Introduction to Communication (Unit 1) 2 i THEO OF COMMUNICATION 1.2.1. Introduction Management researchers have been studying the communication theory from a long time to help us to improve our methods of communicating effectively with each other. This research helps us to send and receive the message in its original form. A slight deviation from the original form of the communication may create problem for both the sender and the receiver. Studies conducted so far reveal that due to mistaken concepts, the sender fails to send the message in the same sense as he intends to do. By the time it reaches the receiver the message losses its original meaning and the receiver interprets it in a different sense. The views of various authors on theoretical background of communication have been formulated in the form of theories of communication. Communication models and theories help us to visualise the process of communication more clearly. Typical communication model pin-points key _ elements. These crucial elements must: be considered if we are to understand communication. The: model selects; it- cannot consider all the elements that might be encompassed. Secondly, the: model abstracts; it _ Moves ae from the concrete until it finds an inclusive term like ‘source’ 1.2.2. Basic ‘Theories/Models _, The two basic theories/models of communication are as follows: “1 "Murphy's model, and M1 ‘Bovee’ 's model. ‘Murphy’s Model model of communication process is propounded by three writers, ie HLA. Murphy, LW. Hildbrandt and J.P. Thomas. According to this model, there are six components of communication process. They are: +1); Context: Every,message whether’ oral or written begins with ,. context. Context is a broad field that includes country, culture, ; organisation and external and internal cause of action. This action is the basis of encoding ideas. 2)” Sender-Encoder: The sender-encoder uses symbols, usually words that express the message and create the desired response.” First Semester (English) IKGP1™ i i to 3) Message: The message is the core jdea the sender wight be communicate. It consists of both verbal (written or spoken) sym and non-verbal (unspoken) symbols. ; 4) Medium: The medium is the channel through which a ee 7 communicated. It can be printed word, electronic mail, sount gestures. 5) Receiver-Decoder: The receiver or listener or reader is the person who receives the message and decodes it. He is also called the decoder. Feedback: It can be oral or written. It can be an action such as receiving in the mail an item you ordered. Sender needs feedback in order to determine the success or failure of the communication. 6 In short, the model described above represents what happens in communication. A context exists in which a sender chooses a message to communicate. The sender must also choose the medium for the message. A receiver decodes the message and provides feedback. Context Stimuli ‘Sender-Encoder Receiver-Encoder (Experiences, (Exy i Attitudes, Skills) ; rene Perception ice Erosing a eenon Symbol Decisions Decoding Sending Mechanisms Idea Interpretation Feedback ‘Verbal, Non-verbal 1.2.2.2. Thill-Bovee’s Model Thill and Bovee have developed the following model of communication. According to them, business communication is more than a single act. It is a chai i i 5 in of events consistin; inkin sender and receiver: ae meaner Message Physical Feedback 1) pace! The sender has an idea. In the process of conceiving an ide about the real world, the sender leaves out many things and assumes many others. This means that the idea in the mind of the sender is * simplification of the real world, Jb Introduction to Communication (Unit 1) 31 2) Idea Becomes a Message: The idea in the sender’s mind is transformed into words and thus becomes a message. The message may be expressed in many ways. ‘ 3) Message is Transmitted: The third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from sender to receiver. The transmission channel may be non-verbal or verbal, written or spoken. 4) Receiver Gets the Message: For communication to occur, the receiver has to get the message. If the sender sends a letter, the receiver has to read it before understanding it. But physical reception is only the first step. The receiver also has to understand and store the message mentally. 5) Receiver Sends Feedback: The receiver reacts and sends feedback to the sender. Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Then the process is repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves. Communication is effective only when each step is successful. 1.2.3. Linear Theories/Models Linear models consider communication as a one-way process in which one person acts ‘on another person. Following are some of the linear models pertinent to communication: 1) Aristotle’s model. 2) Information Theory/Shannon-Weaver’s model. 3) Interaction Theory/David K. Berlo’s model. 4) Channel Theory/Harold D. Lasswell’s model. 5) Schramm’s Interactive model. 1.2.3.1. Aristotle’s Model Aristotle, a great philosopher initiated the earliest mass communication model called Aristotle’s model of communication. He proposed the model before 300 B.C. He found the importance of audience role in communication chain in his communication model. This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal communication. Aristotle’s model of communication is formed with fotlowing basic elements given in the figure 1.2. Figure 12: Aristotle's Model aura build speech for different audience on different effects. 32 Aristotle adv: _ different time ises speakers to (occasion) and for if i ive tactics used by thi der ii jstotle emphasised the persuasiv® y the sender in meine about a change in the thinking process of the receiver. In his model the source of the sender was of primary importance. The process of communication was one-way. 1.2.3.2, Information Theory/Shannon-Weaver’s Model aan s (Information Theory) model is a mechanical hannon-Weaver’: f : aoe a ea to communication. This theory can be distinguished from its broader counterpart, communication theory, én that it deals with information devoid of meaning, i.e., the information theorists are not interested in what is communicated but only in the fact that the information is communicated both accurately and correctly. [Transminer Receiver [ Source (Encoder) Decoder) Message Signal Signal Message Noise Present in channel Figure 1.3: Shannon-Weaver’s Model The basic information theory model involves an information source which selects a desired message out of all the possible messages that it can select, a transmitter which changes the messages into a signal which can be sent over some communication channel to a receiver, 4 destination to whom the message was originally intended, and finally ¢ noise source which can introduce extraneous information into the signi! as shown in figure 1.3. This model does not include feedback as the same process will take place for feedback and receiver may become sender of messag® According to this model, communication problem can arise at any one of the three levels: the technical level, where one asks the questio®. How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitte® the semantic level, where one asks the question, “How precisely 4° i transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning;” and the effective*® level, where one asks the question, “How effectively does the recel’ meaning affect conduct in the desired way?”Introduction (0 Communication (Unit 1) 33 | 1.2.3.3. Interaction Theory/David K. Berlo’s Model | One of the most widely used communication model is Berlo’s SMCR | model. This model illustrates the four basic concepts as shown in figure (14 '$ Source M Message Gen R Receiver | Communication| — | Skills Seeing os | Elements ‘Structure 8 3 e aoe z 5 Hearing Anitodes e z i SO Revel 7 é ‘Touching Knowledge ‘Social System . IN A [ ‘Smelling Social System | Culture 2 g 5 Tasting Culture Figure 1.4: David K. Berlo's Model All these concepts are interrelated and should not be misunderstood as operating in isolation, e.g., the words ‘Source’ and ‘Receiver’ suggest as if one person acts as a source while the others acts as receiver. In fact everyone acts as both, usually simultaneously. The respective significance of these elements is described below: 1) Source: In order to determine the effectiveness of the ‘Source’, one should know the following things about sender: Is the ‘source’ literate? Does he have a command over language? What is his attitude towards the receiver? What is his level of knowledge, does he know the subject matter. Lastly, what are the roles and norms that shape his behaviour? Does he speak as a member of a group; religious, political, or commercial? Does he belong to a highly advanced culture, or he comes from some primitive tribe? 2) Message: A message contains content or matter. It appears in some language form such as English or French or in picture form. The source selects contents or codes, and then weaves them into his style or his tone. This material can be analysed on different levels. At each level elements are separated. Then these elements are organised into structures. They became elements at the next highest level of analysis, e.g., English code has letters for elements. They combine into words. At the next highest level, words become elements which in turn become sentences. 3) Channel: It stands for the medium in which the message reaches the receiver. It may be natural, one of the senses — seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting. The channel may also be artificial such as television, radio or newspaper. One implication of this model is that more than one channel may be used at once. These channels collectively affect the communication process.eceiver: The receiver too, knowledge, and cultural context. Each of these contrib capacity as a receiver. If the receiver and the source have posit attitudes towards the topic, communication becomes easy. If eit! the source or his receiver has false assumptions about the other, | stage is set for a breakdown in communication. Berlo has added another concept in the recent presentations. It feedback. The message of the ‘source’ typically shows some behavic regarding the receiver. Some of these become available as messag They can be fed back to the source and thus, on this information t successive messages are modified. Sometimes in a complex situatic the source and the receiver rapidly change their roles. In conversation in a classroom the source usually plays both roles at once. T. sender/source sends verbal messages through the air at the same time! receives visual messages about the hearer’s reactions. 1.2.3.4. Channel Theory/Harold D. Lasswell’s Model In 20" century AD, Harold Lasswell, worked on Aristotle’s verbal mod and concluded with a slightly more elaborate model shown in figure 15. Who? Says lin Which To Whom? lwith Wha What? [Channel? Effect? ‘Communicator Message Medium Recipient Effect Fisure 1.5: Harold D. Lasswell’s Model Jn this model, he covers the five elements in the process by putting tt above questions. 1) Why? Why do we want to communicate? What is the purpose of communication? Is it to persuade or to inform? Is any particul action required? 2) What? What is it we want to co! or a feeling? What form o! situation? 3) How? How are we &! communication 8 particular form have 4) Who? ieee , Is there a key to the communication situation? How ahout me, about this situation? an idea, an attituc mmunicate? An order, s best meets f words or possible action t form will i cate? In whal ypact wi oing to communi ) ge fastest? What imy et home the messaj on the recipient? does hejon to Communication (Unit 1) | V rod 7 en? Ks) Wh A Finally, when! pace ns right time to get across this message? en is the receiver likely to give it the most attention? C. jessage? tbe critical to the success of the communication? “an timing Lh model focuses a person’s attention on the individual components of ‘fine communication process and emphasises that the components occur i a sequence that begins with the communicator and ends with the U recipient. In other words, communication is a one-way process in which She communicator influences others through the content of the message. the therefore assumes that only the communicator is an active participant On; the process, and that the recipient plays a passive role. Thiaccording to Lasswell, there are three functions of communication: 1) Surveillance of the environment; ) Correlation of components of society; and 3) Cultural transmission between generations. 123.5. Schramm’s Interactive Model Schramm was one of the first researchers modifying the technological and mathematical communication model. In contrast to it, Schramm’s (Interactive model also known as the Osgood and Schramm Circular model, emphasises the dualistic aspect of communication. [According to Schramm, “It is misleading to think of the {communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. the tis really endless”. |the model highlights the circular process of encoding and decoding of messages through interpretation as simultaneous activities maintained by sender and receiver. It includes the aspect of feedback, context, and a culture. By including feedback to the process of communication, Schramm defines communication as reciprocal and circular. While including context, he emphasises that different meanings of messages xde|are depending on cultural or societal variables, he integrated the aspect the of culture to the communication process. One of the strengths Be |Schramm’s interactive model is the ‘additional notion of a ae 7 ‘experiences’ or the physical frame of references. It ioc Sa the “titude which communicators maintain towards each other. H hae 1a ‘tows a much greater awareness of numerous socio-cultri! it involved. He also made provisions for a two-wly incr Ree Messages, In contrast to its strengths, the model still accoun s for on bilateral communication, even if it is less, linear then its Pe Schramm does not consider complex, multiple levels of come between several source: ul 1S. eel‘Figure 1.6: Schramm’s Interactive Model 1.2.4.Non-Linear Theories/Models Non-linear models of communication are also known as models communication as transaction, Non-linear models include the follow; models: 1) Dance’s Helical Spiral model, and 2) Becker’s Mosaic model. 1.2.4.1. Dance’s Helical Spiral Model Another very important model of communication is — the Helical model of communication which was Proposed by Frank Dance in 1967 to throw some more light on communitation Process keeping the simple helix in mind. Dance thought of communication process similar to helix. A helix is Figure 17: Hela nothing but a smooth curve just like a spring which if Model goes upwards also comes downwards. The model presented in figure 1.7 has the following aspects: 1) Communication has No Fixed Boundaries: Communication | no clear observable beginning and no clear observable end. 1 spiral continues indefinitely. No communication transaction can said to have fixed boundaries. Each transaction is in part a funct of previous communication and each transaction in turn influet future communication, The message becomes less serious ‘ personality helps more as the helix ascends and widens. ‘At any’ all times it gives geometric testimony’. 2) Communication is Combination of Straight Line and Cir! Models: It combines the desirable features of the straight line the circle whole avoiding the weakness of either. The choice ° form was intended to reflect a sense of communication as a “1 7 and evolutionary process — ‘If communication is ae it Process, we are forced to adapt our examination and our ae instruments to the challenge of something in motion while } the very act of examining it’ _ |Introduction to Communication (Unit 1) 37 As shown in the figure 1.7 the helix was seen as a way of combining the desirable features of the straight-line models with those of the circle, while avoiding the weaknesses of each. The Dance perspective added a concern with the dimension of time to the circular feedback models, suggesting that each communicative act builds upon the previous communication experience of all the parties involved. 1.2.4.2. Becker’s Mosaic Model Samuel L. Becker has portrayed the modified nature of information as a time-space mosaic symbolising a conglomeration of numerous ‘bits’ of messages available. The individual moves almost randomly through the mosaic and is bombarded with these mini messages. Becker views the concept of messages in the sense of a unified whole as an archaic concept in the present times. Rather the contemporary communicator is exposed to multiple pieces of messages from multiple sources. Message ‘Bits’ i It is a common human ‘experience that whenever there is an assassination of a powerful public figure, the news about the event reaches us in small bits and pieces; from the hotel waiter, from the car driver, the local bar, the colleagues at the office, the T.V., and so on. We form the complete picture within ourselves based upon these pieces, from a multitude of differing sources. ‘A few hours later, there come other pictures ~ the filmed footage of the memorial service, the funeral, the events of last day of the victim, etc. Every time we-hear about the event we relive our experience. Becker felt that enough studies had been done on the effects of single messages on well defined audiences. His model focuses on the effects of multiple and diffused messages presented repeatedly over time toalarge _ and constantly changing audience. His argument is that we are exposed repeatedly to sets of message in our everyday lives, yet very few studies have been conducted to assess the effects of such. messages on both attitudes and overt behaviours. To represent more adequately the message environment in which we constantly find ourselves. ‘Message (F= 2) ReceiverIntroduction to Communication (Unit 1) 37 As shown in the figure 1.7 the helix was seen as a way of combining the desirable features of the straight-line models with those of the circle, while avoiding the weaknesses of each. The Dance perspective added a concern with the dimension of time to the circular feedback models, suggesting that each communicative act builds upon the previous communication experience of all the parties involved. 1.2.4.2. Becker’s Mosaic Model Samuel L. Becker has portrayed the modified nature of information as a time-space mosaic symbolising a conglomeration of numerous ‘bits’ of messages available. The individual moves almost randomly through the mosaic and is bombarded with these mini messages. Becker views the concept of messages in the sense of a unified whole as an archaic concept in the present times. Rather the contemporary communicator is exposed to multiple pieces of messages from multiple sources. Message ‘Bits’ ' It is a common human ‘experience that whenever there is an assassination of a powerful public figure, the news about the event reaches us in small bits and pieces; from the hotel waiter, from the car driver, the local bar, the colleagues at the office, the T.V., and so on. We form the complete picture within ourselves based upon these pieces, from a multitude of differing sources. A few hours later, there come other pictures — the filmed footage of the memorial service, the funeral, the events of last day of the victim, etc. Every time we-hear about the event we relive our experience. Becker felt that enough studies had been done on the effects of single messages on well defined audiences. His model focuses on the effects of multiple and diffused messages presented repeatedly over time to a large and constantly changing audience. His argument is that we are exposed repeatedly to sets of message in our everyday lives, yet very few studies have been conducted to assess the effects of such, messages on both attitudes and overt behaviours. To represent more adequately the message environment in which we constantly find ourselves. Message (F=2) Message Bit Receiver ‘Source Figure 1.8: Becker's Mosale Model38 First Semester (English) IKGPTU Becker constructed a model using McLuhan’s metaphor of the television as ‘a mosaic mesh of light and dark spots’. An illustration of Becker’s mosaic is presented in figure 1.8: The mosaic consists of infinite message bits on any given topic. These bits are scattered over time, space, and modes oy communication, Each cell of the mosaic has the potential of containing a message pertaining to any given topic. The blanked cells Tepresent and absence of a message. The model represents two processes: 1) Increasing Number of Messages and Sources: The ever increasing number and variety of messages and their sources, and 2) Repetitiveness of Going through Similar Transactions: The repetitiveness of going through the same or similar transactions again and again. The mosaic should be thought of as a changing cube through which the receiver is constantly moving. Some of the cells are empty because at any point in time some messages are not available from some source. Each vertical slice or layer of the mosaic represents a particular message set. The cells represent the messages. The receiver goes through cells of the mosaic in continuous loops. The frequency of the loops varies; some people expose themselves to the messages more frequently than others; some expose themselves to a wider variety of messages than others. Becker’s model is conceptual land function of the model is descriptive rather than explicative or simulative. 1.3. TYPES AND COMMUNICATION: =~ etree The management of organisational communication process constitutes different elements. Several kinds of messages which are quite difficult to draft or construct are a part of organisational communication. However, communication can be categorised in the context of association it creates, or sender or receiver, or the mode of transfer. Hence, the pattern of communication can be cl three ways (Figure 1.9): ied into following39 ‘Types of Communication i pa the Basis se On the Basis of On the Basis of * — rezisatona Direction Way of Expression Formal Informal Communication | | Communication! Grapevine Vertical Horizontal || Diagonal | Downward Upward Communication | | Communication i 1 Oral Gesture Written Communication || Communication || Communicatio Figure 1.9: Classifying Communication 1.3.1. On the Basis of Organisational Structure Numerous types of messages are essential for communicating in an organisation. On the basis of organisational structure the communication can be categorised into following types: 1) Formal communication, and 2) Informal communication. 13.1.1. Formal Communication A kind of communication accomplished through a proper chain of command is known as formal communication. Formal communication is a method of communication that is generally controlled and directed by the employees or managers of a company. Formal communication is carried-out keeping in mind the organisational hierarchy. Communication is carried-out through formal channels that are the well- known official positions in the organisational hierarchy. In order to put organisational communication in sequence and ; to ensure the uninterrupted, correct and in-time flow of information as and when Tequired, the communication path is intentionally created. It can either be in written (memo, repott, policy) or in oral (speech, meeting) forms. Many organisations. maintain written records of ca cael - communication in the form of copies of speeches, minutes of meetings, (eeeure he following characteristics: . f the 1) Written and Oral: The formal communication can be either 0 it two types, i.c., oral and written. Day-to-day activities are nee with the help of oral forms of communication. Whereas, the policy matters are communicated through written forms. Formal communication is used between those ve formal relations among them. This formal rand the receiver is generally created 2) Formal Relation: individuals who relationship between the sende! by the organisations. 3) Prescribed Path: A pre-defined path or channel is followed by the formal communication in the course of its movement from one individual to another. For example, a member of operational level staff has to take the help of his immediate supervisor if he wants to put forth any issue in front of the departmental head. 4) Organisational Message: Formal channel of communication does not deal with personal messages. It conveys only the messages of organisational purposes. 5) Deliberate Effort: Formal communication channel does not establish on its own but sincere efforts have to be made for it. The efforts for designing the channel should be in synchronisation with the organisational objectives. Types of Formal Communication Single or multiple channels can be considered as the basis for developing a formal communication network or channel. These different ation channels are as below (Figure 1.10.): types of formal commu: feocp eA Single Chain Wheel Circular Formal Communication Network Figure 1.10: Types ¢ 1) Single Chain: This kind of formal communication channel prevails between a subordinate and his senior official. Since there may be number of levels in an organisation, each individual within those levels is both superior as well as subordinate, except the person at the top or bottom. The flow of communication in an organisations! hierarchy through a single chain can be systematic and easy ” manage; however, it is extremely unproductive and time taking activity, uaeyr int roduction to Communication (Unit 1) 41 2 Wheel Under the wheel channel of communication, all subordinates working under the supervision and directions of one superior communicate through only their senior as he is the ‘hub’ or effective centre of the wheel. In this channel, there is no horizontal communication as none of the subordinates are permitted to communicate or be in contact with each cther. The major disadvantage of this channel of communi coordination. tion is lack of 3) Circular: Circular type of communication moves in a circular manner. In a circular channel, every individual can be in contact and communicate with two persons adjacent to him. The communication flow in this channel is very slow and laggard. 4) Free Flow: In free flow channel, each and every person is allowed to communicate and be in touch with any person in the organisation. As a matter of fact, it is a very adjustable and informal system. Basically it is an unstructured channel of communication. 5) Inverted V: Under this channel of communication, a person is permitted to communicate with his immediate senior and his senior’s senior. In the subsequent condition, the subject matter of communication is specified. In this channel the flow of communication is quick and effective. Advantages of Formal Communication Network Following are the advantages of formal communication network: 1) Maintains Authority of the Officers: There is a sustained and persistent association among the seniors and subordinates under the formal communication network. This maintains a decorum and righteousness of the line executives. Formal communication aids in affirming the authority of line executives over their subordinates. These executives are accountable to their superiors and are responsible for getting the work done from their subordinates. 2) Provides clear and Effective Communication: Under this communication network, the subordinates and their superiors are in direct contact with each other. Both the managers as well as the subordinates can apprehend the emotions, tendencies, competencies, etc. of each other. Superiors can comprehend the exact time and situation when their subordinates require a particular piece of information. 3) Maintains Systematic Information Flow: In formal communication, there is a direct contact between the subordinatesiy KO First Semester (English) ective 42 and their immediate bosses. This helps in developing an oO is level of understanding between them. And thus communica! more fruitful and worthwhile. 4) Develops Strong Relationship: A subordinate is not well and does not have much knowledge about the company @ 1, issues faced by the company but a superior is in a better posit Os find remedial measures easily for organisational problems ® © more informed than that of his subordinates. This Kept maintaining cordial relations between the superiors an re subordinates. ed 1 inform’ jfand the Disadvantages of Formal Communication = Following are the disadvantages of formal communication network: 1) Increases Workload: Formal communication increases the workload of the superiors. Their workload increases as every piece of information is conveyed through them and they acts as a channel of formal communication. As a result, the line superiors are left with almost no time to successfully execute other functions of the organisation. 2) Affects Formal Relationship: Generally, in case of large business enterprises, communication between top level officials and subordinates at the lowest level of organisational hierarchy is quite rare. 3) Dilutes Accuracy of Messages: Messages forwarded from the top level to the lowest level of the organisational hierarchy are often diluted in terms of the accuracy of the message. This happens because of colouring and filtering that takes place at the middle level of the hierarchy. 4) Decreases Pro-Activeness of the Message: Each and every incidence or occurrence in a firm cannot be predicted or anticipated. Thus, actions necessary to handle such unexpected incidences cannot be formalised. 1.3.1.2. Informal Communication/Grapevine The communication that is beyond the realm of formal communicatio® is known as grapevine or informal communication. Info! communication does not function in the lines of authority like form communication. It is all about communal relationships among members of the organisation, The general manager of a company can be in touch with the worker employees working at the bottom of the hierarchy and can communi aIntroduction to Communication (Unit 1) the relevant information direct i " genuine need of people to communicate with ae es oe each other frequently, When people Working in an or als cone and communicate directly, it automatically leads to ‘alot of jel group. The communication system developed by such a a i ad as informal Communication. Informal communication is mt rol it can be in the written form also, Considerable use of iene! and _ mail facilities across the globe has incr ity it i na eased popularity of informal Characteristics of Informal Communication Informal Communication possesses positive as well as negative characteristics; some of them are as follows: )) Complements Formal Channel of Communication: Informal communication supports the formal flow of communication, no matter whether the information is flowing in downward, upward, or horizontal direction, 2 Transmits Information at a Faster Pace: Information moves at a greater speed through informal channels than that of the formal channels of communication. Unlike formal communication, the informal communication is based on the personal orientation, which in turn makes the informal system of information dissemination faster. Speedy communication can provide various advantages tothe organisation. Spreads False Rumours and Destructive Information: Informal communication is very less likely to be used in the direction of achieving organisational objectives. This is due to the reason that it proliferate the gossips and hostile information in the organisation. Rumours sometimes may benefit, while the other times it may hamper the process of achieving organisational objectives. Both Written and Oral: Though informal communication has a tendency to be conducted orally, it may also take place through handwritten or typed documents. However, in modem organisations that depend totally on computers, the messages are usually transmitted with the help of computers only. ‘cation is under-judged as less Less Accurate: Informal communication is un ed a accurate because it makes the error look more intense, which in ia overshadows the numerous accuracies of it-In addition, even 7 and few mistakes in informal ‘communication result in the change of meaning of entire communication. 4) 5)bbe rn eee es ering “4 itful Company Grapevine ed f0F fost Nurturing a Frui : ‘There are following points that must be carefully exam! a fruitful company grapevine: 1) An individual when invol try to connect with people at different ieee He $s! limited to develo] ing contacts at one level only. Fo! . middle level Siegert person should expand his relationship with other top level associates in the company. If he fail oF he will limit himself to information, gossips and rumours preva among mid-level management only. t sufficient time and contact with other in grapevine, just like he saves time for readin; letters forwarded in the organisation a part of structural ‘communication. Meetings with grapevine members should not be ings, Instead one can mect during arranged as any type of formal meetings. lunch hours, break time or other time when a person is relaxing. re the two basic elements which nurt grapevine. It is important that a person does not scout or address someone. He should participate in the grapevine in an ordinary manner, like he behaves with his friends and colleagues. A grapevine will exclude a person if he tries to impose his opinions on others or leaks out openly expressed views. It is very important that the person should represent himself as he is not and should take his lead from others. mmunication should uid not be ved in grapevine CO! from his schedule for maintaining dividuals in the company One should make out 1g important reports and 2 efficient relationship Trust and mutual need a tures the 2 Types of Informal Communication/Grapevine There are different kinds of informal communication or grapevine, which are enlisted below: 1) Single Strand Chain: In this type of informal communication, chain is formed. For example, Mr. X tells something to Mr. Y and pe tells a eye A and so forth which goes down the line across the gi mu. inte strand chain type of communication is rarely correct and error free. It rarely passes on the right information. O2OrO-O© Single Strand Chain Gossip Chain: i A infor ate a this chain, a person speaks publicly and Usually gossip ail ut the information he or she has acquired: message which'té a a when a person wants to convey a i i s lated with work but i a f h to know by others with work but is otherwise interesti"é45 Gossip Chain 3) Cluster Chain: In this type of chain, selected indivi ‘A’ tells something t duals and others mething to a few selectively. also relay the information (Cluster Chain 4) Probability Chain: Under this type of informal communication, people who are transferring the information are neither interested nor they are concerned about the people to whom they are communicating the information. They just pass on the information in a haphazard manner. And those people also in turn tell everyone in a random order. Probability chain is established when the data transmitted is quite interesting but rather unimportant. QD @® Probability Chain ” i - Advantages of Informal Communication/Grapevine | Informal. communication offers many benefits to the people and the | Organisation as a whole, which are explained below: _ za 1) Safeguards Emotions: There are sevefal issues in an organisation which causes anxiety and concern among the employees. Promotions and retrenchment are such issues that cause pases ba agitation amongst the employees and become a phobia for 7iy gt tr ith. TWh ne sits (© them, they can share their emotions Wh ich reassure and relaxes him. Hence, informal) + 2) 3) 4) 5) = cues n ' mmunication screens and protects the developed emotions of juniors or assistants. Organisational Harmony and, Unity: Grapevine indicates the) interest among the employees. The grapevine process create) Consensus and organisational harmony even though the employee; talk and communicate amongst themselves. Therefore, if grapevine is used in an effective way, then it can boost an employee’ 5 confidence, self-esteem, and morale. | Supplement to Other Channels: Formal channels 4 communication are not always favourable and convenient to conve, messages and information. Sometimes it is inadvisable ty communicate essential information through formal means communication. Hence, grapevine can be used in such condition’ for quick and efficient transfer of information. ; Quick Transmission: Gossips and misleading information ca spread at the speed of lightning. In a similar way, information in: ‘ grapevine travels very rapidly. Hence, the moment certar , information conveyed cleverly as a ‘top secret’ to the leader of th ° grapevine, it reaches every other member in no time. Feedback: The top management receives necessary feedback fro: employees through informal communication. This process hels them to get acquainted with the employees in an easier way whit keeping in mind the various functions of the organisation. Disadvantages of informal communication/Grapevine Informal communication or grapevine also has certain disadvantags which are discussed below: 1) Distortion: One of the most serious disadvantages of infor 2) 3) evine spreads unwarrall obstructiveft i] and immo? communication is distortion. Grap uncalled for and distorted information which can be the employees. It may perhaps condemn the most ev! intentions on the most modest and dignified people. misunderst® Incomplete Information: Information is likely to be vt g or misinterpreted because information in grapevine 1S considered incomplete. : ie : es jon (1 with which informal ous Destructive Speed: The rapid speed , sents d obstructive. Any mu in a grapevine can be detrimental an~ ction t0 CO ing messages can spread and cause far-reaching damages mmmunication (Unit 1) 47 jsteadil a we it reaches the top.management and they are able to take any a corrective measures. kage of Information: Top management should be very careful 4 and cautious while using informal communication because the pevine often leads to the disclosure of sensitive and confidential es! jnformation. : | 5) Lack of Authenticity: Generally, information transferred through informal communication channel is trivial talk or gossip without any of supporting proof and evidences. Thus, it is not authentic and sound. 2 Inthat event, the information loses its authenticity. to of 43.2, On the Basis of Direction °S The flow of communication in an organisation can be in two different | ways namely; intra-scalar or inter-scalar. Inter-scalar communication can be defined as a flow of communication between two people at different managerial positions. 255 | | Moreover, when communication travels from subordinate to superior, ie, from lower level to higher level of organisational hierarchy, it is termed as upward communication. When communication travels from 1! superior to a subordinate, ie., from higher level to lower level of | ‘ organisational hierarchy, it is termed as downward communication. | Intra-scalar communication can be termed as a flow of communication between people at the same managerial positions in an organisation. It is also known as lateral or horizontal communication. Communication can be classified into different types on the basis of direction. The py ufcation can be explained as under: {tical communication, i) Upward communication ti) Downward communication. Lateral or horizontal communication, and Diagonal communication. 2) 3) 13.2.1, Upward-Downward/Vertical Communication ‘ is the lO of information either in an upward or downward manner Tesult of verti ar ication runs from higher vel . Communicatio! on level tical communication. C' toyees working in a usin ic. top management to lower level, i.e, & iness enterprise or vice versa (Figure 1.11).Downward Upward Operative Employees Figure 1.11: Vertical Communication— Upward and Downward Generally, it is more difficult to communicate directly when a number of people are involved. In such a case, an opinion leader or third person. besides the two groups primarily involved is necessary to convey the | information to the bottom level. There is a high probability that | messages under such conditions may get completely twisted or distorted while they travel from one person to another. Different types of vertical communication are as follows: 1) Upward Communication: Upward communication flows along the line of. authority, from lower level workers to the high level executives through middle level executives. It is just the reverse. i form of downward communication. Organisations from democratic and participative backdrop usually conform to upward communication. Apart from the chain of command, the f conventional mediums of upward communication are joint setting of goals, exercising open-door policy, suggestion systems, morale questionnaires, complaint systems, the grapevine, the ombudsman, appeal and grievance methods, group meetings, exit interviews, counselling sessions, etc. There are two forms of upward communication, which are as follows: i) Feedback of Information: In this type of upward communication, subordinates transfer a Message to the top management as a reply to the original communication made by management. ii) Voluntary Communication: Voluntary communication flows from subordinates to management with a view to convey theif opinions, feedbacks, complaints, disapproval, suggestions, etc.Introduction to Communication (Unit 1) 49 2) te Advantages of Upward Communi Advantages of upward communication are as follows: i) Subordinates get the necessary inputs such as opinions, ion suggestions, etc., from their seniors about job related matters of the organisation under the upward communication system. ii) Cordial and affable relations are established due to upward communication system. This system helps in initiating favourable working conditions in an organisation. Under this system, the superiors or the top management can distinctly comprehend and follow the actions which are necessary to be done and avoid those matters which are not beneficial for the organisation. This is possible because the subordinates can convey their responses to the superiors in this system. iv) Upward communication system allows lower level staf to express their attitude or opinion to upper level staff. As a result sub- ‘ordinates are influenced to work more towards fulfilment to target. Disadvantages of Upward Communication There are few drawbacks of upward communication, which are listed below: i) Due to several reasons, the lower level staff is often hesitant to participate in upward communication. ii) The entire communication system can get distorted because sometimes the subordinates are not ready to convey the information to the management. iii) Subordinates tend to alter the correct information in. this communication system. Hence, the top management is unable to make sound decisions. iv) Prolonged and very slow flow of information to the top executives js one of the most significant drawbacks of this system. Downward Communication: It flows from top level management to lower level staff. This type of communication flows from the CEO to the employees (figure 1.12). Downward communication moves the opposite way, ie., it is the reverse of upward communication. It flows from superior officials to subordinate level staff, It moves from divisional head ‘to individual unit heads and from head office to different branches of the organisation. Downward communication can be explained with the help of various examples such as work related orders, business goals and objectives, letters from General Manager/CEO’s desk, business preferences, newsletters, motivational letters, etc.“Sral Coramunteation ‘Written Communication tions: Insictons eeeehes Memoranda eters Seine ‘Hand books, pamphlets Meno Policy satemen’s Procedures lectronic new display unication tae anisation in the Advantages of Downward Comm Downward ‘communication is peneficial to the org following ways: i) This system encourages low’ enhance their productivity and performance. ii) The lower levq inted with various policies, plans, me other critical information for system also helps the staff in performing their ro we te effective techniq! provide jmmediate feedback. tations are © conducting business iii) It acts as an employees and to | iv) The management’s expect informed to the bottom mployees to business and programmes and activities. This wutine activities. 0 control various activities of learly conveyed and level staff through downward communication. | Disadvantages of Downward Communication | ‘There are few limitations of downward communication which are as follows: i) The essential information or message is not conveyed on time. ii) Avsense of opposition or unwillingness is involved in this system. iti) The message is generally twisted and distorted. n during iy) There is always a risk of losi conveyance. | vy) The message is either to be Joaded or unburdened. / | 1.3.2.2. Horizontal Communication =F } Communication + Communication between the various departments Wo level or between employees in the same is known as horizo of superior-subordinate relation i 1 ntal co! ing significant informatio king at the $2! departments without kind ym Lateral same any Kin nication. -_ |jntroduction to Communication (Unit 1) 51 ; d as lateral cor icati tis also termes mmunication. Hence, communicati i > nication that flows among people at the same level in the organisation is known : Jateral communication as shown in Figure 1.13. “ The fundamental objective of horizontal communication is maintaini proper coordination between different but related activities of many departments of an organisation. Oral or written are the two chan nels through which horizontal communication can be transmitted. “ “Managing Director ——.|§a— Divisional Manager — | ivisional Manager (Stee!) |) g.——- ~~~ > | Divisional Manager (Cement) ie Deptt. Deptt. Head Head Head. Figure 1.13: Horizontal or Lateral Communication [(@---+-=) Denotes Horizontal Communication] Advantages of Horizontal Communication Horizontal communication provides following benefits to the organisation: 1) Improves Understanding: Horizontal communication helps in refining and boosting understanding among the employees of an organisation. Various employees from different departments can _ execute their work effectively through horizontal communication | system. | 2) Enhances Coordination: Coordination and bonding between | employees from various departments becomes more powerful when | direct communication is acknowledged and vertical channels are | eliminated. | 3) Increases Productivity: Horizontal communication resolves and misunderstandings among different lowers various issues and i tions among, members departments of the organisation. Cordial relat also help in increasing productivity Jevels of employees. Mutual understanding and harmonious working. 4) Raises Confidence: fidence of the employees. environment increases the level of con! 5) Teamwork: Teamwork is quite significant for certain explicit ication is indispensible for organisational goals. Horizontal commun} effective and successful teamwork.$< Tse Disadvantages of Horizontal Communi Horizontal communication provides organisatio! 1) Lack of Control: Horizontal com the management, if exercised communication can be very inc follow’ on a large ication munication ,onvenient and ing disadvantages t© the can create difficulties for Ie. Increased horizon! ficult to control. ation has outperformed scal 2) Conflict: Even though horizontal communication vertical communication by permitting direct and open cemmmunication between employees: it may create situations that lead to inter-personal disputes- 3) Time Consuming: There may be delay in implementation of decisions taken by top management because of communication accompanied with Vertical directives. 4) Lack of Discipline: The decorum of the organisation is adversely influenced as there are no dictatorial rules and regulations expected to be followed in this type of communication. [Bases of | Horizontal Communication Vertical Communication Differences Purpose ‘Coordinating the activities of Instructing and receiving] various divisions and| feedback from subordinates is departments in an|the main purpose of vertical) organisation is the main|communication. The| purpose of horizontal instructions, necessary orders communication. and direction are provided to] the subordinates in downward] direction whereas feedback, suggestion, and opinion are received from. upward) direction. Flow ‘of| The information flows among |The information flows| Information people who are at the same|between people who are] position and status in the holding different position in} organisation. the organisation. Degree of|The degree of formality is|The degree of formality is Formality lessor in horizontal] greater in vertic communication. communication. Methods of|Oral method is mostly Geed| Written method is mostly used Communication |in horizontal communication. in vertical communication. Possibility of |Information flow in|The _ information flow 7 Distortion horizontal communication is vertical communication may normally free from distortion. involve distortion: Afo Communication (Unit 1) 53 WN jon tio me ; Diagonal Communication or 130” nication 0} onal communication involves the horizontal flow of information pe est employees present at different levels having no direct reporting oni wn (figure 1.14). In order to accomplish organisational objectives, te ana} ement_ commonly uses | such type of communication for improvin coordination | of activities amongst employees and for improvin the speed of information transfer. The management should take into consideration the fact that a notable amount of communication does not follows the hierarchy within an organisation but simply advances past the formal channel of communication. Diagonal/Crosswise Communication Crosswise Oral Communication ‘Written Communication Informal meeting ‘Company newspaper or magazine Formal conference Bulletin boards ‘Task teams General notices etc. Project organisation meeting Figure 1.14: Diagonal/Crosswise Communication Advantages of Diagonal Communication Advantages of diagonal communication are explained below: 1) Direct Method: Diagonal communication is relatively easy and uncomplicated as compared to the assigned channel of communication. It is a direct medium of communication. 2 Preferred Method: Diagonal communication is preferred as the method of communication by several organisations. 3) Speedy Communication: This type of communication enables quick transmission of information from top to bottom and vice versa. 4) Better Coordination: Various departments of an organisation are well coordinated and synchronised due to diagonal communication. Every department of an organisation is attached and linked with each other, hence diagonal communication increases coordination among organisational departments which in turn results in smooth functioning of the organisational activities. 5) Enhance Efficiency: In diagonal communication, employees get prompt reply to their doubts and questions from their superiors which in turn improves their efficiency levels. This is not possible in other types of communication as it may take one or two weeks to get feedback of their queries.emer s of Diagonal Communication _ Diagonal communication has following limitation one a 1) Bypassing Vertical Chain of Commant® significant problems of diagonal communicate qe the sequence of reporting relationship. Such iBT Jot of misunderstanding among the neglected supe” ate A dialogue between ere jan i aed a an infringement ani Disadvantage: Excludes Superiors: divisions or departments can kee communication loop, which is consi compromise for the seniors position. Harms Superior’s Cooperation an of this communication, the seniors who hi eee assist in the work decided by other seniors and their subordinates even if the work is in range of their unit. Hence, this channel o} communication may hamper the reputation of the senior. Psychological Resistance: The implementation of decisions taken under the diagonal communication can be psychologically opposed by those superiors who have been excluded from the discussions. As a senior was not a part of the whole decision-making process, it will be his psychological response to contradict such decisions. 1.3.3. On the Basis of Way of Expression Communication can be classified into three classes, on the basis of expression. The classification is as follows: 1) Oral communication, 2) Written communication, and 3) Gesture communication. 2) id Accountability: As a resul ° ave been excluded may no 4 1.3.3.1. Oral Communication Oral communication is one of the most common styles of spoken communication. This type of spoken communication is carried-oul through words, non-verbal messages and visual aids. It is the ability an! knowledge essential to communicate convincingly with others. 13.3.2. Written Communication Written communication is viewed as the most universal form peness communication, It is the way of conveying messages al information through selection of appropriate words. Primarily, it impli fos ae and expression of ideas and concepts in the writ? eat tunication is effectuated through written sigs symbols which can be in hand written or printed form. |qotroduction 10 Communication (Unit 1) es 1.3.3.3. Gesture Communication Ex ressing one’s thoughts by using body parts is known as gesture communication. Using right gestures on right occasions is very important to maintain harmonious inter-personal relationships. For example, a senior of good and virtuous nature will not express displeasure or rage on his face while scolding a junior for some major fault; rather, he will indicate a sense of affinity for the subordinate. This will make the junior feel that the superior was criticising him or giving hint with a view to improvise and encourage him to work harder and efficiently. Facial gestures and expressions are effectively used by many professionals for maintaining cordial work relations. Characteristics Gesture Communication 1) ItPrimarily communicates emotions and attitudes 2) It Substitutes, contradicts, emphasises, or regulates verbal messages 3) Non-Verbal cues are often ambiguous Advantages of Gesture Communication Gesture communication offers following benefits to the organisation: 1) Cordial relationships and trust is developed due to commonly understood gestures. 2) The speech of a person becomes more effective when the person addresses the other person by looking at him while speaking. 3) Physical gestures enhance quality of vocal vibrations. 4) Well-coordinated gestures and facial expressions improve a speaker’s performance. 5) Facial gestures and movements increase the usefulness of communication process. 6) One can control emotions, send hidden messages and in fact replace communication altogether with the use of correct gesture. Disadvantages of Gesture Communication Drawbacks of gesture communication are as follows: 1) Every language comprises of a pattern which makes it viable to communicate in case a subject has been altered, for instance, to evaluate its grammar. This type of evaluation is not possible in gestures, 2) A speaker, while delivering a speech, can forget the subject matter of the speech, if he tries to focus more on gestures.56 3) 4) 5) First Semester (English) IKGPTU Audience’s attention is redirected or distracted from the basic theme of presentation, if too many gestures are used by the speaker during the presentation. Gestures may differ between different cultures. For example, thumbs up gesture may not be known or practiced in other cultures, Meaning of gestures differs not only by cultures and context, but also by the changing degree of purpose.