The O-RAN

Whitepaper 2022
RAN Intelligent Controller,
xApps and rApps

RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) is one of the key elements in

the O-RAN architecture, which allows feeding an „external”
intelligence into the operations of the radio network. It creates
a platform for which the software companies could provide
per-use case AI-powered algorithms to make way for, among
others, radio resources usage or procedure optimizations.
This whitepaper provides an overview of the RIC, discusses its
functional split into Non-Real-Time and Near-Real-Time entities
along with the concept and examples of rApps and xApps.

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The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 03

1.0 Introduction to RAN Intelligent Controller 04

2.0 Non-Real-Time RIC and rApps 09

3.0 Near-Real-Time RIC 14

4.0 xApp Implementation 21

Summary & Conclusions 27

References 29

Glossary 30

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The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 Executive Summar y

Executive Summary

This whitepaper provides the technical discussion of one of the key compo-
nents in the Open Radio Access Network (Open RAN) architecture as defined
by O-RAN Alliance, i.e., RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC). RIC serves as a platform
for the optimization of the radio network and radio resources and is split into
Non-Real-Time RIC (Non-RT RIC), operating in the management plane, and
Near-RT RIC, operating in the RAN domain. The names refer to the timescale
of operation, Non-RT RIC operates in the range of minutes or hours, while
Near-RT RIC operates within tens or hundreds of milliseconds. Both RICs use
external applications, called rApps and xApps respectively serving as tai-
lored algorithms for certain use cases, including radio resource manage-
ment (RRM) and self-organizing networks (SON) functionalities.

First, the concept of RIC is described, together with its functional split and
three control loops in the O-RAN architecture. This is accompanied by the
comparison between xApps and rApps. The first chapter serves as a start-
ing point for more details to be provided in the following parts.

Later, the whitepaper discusses the Non-RT RIC, its architecture within Ser-
vice Management and Orchestration (SMO), along with exemplary rApps.
The discussion focuses on a specific application, for the Quality-of-Experi-
ence (QoE) prediction, where three rApps provide input for creating policies
for resource optimization.

Next, the details of Near-RT RIC are addressed, which provides the possibil-
ity to manage the radio resources on a near-real-time basis using xApps.
The architecture of Near-RT RIC is discussed, together with the accompa-
nied open interface, E2 and one of the service model types, namely Key
Performance Measurements (KPM).

The final part of the whitepaper provides the description of an xApp imple-
mentation example for the use case of traffic steering. The scenario setup,
use case, machine learning (ML) model training and simulation results are
discussed.

The whitepaper ends with a summary and conclusions section along with
a glossary of the O-RAN terms.

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Whitepaper 2022 1 .0 Introduction to RAN Intelligent Controller

1.0
Introduction to RAN
Intelligent Controller
RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) is defined within
the O-RAN architecture as an entity hosting
part of functionality from the eNB or gNB that
was traditionally located at the base station.
The functions, to which we relate here in the
RAN domain include e.g., mobility management
or interference management. The decisions
are made in the xApps, and RIC then enforces
policies towards the RAN elements and controls
them using the open interface, namely E2. In
this chapter, we elaborate on the RIC and its
functional split, xApps, and rApps.

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1.1 RAN Intelligent Controller

RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) is split into Non-RT RIC and Near-RT RIC as
shown in Fig. 1.1-1. Non-RT RIC provides configuration management, analytics
and takes a helicopter view of the network, receives the AI-based feeds,
and provides the recommendations to Near-RT RIC over the A1 interface.
Its general task is to support non-real-time optimization of the network and
procedures. A1 interface is used to provide policies, enrichment information,
Machine Learning (ML) model management towards Near-RT RIC, and to
send the policy feedback back to the Non-RT RIC.

Near-RT RIC in turn is a software platform that allows the xApps to control
the RAN through it. It enables near real-time control optimization of the RAN
elements (called E2 Nodes) via actions sent over the E2 interface. A sample
xApps include handover optimization, radio link monitoring, mobility man-
agement, load balancing, slicing policy updates, traffic steering, and inter-
ference management. E2 interface is a closed loop within the RAN domain,
used to send the RIC control and policy towards E2 Nodes and to obtain the
feedback from E2 Nodes to the Near-RT RIC.

Speaking of the functional split, the Non-RT RIC contains rApps, AI/ML mod-
el training, along with service and policy management, which create the
policies to be sent over the A1 interface. Furthermore, as a form of input to
the Non-RT RIC, there is enrichment data, i.e., additional information from
the network functions, and from external non-network functions, like user
priority. The Near-RT RIC is equipped with xApps, together with the RAN and
UE database storing the network state, along with xApp management and
security functions.

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Fig. 1.1-1. O-RAN RIC: Functional Split and Control Loops

Below you can find a summary of the main elements, as per the above
figure (based on [1], [2]):

Non-Real-Time RIC:

» serves as a software platform for rApps for high level RAN optimization;

» provides configuration, management and analytics (visibility into

network, AI-based feeds, recommendations to near-RT RIC);

» supports non-RT intelligent radio resource management, higher layer

procedure optimization, policy optimization in RAN, and provides AI/ML
models to near-RT RIC.

Near-Real-Time RIC:

» a software platform for a set of xApps for the RAN;

» enables near-RT control and optimization of RAN elements and

resources via fine-grained data collection and actions over E2 interface;

» example use cases: network intelligence (policy enforcement, handover

(HO) optimization), resource assurance (radio-link monitoring, advanced
SON), resource control (load balancing, slicing policy).

A1 interface:

» intent based interface towards Near-RT RIC;

» policy feedback to Non-RT RIC;

» policy, Enrichment Info (EI) and ML model management for near-RT RIC.

E2 interface:

» RAN closed loop;

» RIC control and policy towards RAN;

» data collection and feedback to near-RT RIC.

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1.2 Control Loops

Fig. 1.1-1 also shows the three control loops that are considered in the O-RAN
context. The first one is called a non-real-time control loop and is directly
related to the Non-RT RIC with a latency much larger than one second (>>
1s). This is where the policies are set, the RAN analytics are gathered, and the
AI/ML models are trained based on long data sets. In this context, the time is
used to deduct the trends in the network (e.g., traffic pattern over an hour,
over a day, over a week, etc.).

The Near-RT RIC closes the near real-time control loop on a larger than ten
milliseconds and less than a one-second timescale (> 10ms, < 1s). This is the
timeframe (i.e., granularity of tens or hundreds of milliseconds) within which
the xApps are operating, producing policy updates or control actions, and
gathering the feedback information. It is related to aspects like connection
management, where e.g., an xApp decides if the user shall be moved from
one cell to another.

Finally, there is a real-time control loop with a timescale of less than 10 mil-
liseconds (< 10ms). This is where real-time resource management happens,
like resource scheduling, power control, HARQ, beamforming decisions, etc.
It’s being executed within the MAC layer at O-DU (O-RAN Distributed Unit).
Here, Near-RT RIC may influence the overall operation of these functions,
e.g., allocating/reallocating the number of Physical Resource Blocks (PRBs)
for a specific slice, based on measurements or policies from Non-RT RIC.
However, the actual PRB allocation to individual UE on a per-TTI basis is left
to the scheduler.

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1.3 xApps and rApps

xApps (left side of Fig. 1.3-1) sit in the RAN domain. They are applications
designed to run on Near-RT RIC, requiring to follow the specified Application
Programming Interface (API) definition for Near-RT RIC. Each xApp could be
designed as one or more microservices. At the point of onboarding, xApp
needs to identify itself and provide the information to the Near-RT RIC about
the data types it wants to consume and about outputs it will produce. It’s
independent of the Near-RT RIC and may be provided by a third party. The
E2 interface provides the direct association between an individual xApp
and corresponding RAN functionality.

rApp (right side of Fig. 1.3-1.) is a modular application designed to run on

Non-RT RIC and therefore is a part of the management plane. Its aim is to
provide value-added services (VAS) related to RAN optimization and proce-
dure optimization through Non-RT RIC. Examples of those services include
providing policy-based guidance and enrichment information across the
A1 interface; performing data analytics, AI/ML training, and inference for
RAN optimization or for use by other rApps; providing recommendations on
configuration management actions.

Fig. 1.3-1. xApps vs rApps

If we compare both, xApp is slightly different from rApp, but the concept is similar: they are working as independent
applications at the Near-RT RIC or Non-RT RIC, respectively; they need to fulfill the requirements for the open API to
be able to communicate with the other part of the RIC. The important difference, though is that xApp directly con-
trols an actual function within the RAN element, while rApp is used within the Non-RT RIC framework to help create
policies (i.e., indirectly influence particular function). Another difference is that xApps and rApps work on different
time scales.

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2.0
Non-Real-Time RIC
and rApps
The goal of Non-Real Time RAN Intelligent
Controller (Non-RT RIC) is to support intelligent
RAN optimization by providing policy-based
guidance, model management, and enrichment
information (EI) to the Near-RT RIC function so
that RAN can be optimized. In contrary to Near-RT
RIC, which sits in the RAN domain and works on
a timescale of tens to hundreds of milliseconds,
Non-RT RIC works within the management plane
(and more particularly in Service Management
and Orchestration, SMO) and operates on a
timescale of seconds and minutes. In this chapter,
the architecture of the Non-RT RIC is provided
and the example applications, called rApps,
are discussed.

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2.1 Non-RT RIC

The functionality of the Non-RT RIC includes configuration management,
device management, fault management, performance management, and
lifecycle management for all network (NW) elements within O-RAN archi-
tecture. It is similar to Element Management System (EMS) and Analytics
and Reporting functionalities in the traditional NWs. All RAN elements are
configured by the Non-RT RIC, reducing the need for manual intervention.

By providing timely insights into NW operations, Mobile Network Operators

(MNOs) may use Non-RT RIC to better understand and optimize NW by ap-
plying pre-determined service and policy parameters. Its functionality is
internal to the SMO in the O-RAN architecture and provides an A1 interface
to the Near-RT RIC. Non-RT RIC can use data analytics and Artificial Intelli-
gence (AI)/Machine Learning (ML) training/inference to determine the RAN
optimization actions for which it can leverage SMO services such as data
collection and provisioning services of the O-RAN nodes. Trained models
produced in the Non-RT RIC are distributed to the Near-RT RIC for runtime
execution. Network slicing, security, role-based access control, and RAN
sharing are some of the aspects that are enabled by the combined con-
troller functions namely, Near-RT and Non-RT [3].

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2.2 Non-RT RIC Architecture

Fig. 2.2-1 shows the internals of the SMO framework including the Non-RT
RIC. Functionality inherent to the Non-RT RIC itself is coloured in light blue.
Those functions are used basically for managing the rApps which are ex-
ternal to the Non-RT RIC framework accessible through an open Applica-
tion Programming Interface (API), using R1 interface. Furthermore, another
set of „blue elements” includes those that create the data to be transmitted
over the A1 interface, namely: A1 policy functions, A1 enrichment information
functions, A1 ML functions.

There are also parts in the SMO framework that are out of Non-RT RIC scope,
marked with a dark blue colour. They are basically related to the O1/O2 ter-
mination as well as other SMO framework functions, e.g. for network slicing
lifecycle management. Those are inherent to the SMO framework.

Finally, the green part refers to the functionality in which case implementa-
tion is flexible. Those functions could be part of Non-RT RIC and they could
be also external to Non-RT RIC and sit in the SMO. They are not inherent to
any of those. The example here is AI/ML workflow functions. In such case, AI/
ML could be either part of Non-RT RIC, or it could be external, providing the
information to the SMO service exposure functions.

Based on: O-RAN.WG2.Non-RT-RIC-ARCH-TR-v01.00, section 2.2

Fig. 2.2-1. Detailed functional architecture (based on [3])

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2.3 rApp Examples

rApps are applications designed to run on Non-RT RIC providing additional
value-added services to help create policies that the Non-RT RIC frame-
work delivers down to Near-RT RIC through the A1 interface. Fig. 2.3-1, shows
Non-RT RIC with three example rApps, namely rApp R, rApp U, and rApp Q
connected via R1 interface to the Non-RT RIC framework. Their inputs and
outputs are as follows:

rApp R (RF signal predictor):

» Consumes: O1 measurements of RF signal experienced by UE for serving/

neighbor cells, measurements for UE location;

» Outputs: future time prediction of the location of UE, prediction of RF

signal at that location for serving/neighbor.

rApp U (Cell utilization predictor):

» Consumes: cell utilization measurements regarding actual capacity

utilization for a cell site over time

» Outputs: future time prediction of the cell site utilization based on the
trend.

rApp Q (UE QoE predictor):

» Consumes: measurements of UE RF signal (actual RAN measurement

or prediction), measurement of cell site capacity utilization (actual or
prediction)

» Calculates: QoE experienced by particular UE, e.g.:

- Estimates actual QoE based on actual RF signal and actual
cell utilization;
- Estimates QoE if in a neighbor cell based on actual RF signal
relative to neighbor cell and actual neighbor cell utilization;
- Estimates future QoE if connected to serving/neighbor
cell-based predicted signal and predicted cell utilization.

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Based on: O-RAN.WG2.Non-RT-RIC-ARCH-TR-v01.000

Fig. 2.3-1. O-RAN near-RT RIC – Internal Architecture

rApp R is an rApp which consumes the O1 measurements. It takes the

information from the O1 interface for RF signal experienced by a UE on
serving and neighboring cells, and UE location. Based on this input, it
estimates/predicts the future UE location and RF signal level when the UE
moves towards a certain direction. For example, based on the past infor-
mation of UEs at a given location with particular values for received signal
levels from serving and neighbor base stations, and based on the current
measurements, it predicts the most likely UE signal levels after it moves
towards predicted location.

rApp U is a cell utilization predictor, which consumes the cell load utili-
zation and number of resources of a cell over time and outputs a future
prediction of the cell load utilization, based on the trend. By doing so, it
could deduct, e.g., that at the beginning of the day there is a lot of traffic in
particular area, and then the traffic volume drops because all the peo-
ple are travelling to work so the traffic moves to the city center, and thus,
predict the future cell load utilization.

rApp Q takes outputs from rApp R and rApp U, i.e., the predicted locations,
signal levels, and cell utilization at a particular area and time, as well as
the actual measurements and the actual cell utilization. Based on those
it calculates the potential quality of experience (QoE). So, e.g., it could pre-
dict the future QoE if the user stays at a particular location or in different
future location, for a scenario, where UE stays at the same cell or is hand-
ed over to another one.

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3.0
Near-Real-Time RIC
RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC), provides the
possibility to manage the radio resources
and radio network and is designed within
O-RAN architecture as a separate entity. As
was explained in the previous parts of the
whitepaper, RIC is split into Near-Real-Time RIC
(Near-RT RIC) and Non-Real-Time RIC. In this
chapter, the former option will be discussed.

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3.1 Near-RT RIC

Near-RT RIC is a microservice-based software platform for hosting mi-
croservice-based applications – xApps. Those xApps are used to control a
distributed collection of RAN infrastructure (eNB, gNB, CU, DU) in an area via
E2 protocol (“southbound”). Near-RT RIC provides “northbound” interfaces,
A1 and O1, to Non-RT RIC for the management and optimization of the RAN
and is responsible for necessary optimization-related tasks across differ-
ent RANs, utilizing available RAN data from all RAN types (e.g., macro/small
cells). xApps use the E2 interface to collect near RT information (on a UE or
cell basis). Near-RT RIC control over the E2 nodes is governed by the policies
and data provided via A1 from Non-RT RIC. E2 node shall be able to function
independently of Near-RT RIC when and if the E2 interface and/or Near-RT
RIC fails. Near-RT RIC leverages embedded intelligence and is responsible
for per-UE controlled load-balancing, RB management, interference man-
agement, and HO control. Radio-Network Information Base (R-NIB) captures
near RT state of the underlying network and feeds RAN data to train AI/ML
models, which are then fed to Near-RT RIC to prepare RRM for a subscriber.
Near-RT RIC interacts with Non-RT RIC via the A1 interface to receive trained
models and execute them to improve network conditions.

As the name suggests, Near-RT RIC operates in near-real-time (i.e., in the

timeframe > 10 ms and <1 s) and is responsible for RAN control and optimi-
zation, it incorporates xApps to realize system optimization (e.g., RRM/SON),
and bases its operation on UE and cell-specific metrics.

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The requirements for the Near-RT RIC as provided by O-RAN Alliance in [4]
are that the Near-RT RIC shall:

» provide a database function that stores the configurations relating to E2

nodes, Cells, Bearers, Flows, UEs, and the mappings between them;

» provide ML (machine learning) tools that support data pipelining;

» provide a messaging infrastructure;

» provide logging, tracing, and metrics collection from near-RT RIC

framework and xApps to SMO (service and management orchestration
system);

» provide security functions;

» support conflict resolution to resolve the potential conflicts or overlaps

which may be caused by the requests from xApps.

Based on the above requirements O-RAN Alliance specified the Near-RT RIC
internal architecture and building blocks as shown in Fig. 3.1-1, as per [4].

Based on: O-RAN.WG3.RICARCH-v02.00, section 6.1

Fig. 3.1-1. O-RAN near-RT RIC – Internal Architecture

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Let's have a look at the different entities’ operations: xApp subscription

management is required to be able to identify new xApps and to allow
data distribution among all of them that subscribe to the data collection
and provides awareness of the xApps that are onboarded. To distribute
the information among those entities, ones has to message bus, thus the
messaging infrastructure is included. Conflict mitigation in turn is needed
to resolve e.g., overlapping requests. For example, it is possible to have one
function, that is mobility load balancing (MLB), and another one, mobility ro-
bustness optimization (MRO). Both of them can have an adversarial impact
on the actual user behaviour. E.g., one may decide that the user needs to be
moved from one cell to another due to high traffic load, while the other at
the same time may move the user back as a handover boundary change
due to high handover failure rate. In such a case the individual user will be
“ping-ponged” between the two cells. In such a case the conflict mitigation
function’s job is to align the potential actions to avoid undesired behavior.

The individual elements shown in Fig. 3.1-1 are as follows (as per [4]):

» Functions hosted by xApps allow services (i.e., RRM control

functionalities) to be executed at the Near-RT RIC and the outcomes sent
to the E2 Nodes (i.e., enforced in the E2 Nodes) via E2 interface;

» Database together with shared data layer allows reading and writing
of RAN/UE information;

» Conflict mitigation function resolves potentially overlapping or

conflicting requests from multiple xApps;

» Messaging infrastructure function enables message interaction

amongst Near-RT RIC internal functions;

» xApp subscription management function merges subscriptions from

different xApps and provides unified data distribution to xApps;

» Security function provides security scheme for the xApps;

» Management services function element is used for: fault, configuration

management, and performance management; Life-cycle
management of xApps; Logging, tracing, and metrics collection and
transfer to an external system for evaluation.

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3.2 Near-RT RIC implementation

Options
Let’s now have a look at the two different implementation options for
Near-RT RIC as per the O-RAN Alliance definition (see Fig. 3.2-1) [2].

Based on defs from O-RAN Alliance Specifications

Fig. 3.2-1. near-RT RIC implementation options

The left side of Fig. 3.2-1 shows the centralized Near-RT RIC, where the whole
gNB (by means of O-CUs and O-DU) or eNB, or both are handled by the
same Near-RT RIC that makes it possible to make unified decisions for an
individual base station and globally/holistically optimize its operations. On
the contrary, the right side of Fig. 3.2-1 shows a fully distributed Near-RT RIC,
where each E2-Node type is handled by a specialized logical entity of Near-
RT RIC that allows optimizing of the individual types of the managed entities
(i.e., specific E2-Node).

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3.3 Near-RT RIC Deployment

Flexibility
The implementation options, as discussed in the previous section, allowed
by O-RAN Alliance specifications have their advantages and disadvan-
tages. The advantage is that they allow for flexibility, where it is possible to
combine the entities or split them and allow for being deployed and deliv-
ered by different companies. The price to pay, however, is the design of the
E2 interface, which is responsible for providing measurements and con-
trolling certain functions, where it is required to know which actual E2-Node
receives communication and thus needs overhead to account for this. This
is mainly done by encapsulation of the information elements which need
those different options.

An example is shown in Fig. 3.3-1 (based on [6]) where the Performance

Measurements Indicator provided by E2-Node to the ear-RT RIC is nested
through three levels of encapsulation (Performance Management (PM)
container --> O-DU PM container --> O-DU Measurement format for 5GC).
The example accounts for a situation, where the E2-Node sending the
measurement is an O-DU node with 5G in standalone mode (SA) of opera-
tion (i.e., gNB connected to 5GC). If the same O-DU would be sending meas-
urements in a configuration, where it’s connected to EPC (i.e., non-stan-
dalone mode, NSA), a different format would have been used.

PM Container O-DU PM container

O-DU Measurement Format for 5GC

Source: ORAN-WG3.E2SM-KPM-v01.00.00

Fig. 3.3-1. E2 Key Performance Measurements – O-DU Measurement

format for 5GC Example

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3.4 E2 Interface
E2 interface provides the connectivity between Near-RT RIC and E2 nodes
exposing the E2 Node data to the Near-RT RIC and enabling the control of
the E2 Nodes through E2 services, including REPORT, INSERT, CONTROL, and
POLICY. The Near-RT RIC, and more precisely xApps control certain functions
within the E2 nodes which require E2 Agent to be implemented at the E2
Node. Through the E2 interface, the E2 Nodes inform Near-RT RIC about the
functions, which can be controlled by xApps.

According to [5], the E2 interface shall facilitate:

» Connectivity between Near-RT RIC and E2 Node supplied by different

vendors;

» Exposure of selected E2 Node data (e.g., configuration information (cell

configuration, supported slices, PLMNs, etc.), network measurements,
context information, etc.) towards the Near-RT RIC;

» Enables the Near-RT RIC to control selected functions on the E2 Node.

E2 interface functions categories [5] include:

» Near-RT RIC Services

- REPORT, INSERT, CONTROL, and POLICY

» Near-RT RIC support functions:

- Interface Management (E2 Setup, E2 Reset, E2 Node Configuration
Update, Reporting of General Error Situations)
- Near-RT RIC Service Update, i.e., an E2 Node initiated procedure to
inform Near-RT RIC of changes to list of supported Near-RT RIC
services and mapping of services to functions.

Fig. 3.4-1. E2 Interface Architecture (based on [7])

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4.0
xApp Implementation
The focus of this chapter is the implementation
of an xApp tailored for the traffic steering use
case. The goal of this xApp is to support the
network providers to reassign the traffic from one
base station to the other in order to meet some
predefined criteria (like link quality maximization,
throughput maximization). Some initial results will
be shown, that highlight the great opportunity
offered by O-RAN. The operator can easily install,
modify or remove the xApp when needed. It
simply, depends on the needs.

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4.1 Traffic Steering

Use Case Analysis
O-RAN Alliance specifies the use cases (UC) to be addressed by xApps and
RIC [1] and defines the policies by which the algorithms to support the use
cases can be controlled. The use cases are prioritized as per the MNO’s
requirements. One such typical example is Traffic Steering (TS), whose ob-
jective is to steer the user traffic through a specific cell, taking into account
available schemes and resources (like handover, dual connectivity, mul-
ti-RAT, HetNet, carrier aggregation, licensed assisted access, etc.). The chal-
lenge to be addressed by the UC is that the typical TS schemes use radio
conditions of a cell by treating all users in the same way with average val-
ues and are limited to adjusting cell priorities and cell reselection/handover
thresholds.

The O-RAN Alliance aims at addressing the TS use case via customization of
the UE-centric strategies and proactive optimization by predicting network
conditions and allowing operators to specify different objectives for traffic
management depending on the scenario as well as flexibly configuring op-
timization policies. By doing so, the Near-RT RIC is meant to control the ad-
aptation of diverse scenarios and objectives, and Non-RT RIC shall control
TS strategies through AI/ML learning from user/network data.

Let us investigate a simple wireless network having some open interfaces

through which it is possible to implement network functionality externally.
The ultimate goal of the conducted simulations and analyses is to show the
possibility of applying the concept of an open radio network, where individ-
ual elements of the radio network are replaced to optimize the operation
of the entire network.

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The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 4 .0 x App Implementation

4.2 Considered Network Setup

For the purpose of this study, a heterogeneous network deployed over the
squared area of 20 km, consisting of one macro base station (with 20 dBm
of transmit power) and four small cells (with 10 dBm of transmit power) is
used. In order to promote access to small cells, the operator has the possi-
bility to apply the dedicated power offset (achieving cell range extension)
of 3 dB.

All cells may operate in two separate bands, i.e., at a central frequency set
to 800 MHz with 5 MHz channels, and 2 GHz with 10 MHz bandwidth and only
downlink (DL) transmission is considered. From the perspective of the MNO,
there is a cost c associated with the selection of lower and higher frequen-
cy bands, which reflects various kinds of loads for MNO, such as energy
consumption cost, prices for a license, etc.

Over the considered area, two types of users are randomly deployed with
uniform distribution, mainly 80% of all users are voice users (whose traffic
is characterized by the constant and relatively low bit rate of at least 250
kbps) while the rest are MBB users (constant and high bit rate of at least 3
Mbps). The bit rate of each user is calculated using the Shannon formula,
and the user is assumed to be in an outage when its required bit rate is be-
low the achieved one. The allocation of the band in the assumed system is
done as a part of bandwidth (real number in the range of 0 – 1).

It has to be mentioned, that such implementation is generic, i.e., the authors

intentionally did not apply any of the existing platforms for RIC simulation.
The goal is to illustrate the benefits of xApp modularity supported by de-
fined interfaces.

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The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 4 .0 x App Implementation

4.3 xApp Implementation:

O-RAN Traffic Steering
Use Case
The ultimate goal of the experiment was to make the TS functionality mod-
ular, changeable, standardized, controlled by some AI engine, and acces-
sible by both, other external applications, and by human administrators.
Experiment focused on the TS case, where the O-RAN operator has the abil-
ity to apply various functioning policies, which are defined by independent
xApp. By assumption, it may specify the rules, describing how the available
two frequency bands should be utilized – this functionality is delivered to
the O-RAN operator in form of the TS-xApp for frequency band selection to
better steer the traffic.

As was mentioned earlier, one of the prospective TS schemes is to offload

the traffic from the congested frequency band to the less occupied one.
When moving the operating central frequency from higher bands to lower
values, one may consider it being the cell-zooming approach [7]. However,
in a broader sense, various rules may be specified depending on the cur-
rently identified circumstances and needs of the operator. As the goal is to
allow for real-time modification of the policies, they are defined in a form of
specified tuples, which may be stored in form of simple files such as JSON
or YAML, creating a kind of application programming interface (API).

It should be noted that the policy can specify that, for example, the small
cells should “prefer” larger bandwidth over costs or expected range, and
the macrocell should minimalize its range. The word “prefer” should be
treated loosely, allowing for various implementations by different applica-
tions. In the experiment, two policy options have been defined:

» CHEAP – where each cell should use the band with the lowest cost c;

» PERFORMANCE – where macrocells should prefer a band with a higher

range, and small cells should prefer a band with greater bandwidth.

To be able to measure the performance of the system, the default setup

of the network has been defined, where the cheapest frequency band is
selected, the users will be assigned to the cell-based on received signal
power, and the radio resources are allocated equally among the users.

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The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 4 .0 x App Implementation

4.4 System Training

Once the applications have been defined and implemented, it was impor-
tant to verify their functioning in all available configurations. Thus, the per-
formance of the TS-xApp has been tested in terms of observed rate and
outage probability, averaged over numerous user deployments. Achieved
results have been presented and stored in form of the complementary cu-
mulative distribution functions (CCDF). Selected results are shown for illus-
trative purposes also in Fig. 4.4-1.

By analyzing each particular plot, one can observe that as in some situa-
tions it is worth applying certain policy, it is not that beneficial in other cases.
Thus, in order to select the most promising solution, either the system ad-
ministrator should analyze the curves and decide on the best strategy, or
let AI tools do it based on predefined criteria. In our tests, we have applied
a simple ML tool – logistic regression, which allows for the selection of the
policy that reduced outage in the system.

Fig. 4.4-1 presents the trained mod-

els, or more precisely – achieved
CCDFs, which are available within
Non-RT RIC and Near-RT RICs. Having
such a system, we have performed
some experiments proving the ben-
efits of TS-xApp modularity, as dis-
cussed in the next section.

Fig. 4.4-1 presents the trained mod-

els, or more precisely – achieved
CCDFs, which are available within
Non-RT RIC and Near-RT RICs. Having
such a system, we have performed
some experiments proving the ben-
efits of TS-xApp modularity, as dis-
cussed in the next section.

Fig. 4.4-1. Mapping of TS-xApp installations to the RIC (based on [8])

25 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 4 .0 x App Implementation

4.5 Simulation Results

In the performed experiment, the main focus was the modularity and flex-
ibility of the whole ORAN application. Thus, a dedicated experimentation
scenario has been specified, for which the selected performance metric
(some percentiles of observed bitrate) as a function of time for a randomly
selected but fixed deployment of users was shown.

In particular, the experiment started with the default setup; TS-xApp has
been installed at the 50 s mark, with the default CHEAP policy; at 100 s, the
policy has been changed to PERFORMANCE leading to some mean and 95%
bitrate increase; at 150 s the system comes back to prior setup. This Scenar-
io shows the benefits of installing and using one selected application. The
results are shown in Fig. 4.5-1.

Fig. 4.5-1. Achieved results for three considered experimentation schemes (based on [8])

26 www.rimedolabs.com
The RIC
O -RAN
Whitepaper
Whitepaper 2022 Summar y & conclusions

Summary &
Conclusions
RAN Intelligent Controller serves as a platform
for the optimization of radio network and
radio resources and is split into Non-RT RIC,
operating in the management plane, and Near-
RT RIC, operating in the RAN domain. They are
accompanied by rApps and xApps respectively,
which serve as tailored algorithms for certain
use cases including RRM and SON functions.

27 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 Summar y & conclusions

In this whitepaper, the authors provided an introduction to the RIC and

showed basic information such as functional split of the RIC, the basic
building blocks, as well as control loops, and provided a comparison be-
tween xApps and rApps.

Having in mind the discussion from chapter 2.0 regarding the three rApps,
the RAN operation can be optimized as follows. Based on the operation
and outputs of the rApps, the policy is created to be sent down to the
Near-RT RIC, for example, defining that a particular user is going to have
that particular QoE if it stays in a particular cell. If it’s not a satisfying QoE, the
user should rather be moved to another cell to make sure that the QoE is
assured in the near future. All this is prepared based on previous experi-
ence, actual situation, and contextual information. Using those policies,
the Near-RT RIC (or rather an xApp within Near-RT RIC) decides on actual
actions to happen in the RAN elements.

Later in the paper, chapter 3.0 discusses Near-RT RIC as one of the key el-
ements in the O-RAN architecture, which allows feeding an „external” intel-
ligence into the operations of the radio network. It creates a platform on
which the vendors (either software vendors or telco vendors or xApp de-
velopers) could provide per-use case RRM algorithms to allow adapta-
tion/optimization radio resources usage for specific scenarios. It will be
interesting to see how the creation of the ecosystem for those applications
will play out. Will there be Google Plays and App Stores for the telco world?

Summarizing the results from chapter 4.0, one can observe that the oppor-
tunity to install/uninstall the xApp/rApp jointly with the tailored way for
selecting the best policy, provides the O-RAN operator with promising
ways to improve the network performance depending on its (current)
needs. The software modularity allows for fast adjustment of the net-
work functioning thus leading to efficiency increase.

» adding intelligence to the radio network is allowed via RIC (using xApps
The overall con- and rApps);
clusions from this » using Non-RT RIC allows to control the RAN behavior by declarative
whitepaper are as policies;

follows: » combination of various applications (like xApps/rApps) allows to realize

certain objectives for network performance optimization;

» a hierarchical and modular approach to resource management is

possible by separating the concerns with regards to timescale of
operation and placement of the RICs;

» it is possible to define RRM/SON applications (xApps/rApps) on per use

case basis.

28 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 References

References

[1] O-RAN ALLIANCE (o-ran.org)

[2] O-RAN.WG1.O RAN Architecture Description v03.00, “O-RAN Architecture Description”,

O-RAN Alliance

[3] O-RAN.WG2.Non-RT-RIC-ARCH-TR-v01.00, „Non-RT RIC Architecture”, O-RAN Alliance

[4] O-RAN.WG3.RICARCH-v02.00, „Near-Real-time RAN Intelligent Controller (Near-RT RIC)

Architecture”, O-RAN Alliance

[5] O-RAN.WG3.E2GAP-v01.01, „Near-Real-time RAN Intelligent Controller Architecture &

E2 General Aspects and Principles”, O-RAN Alliance

[6] ORAN-WG3.E2SM-KPM-v01.00.00, „O-RAN Near-Real-time RAN Intelligent Controller E2

Service Model (E2SM) KPM”, O-RAN Alliance, February 2020

[7] X. Xu, C. Yuan, W. Chen, X. Tao, and Y. Sun, „Adaptive Cell Zooming and Sleeping for
Green Heterogeneous Ultradense Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Tech-
nology, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 1612-1621, Feb. 2018.

[8] Dryjański, M.; Kułacz, Ł.; Kliks, A. Toward Modular and Flexible Open RAN Implementa-
tions in 6G Networks: Traffic Steering Use Case and O-RAN xApps. Sensors 2021, 21,
8173. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/21/24/8173

29 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 Glossar y

Glossary

5GC 5G Core Network

AI Artificial Intelligence

API Application Programming Interface

CCDF Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function

CU Central Unit

DL Downlink

DU Distributed Unit

EI Enrichment Information

EMS Element Management System

eNB evolved NodeB

EPC Evolved Packet Core

gNB Next Generation Node B

HARQ Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request

HetNet Heterogeneous Network

HO Handover

MBB Mobile Broadband

Mgmt Management

MIMO Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

ML Machine Learning

MLB Mobility Load Balancing

MNO Mobile Network Operator

MRO Mobility Robustness Optimization

Multi-RAT Multi Radio Access Technology

NSA Non-Standalone

NW Network

O-CU O-RAN Central Unit

O-CU-CP O-RAN Central Unit Control Plane

O-CU-UP O-RAN Central Unit User Plane

30 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 Glossar y

O-DU O-RAN Distributed Unit

O-RAN Open RAN

PLMN Public Land Mobile Network

PM Performance Measurement

PRB Physical Resource Block

QoE Quality of Experience

QoS Quality of Service

RAN Radio Access Network

rApp Application to run on Non-RT RIC

RF Radio Frequency

RIC RAN Intelligent Controller

R-NIB Radio Network Information Base

RT Real Time

SA Standalone

SMO Service Management and Orchestration

SON Self-Organizing Network

TS Traffic Steering

TTI Transmission Time Interval

UC Use Case

UE User Equipment

VAS Value Added Service

xApp Application to run on Near-RT RIC

31 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 About the Authors

About the Authors

Marcin Dryjański, Ph.D.

Principal Consultant / CEO

Marcin Dryjanski received his Ph.D. (with distinction) from the Poznan Uni-
versity of Technology in September 2019. Over the past 12 years, Marcin
served as an R&D engineer and consultant, technical trainer, technical
leader, advisor, and board member. Marcin has been involved in 5G design
since 2012 when he was a work-package leader in the FP7 5GNOW project.
Since 2018, he is a Senior IEEE Member. He is a co-author of many articles
on 5G and LTE-Advanced Pro and a co-author of the book „From LTE to
LTE-Advanced Pro and 5G” (M. Rahnema, M. Dryjanski, Artech House 2017).
From October 2014 to October 2017, he was an external advisor at Huawei
Technologies Sweden AB, working on algorithms and architecture of the
RAN network for LTE-Advanced Pro and 5G systems. Marcin is co-founder
of Grandmetric, where he served as a board member and wireless ar-
chitect between 2015 and 2020. Currently, he serves as CEO and principal
consultant at RIMEDO Labs.

You can reach Marcin at marcin.dryjanski@rimedolabs.com

Adrian Kliks, Ph.D.

Chief Architect / CTO

Adrian Kliks is an associate professor at Poznan University of Technolo-

gy’s Institute of Radiocommunications, Poland, and he is a co-founder and
board member of RIMEDO Labs company. His research interests include
new waveforms for wireless systems applying either non-orthogonal or
non-contiguous multicarrier schemes, cognitive radio, advanced spec-
trum management, deployment and resource management in small cells,
and network virtualization. Adrian received his postdoctoral degree in tel-
ecommunications in February 2019. He took part in numerous internation-
al research projects: URANUS, NEWCOM ++, ACROPOLIS, COGEU, NEWCOM #,
COHERENT, in COST IC0902 and COST-Terra (IC 0905), and managed nu-
merous industrial and commissioned projects. An IEEE Senior Member since
2013, a member of the IEEE Broadcasting Society, IEEE Communication So-
ciety, IEEE Standard Association. Adrian was honoured as EAI Distinguished
Member in 2021. Adrian, participated in the years 2012-2017 in the work of the
IEEE P1900.x standardization group, as a member with voting rights.

You can reach Adrian at: adrian.kliks@rimedolabs.com

32 www.rimedolabs.com
The RIC
O -RAN
Whitepaper
Whitepaper 2022 About Rimedo Labs

About
Rimedo Labs
Rimedo Labs specializes in providing
high quality consulting, implementation
and R&D services in the field of modern
wireless systems.

We implement this through an individual and open approach to the client,

constantly improving the team operationally and substantively, updating
knowledge and a unique combination of science and business applica-
tions. Rimedo Labs is a spin-off from the Poznan University of Technology,
Poland from the Institute of Radiocommunications.

To read more about us, check out our website: www.rimedolabs.com/about/

To learn more about our O-RAN services, see: www.rimedolabs.com/o-ran/

33 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 About Rimedo Labs

Our Open RAN Services

xApp and rApp development

» We develop xApps and rApps for the Near-RT RIC and Non-RT RIC in the
form of RRM/SON algorithms for 4G and 5G systems.

» We are actively contributing to the SD-RAN project as an ONF member.

Technical courses delivery

» We provide live and pre-recorded O-RAN training courses.

» Those include both, overview courses (e.g. "5G and Open RAN")
and deep technical sessions (e.g. "O-RAN System Training").

Dedicated simulations and

algorithm design
» We design specific RRM algorithms tailored to the customer’s
use case or simulate his design in various scenarios.

Free and paid live webinars delivery

» We provide live technical webinars on specific O-RAN-related topics,
such as O-RAN architecture, RAN Intelligent Controller, Network Slicing
in O-RAN, Private mobile networks, etc.

Technical articles delivery

» On daily basis, we contribute to the telecom society by writing
whitepapers and technical blogs on Open RAN-related topics.

» The content is delivered both as our products or for external entities

where we act as invited authors.

If you are interested in finding more

about our services, reach out at:
info@rimedolabs.com

34 www.rimedolabs.com
The O -RAN Whitepaper 2022 About Rimedo Labs

More Resources

Dedicated O-RAN website

Find out more about our O-RAN services, get latest documents,
videos and O-RAN blogs.

Rimedo Labs Blog RIMEDO Labs

Get the latest updates on all things wireless including 5G, 6G,
Blog
O-RAN, Telecom Trends.

O-RAN, 5G and Beyond Webinars​

Watch technical-heavy webinars and sessions on Open RAN
and 5G-related topics on our Youtube channel​.

The O-RAN Whitepaper​

Check out our previous whitepaper introducing Open RAN
concept and O-RAN architecture in details​

35 www.rimedolabs.com
Let's keep in touch!

info@rimedolabs.com
+48 (61) 665 38 17

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Poland, EU

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