the drying behaviour of mango waste. et al. (2020) (6*8.2*3.25 Namkian, whole chiliPage
m)/Active Thailand model – cutted chili
It was observed that it outperformed the various available models. The
EL khadraoui et al. Double slope Red pepper/ Modified
uncertainty involved in the measurement of the drying rate did not (2019) (14.8 m2)/ Tunisia Henderson and
significantly affect the model. Active Pabis best fitted the
Eltawil et al. (2018a) compared the experimental drying curve of drying curve
peppermint with various drying models available in the literature. The Badaoui et al. Single slope Tomato pomace/ New model 2
(2019) (12 m2)/Active Algeria
two-term model predicted the drying characteristics of peppermint
Seerangurayar Tunnel (30 Date(khalal, Quadratic equation
operated in a tunnel dryer, which showed a falling rate period. Sallam et al. (2019) m2)/Active rutab, tamr)/ model
et al. (2015) compared the drying of mint with direct and indirect mode Muscat, Oman
dryers. The direct and indirect modes were covered with transparent Chauhan et al. Even span Bitter gourd/ Logarithmic for
(2018b) (1.14 m2)/ Bhopal, India natural and Midilli-
and black polyethylene films, respectively. The drying curve of mint
Active and Kucuk models for
from both the dryers in the active and passive mode was compared. For passive forced mode
passive mode, it was observed that the diffusion approach and the Chauhan et al. Even pan (1.35 Bitter gourd Prakash and kumar
Verma et al. model was in good agreement, and for the active mode, the (2018c) * 0.85 m2)/ flakes/India model
Verma et al. model was in the best fit for both type of dryers. Azaizia Active
Patil and Gawande Tunnel type/ Amla candy/ Modified Page
et al. (2020) studied the various drying models available to predict the
(2018) Active India model
drying kinetics of red pepper dried in a solar greenhouse dryer inte­ Eltawil et al. Even span (2 Peppermint/Al Two-term model
grated with and without PCM. It was found that the Midilli and Kucuk (2018a) m2)/Active Ahsa, Saudi
model fitted for a dryer with a thermal storage unit and the Two-term Arabia
Lopez Cerino et al. Parabolic roof Pineapple/ Hasibuan and Daud
model suited for dryer without thermal storage. EL khadraoui et al.
(2019) type (8*5.5 Nakhom Pathom, drying model
(2019) fitted the drying curve of red pepper with available thin layer m2)/Active Thailand
models. The drying curve of red pepper exhibited a falling rate period, Tiwari and Tiwari Semi Grapes/India Page model
and it was found that the Modified Henderson and Pabis model best (2018) transparent/
fitted the experimental data. Hempattarasuwan et al. (2020) studied the single slope
(1.3 m2)/
drying behaviour of cayenne chili product (whole and cut) and
Active
compared with thin layer models. It was found that the Page model Wilkins et al. Rectangular Mango waste/ Mo2Te2ScX model
fitted best for cut chili product, and the drying curve of the whole chili (2018) (30*25*3 m3)/ Coventry, United
suited the Midilli and Kucuk model. Passive Kingdom
Fadhel et al. (2018) Even span Tunisian Midilli model
Fadhel et al. (2018) studied the drying curves of Tunisian phosphate
(2.25 m2)/ phosphate/
in three different types of dryers (open sun, greenhouse dryer, and Passive Tunisia
parabolic concentrator). The drying curve exhibited a constant drying Eltawil et al. Even span Potato chips/Al Two-Term,
rate and the falling rate period. The Midilli model showed good agree­ (2018b) tunnel dryer (2 Ahsa, Saudi Henderson & Pabis
ment with experimental data for all three types of dryers. It was found m2)/Active Arabia and Page
Hamdi et al. (2018) Chapel shape Grapes/Tunisia Two-term model
that the drying performance of the parabolic concentrator was better
(14.8 m2)/
when compared with other models, but the drying quantity was signif­ Active
icantly low. Dejchanchaiwong et al. (2016) studied the drying behavior Lopez-Ortiz et al. Even span (8 Basil and Page model
of the rubber sheet in mixed mode greenhouse and indirect solar dryers. (2018) m2)/Active Blackberry pulp/
The drying curve was described a constant rate and the falling rate Mexico
Dejchanchaiwong Even span Rubber sheets/ Hii et al. model
period. Hii et al. model fitted best with both the dryers and it is a et al. (2016) (1*2*1.55 m2)/ Thailand
combination of Page and Two-term models. Passive
From the above discussion, it is clear that the available and devel­ Sallam et al. (2015) Direct type (2.9 Mint plant/Egypt Passive – Diffusion
oped models vary based on the product, location, greenhouse type, and *1 m2)/Active approach and
and passive Verma et al.
mode of operation. A comprehensive summary is presented with a
mode modelActive -
detailed analysis of various thin-layer models that matched the prod­ Verma et al. model
uct’s experimental drying curve based on greenhouse type, mode of Sacilik et al. (2006) Tunnel dryer Tomato/Ankara, Approximation
operation, and location in Table 10. This tabulation can be used as a (1.8*2.5*8 m)/ Turkey diffusion model
reference tool to select the suitable thin-layer drying model based on the Passive
Sacilik (2007) Pumpkin seed/ Logarithmic model
greenhouse type, mode of operation, product and location. Ankara, Turkey
(continued on next page)

13
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 10 (continued ) (2011) studied the drying rate, air, and sludge surface temperature
S.No Greenhouse Product and Best fit with a along with air velocity in a solar tunnel greenhouse drier used for sludge
Details Location theoretical model drying application. It was observed that sludge surface humidity and
Tunnel dryer
drying rate were inversely proportional. This analysis helped to under­
(1.8*2.5*8 m)/ stand the drying behaviour of sludge in the dryer. He et al. (2018)
Passive studied the optimization of vent size provided in the back wall of solar
Gurlek et al. (2009) Tunnel dryer Tomato/Turkey Two-term model greenhouse dryer using 2-D modelling. It was observed that providing
(10 m2)/Active
back wall vent could assist in achieving indoor cooling, and a vent of size
1.4 m was suitable for the tested condition. Santolini et al. (2018)
6.2. Application of computational fluid dynamics in modelling of solar studied the effect of airflow inside a solar greenhouse dryer having
greenhouse dryer screens to provide a shading effect on products. The air movement was
predicted in terms of velocity vectors, and it was found that the screen
Modelling of solar greenhouse dryer using computational fluid dy­ presence resulted in uniform air movement inside the dryer. The screens
namics to predict the drying behaviour of products has started in recent were assumed as a porous structure, and the porosity and permeability
years. The CFD models are used to predict the temperature distribution values were obtained from experimental data. This analysis helped in
of air inside the greenhouse dryer, product temperature, air pattern, and positioning of screens inside the greenhouse dryer. Nebbali et al. (2012)
its movement in the drying chamber through 2-D and 3-D modelling. studied the temperature distribution in cover and outside air, and the
The CFD tools assist in saving cost and time by avoiding expensive distribution of heat flux density transpiration in the drier. The crops in
experimental investigations (Castro et al., 2018; Prakash et al., 2016b). the dryer were assumed as a porous medium, and a bi-band discrete
Here a detailed review on the CFD tools used in modelling of solar ordinate radiation model was used in the analysis. It was reported that
greenhouse dryers is presented. the evapotranspiration of crops depends on the wind speed, sun posi­
The influence of wind movement on the design of ventilation in solar tion, and microclimatic condition of the dryer. Piscia et al. (2012)
greenhouse dryer was studied using CFD simulations. The results were studied the condensation effect in a four-span plastic-covered green­
analysed based on the air temperature inside the dryer and ventilation house dryer. The greenhouse air and roof temperature, condensation
rate. A comparison was made between the dryer with and without rate and relative humidity were predicted. It was observed that the roof
ventilation. It was observed that the effect of ventilation could be temperature was the coolest and acted as a sink for the condensation
reduced by increasing the dryer length. The K-epilson (k-ε) turbulent process. The condensation rate was modelled as a logistic function, and
model was used and based on the results; a new dryer was designed it was found that the roof temperature and relative humidity were
(Campen, 2005; Hemming et al., 2006). A study on the microclimate interrelated.
effect inside the greenhouse dryer integrated with PV panels for two In recent years, energy-based simulations were carried out by
different shapes (asymmetric and Venlo) of the dryer was carried out coupling the energy balance equations with CFD simulations to improve
using CFD simulations. The air temperature inside and ambient tem­ the accuracy in the prediction of drying behaviour of agricultural
perature outside the dryer, the temperature of PV panels, and solar ra­ products by using the advantages of both methods (energy balance
diation distribution were predicted. It was found that the incident solar equations and CFD simulations). The coupling method was commonly
radiation was reduced by the presence of solar panels. It was recom­ used in modelling the climatic conditions of integrated building simu­
mended to use transparent panels in checkboard arrangement to in­ lation (Allegrini et al., 2015; Allegrini and Carmeliet, 2017; Zhai and
crease the incident solar radiation in the dryer. It was reported that the Chen, 2005; Zhang et al., 2013), and was not effectively explored by
average solar distribution in the Venlo type (46%) dryer was higher than researchers for modelling greenhouse dryer. Piscia et al. (2015) studied
asymmetric type (41.6%) dryer (Fatnassi et al., 2015). Srichat et al. the ventilation effect in a solar greenhouse dryer during night time
(2019) studied the temperature distribution in sinusoidal and parabolic under two scenarios (clear sky and overcast sky). The convective co­
greenhouse dryers using the two-equation k-ε turbulence model. It was efficients and ventilation rate obtained from CFD simulations were
reported that the drying air temperature inside the dryer was higher for shared with energy-based equations. It was reported that ventilation was
the sinusoidal shape dryer and had lower drying time when compared required for the overcast sky condition, and if the relative humidity of
with the parabolic shaped dryer. the air outside the greenhouse dryer was higher than 85%, then venti­
Roman-Roldan et al. (2019) analysed the velocity and temperature lation was not required. Piscia et al. (2013) studied the effect of cover
distribution of air inside the greenhouse dryer and the turbulent kinetic materials used in the greenhouse dryer at night time. Two energy-based
energy values using the discrete ordinate method. It was observed that simulation studies were done to determine the thermal radiation prop­
the turbulent kinetic energy was higher in the middle of the dryer erties and high reflectance properties at different external climate con­
leading to the non-homogenous temperature distribution. It was re­ ditions. The convective coefficients from the energy-based simulations
ported that by reducing the volume of the dryer, the velocity had were obtained, and a partial coupling with CFD simulation was done by
increased, and lower drying time was achieved in the dryer. Lalmi et al. sharing the convective coefficients. It was reported that the cover ma­
(2019) studied the thermal performance of tunnel greenhouse dryers by terial with low emissivity and transmitivity was preferred at night time.
plotting the humid air movement by streamlines and velocity field using A detailed description of the simulation tools, thermal models, pre­
a 2D model. It was observed that two recirculation zones were present in dicted parameters, and its outcome for different greenhouse dryers is
the opposite direction inside the dryer. Saberian and Sajadiye (2019) discussed in Table 11. It is observed that thermal modelling tools are
studied the airflow (path lines and velocity vectors), air temperature, extensively used in predicting the air temperature and movement,
and solar radiation in a gable greenhouse dyer to predict the solar heat condensation rate, wind speed, turbulent kinetic energy, solar heat load
load obtained. This analysis helped to understand the solar heat load and transfer of heat from the air to the product without performing
received and its removal during hot climatic conditions. Lokeswaran and expensive experimental studies. Prediction of the above parameters
Eswaramoorthy (2013) compared the numerical and experimental re­ leads to the accurate design of the greenhouse dryer. Recently many
sults of temperature distribution and solar radiation in a hemi- researchers have implemented energy-based simulations in the predic­
cylindrical greenhouse dryer at natural convection mode. The numeri­ tion of the drying behaviour of various agricultural products. The ad­
cal predictions were in agreement with experimental data. It was vantages of coupling both the methods (energy balance equations and
observed that the air circulation could be improved, and stratification CFD simulations) improve the accuracy in predicting the drying
could be reduced by adding exhaust fans in drier. Krawczyk and Badyda behaviour.

14
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 11
Analysis of CFD tools, models, predicted parameters and its conclusions.
References Software Models used in Predicted parameters Conclusions
tool analysis

Campen (2005); Ansys Fluent/ k – ε turbulent model Air temperature in dryer and ventilation A new dryer model was developed which was not influenced by
Hemming et al. 3D model rate. wind movement.
(2006)
Fatnassi et al. (2015) Ansys Fluent/ Solar radiation, temperature of the air It was recommended to use transparent PV panels in
3D model inside and outside the dryer and the checkerboard arrangement to increase the incident solar
temperature of PV panels. radiation in the dryer.
Srichat et al. (2019) Ansys Fluent/ Two equation K – ε Temperature distribution across the dryer The drying air temperature was lower in sinusoidal shape when
3D model turbulent model compared with parabolic shape dryer.
Roman-Roldan et al. Ansys Fluent/ Discrete ordinate Temperature and velocity of air inside the The turbulent kinetic energy was found to be higher in the
(2019) 3D model model dryer and turbulent kinetic energy middle and led to the non-homogenous temperature
distribution.
Lalmi et al. (2019) Ansys Fluent/ Eddy k turbulence Air movement through streamlines and It was observed that two recirculation zones were present in the
2D model model and discrete velocity field, solar radiation and air opposite direction inside the dryer.
ordinate model temperature inside the dryer
Saberian and Sajadiye Ansys Fluent/ Standard k-ε model and Air movement through path lines and It helped to understand the solar heat load received and
(2019) 2D model discrete ordinate model velocity vector, solar heat load and air thereby to control it during hot climatic conditions.
temperature inside the dryer
Lokeswaran and Fluent 6.3.2 Discrete ordinate Air temperature and solar radiation It was recommended that usage of the fan could improve the air
Eswaramoorthy model inside the dryer circulation and reduce the stratification inside the dryer.
(2013)
Krawczyk and Badyda Ansys Fluent/ UDF written in C++ Drying rate, air, sludge surface The analysis helped to understand the sludge drying behavior
(2011) 2D model temperature and air velocity in tunnel drier where the drying rate and sludge surface
humidity were found to be inversely proportional
He et al. (2018) Ansys Fluent/ Discrete ordinate Air temperature and wind speed inside It was recommended to provide vent in the back wall of the
2D model radiation model the dryer dryer to achieve indoor cooling.
Santolini et al. (2018) Ansys Fluent/ k – ε turbulent model Air movement inside dryer (velocity It was observed that the presence of screen in the dryer helps to
3D model vectors) achieve uniform air distribution
Nebbali et al. (2012) Ansys Fluent/ Bi-band discrete The temperature difference between It was observed that the evapotranspiration of crop depends on
3D model ordinate radiation cover and outside air and distribution of the sun position, wind direction and microclimate of
model transpiration heat flux density greenhouse dryer
Piscia et al. (2012) Ansys Fluent/ Standard k – ε turbulent Greenhouse air, roof temperature, It was observed that roof temperature and relative humidity
3D model model relative humidity and condensation rate were interrelated and the condensation can be modelled in
of water vapour term of the logistic function

7. Summary excess power can be stored in the battery and can be used during the
solar energy-deficient period. It was observed that the usage of solar
This paper provides a comprehensive review on the design, thermal panels in the greenhouse dryer resulted in increasing the yield and
modelling approaches, and economic, energy and environmental as­ did not increase the product cost with integration of PV panels. The
pects of solar greenhouse dryers developed for drying various agricul­ PV module placed on top of the dryer acts as a collector, and the air
tural products based on geometrical parameters of greenhouse dryer, present inside the greenhouse dryer cools the PV module and sub­
mode of operation and location. Further, the performance evaluation of sequently gets heated up in the process. Thereby, the overall elec­
the dryers incorporating with PV panels and thermal energy storage trical performance of the PV integrated dryer system increases.
units are briefly discussed. The following are the summary of the review. • The CIGS solar cell can be used in rural areas for its lower payback
time. The c-Si cells can be implemented if energy production is a
• The selection of solar greenhouse dryer varies based on the location, primary concern. For secure handling and rolling of the cell on a
and generalizing it to a particular shape and orientation is not larger greenhouse dryer, a-Si cell can be used, which produces higher
feasible. Among the various shapes considered in greenhouse dryer solar cell temperature when compared to other cell modules.
design, the even span and Quonset are commonly used across the • The solar greenhouse dryer operated in forced mode has higher
world, and even span is preferred as it receives higher solar radiation embodiment energy, CO2 emission, mitigation, and payback time
during winter and summer climate. The east–west orientation is due to the usage of additional components like DC fan, PV module,
preferred when compared with other orientations due to its less charge controller and battery. The usage of the aluminium casing,
energy requirement for heating, cooling, and its ability to absorb polycarbonate sheet, and PV module provide a significant contri­
more solar radiation into the dryer. The low-density polyethylene bution to embodiment energy. This is due to the higher energy
films stabilized with ultraviolet, infrared, and anti-drop are density of the PV module and aluminium casing selected in the
commonly used as cladding materials. greenhouse dryer construction, which in turn increases the CO2
• A combination of the sensible and latent heat storage units in the emissions. The product thickness influences the payback time, spe­
greenhouse dryer can be used to achieve continuous drying of cific energy consumption, and CO2 emissions and mitigation. It is
products in a dryer at day and night time. In such a case, a black observed that the payback time is low and specific energy con­
painted gravel bed with a PCM (paraffin wax) unit can be used in the sumption and CO2 mitigation are higher in products with larger
greenhouse dryer. At colder climates where the ambient temperature thickness. The advantage of forced mode is the lower drying time of
is low, usage of heat pump and heat exchanger for additional heat the product when compared with passive mode operation. Hence, a
transfer to the greenhouse and PCM unit can be carried out. trade-off must be achieved between economic, energy, environ­
• PV modules integrated with solar greenhouse dryer enhances the mental parameters and drying time.
drying performance of the product by providing shading from sun­ • The various thin layer drying models available in literature are
light and avoids decoloration of products. The power developed by compared and validated with experimental drying curve data based
the PV module can be used to run the DC fans or exhaust fans, and on various statistical parameters (mean absolute error, root mean

15
G. Srinivasan and P. Muthukumar Solar Energy xxx (xxxx) xxx

square error and reduced chi-square). The paper presents a detailed extensively in the future for modelling the solar greenhouse dryer.
analysis on the various thin layer models available and best fitted This will result in a more accurate prediction of drying behaviour by
models are tabulated based on shape of the dryer, mode of operation taking the advantages of both modelling tools.
and products (fruits, vegetables, and spices). This tabulated
description can be used as a reference tool to select and narrow down
Declaration of Competing Interest
to a suitable thin layer model based on the product, mode of oper­
ation, type of greenhouse dryer, and location. Thus, to describe the
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
drying behaviour of a product with a single thin layer model avail­
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
able in the literature is difficult, and developing a generalized thin
the work reported in this paper.
layer model is practically not feasible.
• The CFD tools help in predicting the greenhouse design (shape,
orientation, and ventilation), air temperature and movement, References
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