ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Investigating the Index Properties of Residual

Tropical Soils of Western Ethiopia
(The Case of Asossa)

BY

Fekede Wakuma

January 2007

i
 Investigating the Index Properties of Residual
Tropical Soils of Western Ethiopia
(The Case of Asossa)

A thesis submitted to a school of graduate studies of Addis Ababa University in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Science in Civil
Engineering

BY

Fekede Wakuma

Advisor
Dr :- Mesele Haile

ii
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Investigating the Index Properties of Residual Tropical

Soils of Western Ethiopia
(The Case of Asossa)

BY

Fekede Wakuma
Faculty of Technology

Approved by Board of Examination

______________________ ________________
(Advisor)

____________________ _______________
(Internal Examiner)

_____________________ ________________
(External Examiner)

______________________ ________________
(Chairman)

iii
DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work performed under the
supervision of my research advisor Dr.- Messele Haile and has not been presented as a
thesis for a degree in any other university. All sources of materials used for this thesis
have been duly acknowledged.

Name: Fekede Wakuma

Signature: ______________

Place Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Addis Ababa.

Date January, 2007

iv
 Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Jesus my lord who is always with me in each and every step of my
life.

I wish to express my genuine appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Messele Haile for his
limitless support, direction, advice and patience with me during the preparation of this
thesis.

I express my sincere gratitude to the mayor of Asossa town, Ato Husen Kedir for his
assistance during the data collection.

I am very greatful to my friends Dagitu B., Desalegn F., Getu C., Temesgen D., Matwos
T., Temesgen G., Abebe G., Argaw A., Amenew M. and to my parents who contributed
to this research work morally and financially.

v
 Table of contents
Contents Pages

Acknowledgments ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Table of Contents------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Symbols and Abbreviations------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
List of tables------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
List of Figures----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.viii

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..1
1.1 General----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.2 Objective of the study----------------------------------------------------------------------.4
1.3 Methodology used---------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4 Limitation of the study---------------------------------------------------------------------.5
1.5 Organization of the Thesis-----------------------------------------------------------------5

2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………......6
2.1 General Characteristics of Residual soils------------------------------------------------6
2.1.1 Mineralogical composition Related to weathering---------------------------------8
2.1.2 Formation, Existence and Profile of Weathering-----------------------------------9
2.1.2.1 Formation and existence of residual tropical soils--------------------------------9
2.1.2.2 Profile of Weathering---------------------------------------------------------------.11
2.1.3 Hydrated and Dehydrated laterite---------------------------------------------------.11
2.1.4 Classification of Residual Soils------------------------------------------------------12
2.1.4.1 Reason for Special Classification for Residual Soils---------------------------.12
2.1.4.2 The Proposed Grouping-------------------------------------------------------------13
2.1.5 Regional Setting------------------------------------------------------------------------17
2.2 Residual Soil and laterization------------------------------------------------------------18
2.2.1 Lateritic Soils--------------------------------------------------------------------------18
2.2.2 Laterites---------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
2.3 Sample Preparations for tropical soils --------------------------------------------------19
2.3.1 Effect of Pre-treatment---------------------------------------------------------------.19
2.3.1.1 Effect of pre-test drying------------------------------------------------------------19
2.3.1.2 Effect of Method and Time of Mixing on Atterberg Limit--------------------21
2.4 Tropical Black clays----------------------------------------------------------------------.22
2.5 Tropical Soils as a Construction Material----------------------------------------------22

3. Sampling Area Description………………………………………………………….24

3.1 General Information----------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.2 1 Land Cover and land use------------------------------------------------------------24
3.3 Geology------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.24
3.4 Climate-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.26
3.5 Soil Characteristics of Asossa-----------------------------------------------------------26

vi
 4. In-situ Properties and Laboratory Results----------------------------------------------28
4.1 In-situ properties description------------------------------------------------------------28
4.1.1 Sample Description------------------------------------------------------------------28
4.1.2 In-situ Atterberg Limit Values ----------------------------------------------------33
4.1.3 Variation of Soil Properties along the Profiles ----------------------------------33
4.2 Laboratory Tests and their Results-----------------------------------------------------34
4.2.1 Index Properties ---------------------------------------------------------------------34
4.2.1.1 Grain size analysis-----------------------------------------------------------------36
4.2.1.1.1 Test Procedures------------------------------------------------------------------36
4.2.1.1.2 Test results and Discussions---------------------------------------------------37
4.2.1.2 Atterberg limits--------------------------------------------------------------------46
4.2.1.2.1 Test Procidures------------------------------------------------------------------.46
4.2.1.2.2 Test results and discussions-----------------------------------------------------46
4.2.1.2.3 Activity----------------------------------------------------------------------------54
4.2.1.3 Free swell----------------------------------------------------------------------------56
4.2.1.4 Specific gravity---------------------------------------------------------------------58
4.2.1.5 Soil Classification------------------------------------------------------------------61

5. Comparisons and discussions of the test results------------------------------------------63

5.1 Comparison of test results with other laterite and lateritic soils--------------------63

5.2 Discussions---------------------------------------------------------------------------------74

6. Conclusions and Recommendations--------------------------------------------------------76

6.1 Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
6.2 Recommendations------------------------------------------------------------------------78

References----------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------79
Appindix-A
Comparison of AASHTO versus ASTM Standared-------------------------------------------81

Appendix-B
Grain size Distribution Under different test conditions---------------------------------------83

vii
Symbols and Abbreviations

Designation Units

LL Liquid Limit %
PL Plastic Limit %
PI Plasticity Index %
FS Free Swell %
NMC Natural moisture content %
AD Air drying ---
OD Oven drying ---
AR As received sample ---
RH Relative humidity %
AASHTO American Association of state Highway and transport Officials ---
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials ---
BS British Standard ---
GI Group Index ---

viii
List of Tables

Table 4-1 Sample depth and the designation used for Asossa samples-------------------28
Table 4-2 Natural moisture content and Atterberg Limit values----------------------------.33
Table 4-3 Grain size distribution along profile------------------------------------------------34
Table 4-4 Moisture content at different temperatures-----------------------------------------36
Table 4-5. Percentage amount of the gradation sizes -----------------------------------------.39
Table 4-6 Atterberg Limit values at different testing conditions----------------------------47
Table 4-7 Liquid limit at different conditions and mixing times----------------------------50
Table4-8Liquid limit value comparisons between one-point and conventional methods.53
Table 4-9 Degree of Colloidal activity----------------------------------------------------------55
Table 4-10 Skemptons colloidal activity values------------------------------------------------55
Table 4-11 Free Swell test results at different Conditions------------------------------------.56
Table 4-12 Values of Specific Gravity at different Test Conditions-------------------------59
Table 4-13 Soil classification according to the AASHTO and USCS.---------------------.62
Table 5-1a Typical Soil Test Results for Ferruginous soils-----------------------------------66
Table 5-1b Typical Soil Test Results for Ferrallitic soils-------------------------------------66
Table 5-1c Typical Soil Test Results for Ferrisol soils----------------------------------------67
Table 5-1d Soil Test results for Nejo-Mandi----------------------------------------------------69
Table 5-1e Typical Soil Test Results for Asossa soils-----------------------------------------69
Table 5-2 Dominant mineralogical content for Laterite sub-group (Lyon, 1971)----------70
Table 5-3 Average soil property comparisons (Lyon) and (Abebaw.Z, 2005)-------------70
Table A-1. ASTM versus AASHTO standards-------------------------------------------------83

ix
List of Figures
Fig 3-1 The geographical location of Asossa Town-------------------------------------------.25
Fig 3-2. Elevation difference along the main road, Nekempte-Asossa Town.-------------.27
Fig 4-1 Locations of the samples taken in Asossa Town------------------------------------30
Fig 4-2 The profile view of Pit for the specimen TP1----------------------------------------31
Fig 4-2a Sampling location of the specimen TP9 used for the fill material----------------31
Fig4-2b Less vegetated Sample location TP9--------------------------------------------------32
Fig 4-2c Showing the insitu color observation for the soil sample---------------------------32
Fig 4-3 The hydrometer cylinder after the 24hour suspension-------------------------------41
Fig 4-4a Grain size distribution curve under different pretreatment temperatures---------41
Fig 4-4b Grain size distribution for specimen TP3 at different conditions-----------------42
Fig 4-4c Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-1 at different conditions--------------.42
Fig 4-4d Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-2 at different conditions--------------43
Fig 4-4e Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-2 at different conditions---------------43
Fig 4-5 Grain size distribution for specimen TP9 at different depths------------------------44
Fig 4-6 The graph showing the range of grain size distribution curve of Asossa soil-----44
Fig 4-7 The upper and lower bounds for gradation analysis----------------------------------45
Fig 4-8 Figure showing the locations of Asossa soil on plasticity chart--------------------52
Fig 5-a Kaolinite with various percentages of silts and admixtures plotted on
Casagrande’s chart----------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
Fig 5-b Location of common clay minerals on Casagrande’s plasticity chart--------------71
Fig 5-c Plasticity chart of Nejo-Mandii Soils---------------------------------------------------72
Fig 5-d. Plasticity chart for Asossa soil----------------------------------------------------------73
FigB-1a Grain size distribution at different conditions----------------------------------------84
FigB-1bGrain size distribution continued-------------------------------------------------------84
FigB-1c Continued---------------------------------------------------------------------------------.85
Fig B-1d Continued-------------------------------------------------------------------------------.85
Fig4-1e Continue------------------------------------------------------------------------------------86
Fig 4-1f Continued----------------------------------------------------------------------------------86
Fig 4-1g Continued---------------------------------------------------------------------------------87
Fig4-1h Continued----------------------------------------------------------------------------------87

x
Fig4-1i Continued----------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
Fig 4-1j Continued----------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
Figs B-2.Grain size distribution curves for different soils------------------------------------.89
Fig B-3. Range of grain size distribution.-------------------------------------------------------89

xi
Abstract
The engineering behavior of soils, wheather formed under temperate or tropical
conditions, is determined by certain physical characteristics designated as engineering
properties. In practice, since the determination of all the engineering properties of soils is
expensive, often index properties, simpler and cheaper engineering characteristics which
are indicative are investigated.

Residual soil is a soil material derived from the in-situ weathering and decomposition of
rock, which has not been transported from its original position.

Residual tropical soils can have characteristics that are quit distinctively different from
those of transported soils, That is: the conventional concept of soil mechanics is not
applicable to many residual soils as it consists of aggregates or crystals of weathered
mineral matter that break down and become progressively finer under continuous
manipulation.

Western part of Ethiopia is characterized by such soils. As mentioned in ERA (Ethiopian

Roads Authority) design manual (ERA, 2001) Residual laterites are widely available soil
material in these areas. The index properties of such soils have not been studied in detail
as per the test recommendations for residual tropical soils. This Thesis is conducted to
indicate the index properties of soils of Asossa Town (Capital of Beneshangul Gumuze),
which is located in western Ethiopia and covered by residual soils.

In this thesis work, the index properties of residual tropical soil have been investigated on
the soil specimens taken from Asossa Town by following the test procedures
recommended for residual soils.

The specimens were tested at different sample preparation conditions prior to conducting
the laboratory test and resulted in different end values. The index property investigation
in this research includes; Specific Gravity Test, Particle Size Distribution, Atterberg

xii
Limit Tests and Free Swell Tests, all tests were conducted at three different test
temperatures (at received moisture, air-dried and oven dried at a temperature of 105oc ).

Generally it was found that, sample pre-treatment and commonly used soil test
procedures for temperate soils when applied to Asossa soils resulted in completely altered
test result as compared to the actual test result values obtained by following testing
procedures recommended for tropical soils. It was found that there is considerable
structural water that could be destroyed by oven drying at a temperature of 105 degrees
and must be deducted from every moisture content determinations in Atterberg Limit
tests. Sample manipulation is also found to alter the results of the Atterberg Limit values
by affecting the bond between soil structures. Therefore, the appropriate test procedures
for tropical soils are strongly recommended for research and practical engineering
application where such soils are likely to exist.

xiii
 Introduction

1.1 General
Asossa, which is located in southwest Ethiopia is predominantly covered with reddish
and few brown colored soil. The red color of a residual tropical soil in most cases comes
from the presence of the iron mineral in the soil. Depending on the soil forming factors
such as climate, topography, drainage and the parent material, red soils can be lateritic
soils. The formation of laterites favor rolling slope with good water runoff, distinict rainy
season having warm summer. Asossa shares some common, soil-forming factors
(climate, rainfall, geology topography and temperature) with that of Najo-Mandi
(Wollega) area. (Zelalem, 2005), in his research work presented to school of graduate
studies), conducted the geochemical test for Nejo-Mandi areas and found that the soil in
these area is laterite.

Accordingly the soil of Asossa is supposed to be laterite. Lateritic soils are highly
weathered and altered residual soil formed by the in-situ weathering and decomposition
of rocks in the tropical and sub-tropical regions with hot humid climatic conditions. Due
to the presence of iron oxides lateritic soils are red in color ranging from light bright to
brown shades.

Depending up on the extent of laterization, residual tropical soils could be classified as;
lateritic and laterites. Lateritic soils are highly weathered and altered residual soil formed
by the in-situ weathering and decomposition of rocks in the tropical and sub-tropical
regions with hot, humid climatic conditions. Their formation also consists of leaching out
of free silica and bases and accumulation of oxides of iron, aluminum or both, and this
process is termed as laterization. Moreover they are rich in sesquioxides, i.e.; iron oxides,
aluminum oxides or both and have low silicate content with considerable amount of
Kaolinite.

Laterites as residual soils are mostly placed under a group with strong mineralogical
influence derived from clay minerals only found in residual soils. These soils are

1
characterized to be highly influenced by the presence of sesquioxides which tends to act
as a cementing agent that bind the other mineral constituents in to cluster or aggregations.
With sufficient concentration of sesquioxides, the hard cemented materials commonly
known as laterite are formed. But the term laterite is generally used very loosely, some
times to include both halloysite and allophane and other clay minerals which contain only
trace amount of sesquioxides, and whose behavior is not significantly influenced by the
sesquioxides.

Laterites occur mostly in tropical and subtropical regions with hot, humid climatic

conditions. It has been suggested that a mean annual temperature of around 25oc is

required for their formation. And in seasonal situations there should be coincidence of
warm and wet periods.

Residual soils are widely used as a construction material, mainly as fill material for
embankments, dams and road embankments and as selected layers in highways and
airfield construction. Certain residual soils, such as those containing smectite or
halloysite clays may be unsuitable for those uses, either because of inadequate strength,
or excessive change of volume with varying water content, or because of loss of strength
on wetting. However, these materials have been used to form impervious layers in water-
retaining embankments. The Sesquioxide content of residual soil coat the surface of soil
particles and cause a cementing effect on the adjacent grains, hence they produce
aggregated soil particles. This effect tends to reduce plasticity, but progressive
manipulation of the soil grain breaks down the aggregations and the sesquioxide bonding,
phenomena known as disaggrgation of the soil particles. This effect increases both the
liquid limit and plastic limit of these soils could be checked by conducting the Atterberg
limits at different mixing times, usually 5 minutes and 25 minutes mixing times and by
comparing the results.

Some residual soils tend to exist as hydrated and de-hydrated forms. That is water of
hydration in the sesquioxides of iron and aluminum may be driven off by oven drying at
105oc , which is the standard laboratory test temperature for conventional soil mechanics

2
of temperate regions. This water normally takes part in the engineering performance of
the residual soil. This effect could be detected in the laboratory by conducting the
moisture content of a given soil specimen at different drying temperatures. If this
procedure resulted in a considerable difference in moisture content, the test temperature

must be limited to air drying or drying at oven of 50oc and relative humidity of 30%.

Hence, this difference in moisture content must be deducted from moisture content
determined at a 105oc oven drying.

Most lateritic soils exhibit a decrease in the Atterberg limit values when pre dried at the
temperature of 105oc oven drying. This is as the result of the dehydration of the
sesquioxides which creates a stronger bond between the soil particles, which is resistant
to water ingression between soil particles. Drying is also accompanied by, increased
cementation due to oxidation of the iron and aluminum sesquioxides, dehydration of
allophane and halloysite, or both. Moreover, this process could not be reversed by re-
wetting of the soil specimen.

The influence of sample preparation prior to testing on index property tests of tropical
soils is recommended by (Hunde 2003) in his thesis entitled “Investigation of influence
of compaction on the suitability of earth fill dams of tropical soils”, Lyon Association
Ltd., (1971) in their work, “Lateritic and Laterite Soil and other Problematic Soils of
Africa” observed that the index properties of lateritic soils of Ethiopia change with drying
temperature. Moreover, the work of (Zelalem, 2005) “Basic engineering properties of
lateritic soils found in Nejo-Mendi road construction" shows that the effect of oven
drying changes the finer content of the soil. And this thesis work strongly gives emphases
to the effects of sample pre-treatment and test procedures on the determination of the
index properties of Asossa soil.

3
1.2 Objective of the study

The objectives of this research are:

a. To check the extent of laterization of Asossa soil based on index properties and
chemical tests.
b. Carefully investigate the effect of sample pre-treatment and method of mixing
on index properties of soils of Asossa.
c. Investigate some limitations of the concept of conventional soil mechanics as
applied to residual tropical soils of Asossa.
d. To recommend the appropriate test procedures for Asossa soil and other tropical
soils with similar geological formation.

1.3 Methodology used

In this work, the effect of temperature on the determination of the moisture content was

investigated by conducting the laboratory test at air drying and at oven dry of 105oc. it

was found that oven drying affected the structural water, hence air drying was
recommended, Likewise, the effect of mixing time on the test results was investigated.

This thesis work consists of different sample pre-treatment conditions for all index
property determinations. These methods were air-drying (AD), oven drying (OD),
Soaked (S) and as received conditions (AR) that is at its natural moisture condition.

The four pre-treatment methods according to (Lyon, 1971) are

As received (AR) -- at natural moisture content.
Soaked (S) -- immersed in water for 24 hours moisture
equilibration.
Air dried (AD) --dried until constant weight is found under
normal temperature.
Oven dried (OD) --dried in an oven for 24 hours at 105oc

4
Execution of soil tests at its natural moist condition is considered if the field moisture
content was about 13% (Lyon, 1971). Instead of air-drying one can use oven drying at a
temperature of 50oc and relative humidity 30%equivalently (Blight, 1997).
1.4 Limitation of the study

The research is limited only to the index property tests taken from different locations of
Asossa Town. Due to the financial constraints, it was not possible to conduct
geochemical test for the town and since Asossa has some common soil forming factors as
that of Najo-Mandi area of Wollega, the degree of laterization is simply taken from the
work of (Zelalem, 2005).

1.5 Organization of the thesis

The thesis consists six chapters. This introductory part consists background, objective
and brief summary of the work. The second chapter covers the literature review on
residual soils, weathering and formation, effects to pre-test treatment and test procedures.
The third chapter consists of the sampling area descriptions and soil characteristics of
Asossa Town. The fourth chapter covers types of laboratory tests results along with some
photos of the in-situ soil behaviors. The fifth chapter consists of comparison of the
characteristics of Asossa soil with previously conducted test results of other countries of
Africa and with the Nejo-Mandi soil (Zelalem, 2005). The conclusions and
recommendations drawn from this research are presented in the sixth chapter. Appendix
are presented at the end of this thesis along with the AASHTO designation equivalent to
ASTM testing procedures and the Grain Size Distribution curves at different testing
conditions.

5
1. Literature Review

2.1 General characteristics of residual soils

The process of formation of a residual soil profile is extremely complex, difficult to

understand and difficult to generalize. In many countries of Africa and Asia, lateritic
residual soils are the traditional material for road and airfield construction. Though a
good deal of literature is available on lateritic soils and several excellent reviews have
been prepared on this subject. There has generally been very little discussion on the
engineering behavior of laterites. Until the U.S. Agency for International Development
sponsored the study on laterite and lateritic soils of Southeast Asia, the engineering
investigations have been isolated studies. The reason for the limited studies is understood
to be due to the absence of uniform methods for the preparation of samples and testing
and the variable nature of laterites soils. As a consequence, the drawing of any rational
conclusions on the engineering properties of lateritic soils has been very difficult, (Layon,
1971). As weathering proceeds from the surface down and inwards from joint surface and
other percolation paths, the intensity of weathering generally reduces with increasing
depth and reducing intensity of jointing in the material between joint surfaces (Blight,
1997).

The soil name “laterite” was coined by (Buchanan, 1807) in India, from a Latin word
“later” meaning brick (Raychaudhuri, 1980). The extensive literature on laterite
published since Buchanan’s time has produced a range of terms referring to many soil
types. On the other hand, laterite is also known by the following names; Brick stone, Iron
clay, Laterite (India), Cabook (Ceylon), Canga, Picarra (Brazil), Carapace, Cuirasse
(France), Eisenkruste, Krusteneisnsteine (Germany), Ironstone (Nigeria), Mantle rock
(Ghana, Moco de hierro (Venezuela), Murram (East Africa), Pisolite (Australia), Plinthite
(USA) and Ferricrete (South Africa)(Zelalem, 2005).

According to (Blight, 1997), laterites are highly weathered and altered residual soils
formed by the in-situ weathering and decomposition of rocks under tropical conditions.

6
The three major weathering processes are physical, chemical and biological processes. In
the weathering process, the parent rock and rock minerals break down, releasing internal
energy and forming soils of lower internal energy that are stable. Physical processes
increase surface area and fractures so that chemical attack takes place where as biological
phenomena includes both of them.

The available data on lateritic soils gives the impression that the red color seems to have
been accepted by most authors as the most important property by which these soils could
be identified. Other obviously significant basic physical properties such as texture,
structure, consistency, etc., often were ignored .It is also noted that the lack of uniformity
in pretreatment and testing procedures (resulting from association with different
standards in different parts of Africa) makes it difficult to compare even textural data on
the same soils. It is noted that three major factors influence the engineering properties
and field performance of lateritic soils. These are;

a. Soil forming factors (e.g. parent rock, climate vegetation conditions,

topography and drainage conditions).
b. Degree of weathering (degree of laterization) and texture of the soils, genetic
soil type, the predominant clay mineral type and depth of sample.
c. Pretest treatments and laboratory test procedures as well as interpretation of
test results (Lyon, 1971).
According to (Blight, 1997), Climate and topography influences the rate of weathering.
Physical weathering is more pronounced in dry climates, while the extent and rate of
chemical weathering is largely controlled by the availability of moisture and temperature.
Topography on the other hand, controls the rate of weathering by partly determining the
amount of available water and the rate at which it moves down through the zone of
weathering. It also controls the effective edge of the profile by controlling the rate of
erosion of a weathered material from the surface. Hence deeper profiles will generally be
found in valleys and on gentle slopes rather than high ground or steep slopes.

7
2.1.1 Mineralogical composition related to weathering

The distinctive feature of laterite and lateritic soils is the higher proportion of sesquioxide
of iron and/or aluminum relative to the other chemical components. The amount of
alumina or iron oxides is an important factor in differentiating aluminous and ferruginous
varieties. The base (alkalis and alkaline earths) is almost absent in lateritic horizons,
except in some ferruginous crusts developed in alluvium and some concretionary
horizons in ferruginous tropical soils. Other lateritic constituents are manganese,
titanium, chromium and vanadium oxides (Lyon, 1971).

The mineralogical composition is considered to be more important in explaining the

physical properties of laterite and lateritic soil. The mineralogical constituents can be
divided in to major elements, which are essential to laterization, and minor elements,
which do not affect the laterization process. The major constituents are oxides and
hydroxides of aluminum and iron, with clay minerals and, to a lesser extent, manganese,
titanium and silica. The minor constituents are residual remainants.

The clay mineral most common in lateritic soils is Kaolinite. Halloysite is also reported.
Illite and Montimorillonite are rare. The secondary minerals resulting mainly from the
laterization process are Gibbsite, Goethite, Limonite and Hematite. Neither Manganese
nor Titanium minerals were observed in significant amounts.

2.1.2 Formation, existence and profile of weathering

8
2.1.2.1 Formation and existence of residual tropical soils

The mineral that is formed is usually dependent on the type and extent of weathering that
has taken place. Tropical decomposition tends to favor formation of the clay kaolinite.
This is the most common clay mineral in tropical residual soils. Under suitably moist
conditions, halloysite will be formed. Under prolonged decomposition, silica can be
removed so that free alumina and iron oxides are present (Blight, 1997). Physical and
chemical reactions are weathering process leading to the formation of tropical and
residual soils. Tropical weathering of volcanic ashes frequently produces an abundance of
Allophane, a virtually amorphous clay mineral having unusually high natural moisture
content. Allophane may be identified by its characteristically large, irreversible change of
plasticity properties upon drying at different temperatures. In strongly oxidizing
conditions, hematite may be formed. Physical breakdown rates are controlled by
exposure and energy transmitted to the parent material through the local environment.
Chemical processes can be summarized a follows :( Blight, 1997)

I) Decomposition: This includes the physical breakdown of the rock fabric and the
chemical breakdown of constituent minerals, usually rock forming minerals. Typical
products being clay minerals, oxides, hydroxides, and free silica. Under tropical
conditions, reactions may occur relatively quickly so that recently transported soils may
subsequently be modified in to material with residual soil characteristics. Decomposition
according to (Makasa, 1998), (Zelalem, 2005) is Physio-chemical breakdown of primary
minerals and release of constituent elements (SiO2, Al 2O 3 ,Fe 2 O3 , CaO, MgO, K2O,
Na2O, etc), which appear simple ionic forms.

II) Leaching and Re-Deposition: This includes laterization process; involve removal of
combined silica, alkaline earth, and alkalies. There is a consequent accumulation of
oxides and hydroxides of sesquioxides and the leached material may be redeposited and
accumulated elsewhere in the soil profile (Blight, 1997).

9
The level to which the secondary stage is formed is carried depending on the nature and
extent of the chemical weathering of primary minerals. Under conditions of low chemical
and soil-forming activity, the physio-chemical weathering does not continue beyond the
clay-forming stage, and tends to produce end products consisting of clay minerals
predominantly represented by Kaolinite and occasionally by hydrated or hydrous oxides
of iron and aluminum (Blight, 1997 ) (Zelalem, 2005)

III) Dehydration / Desiccation: (Either partial or complete alter), this is the process that
the composition and distribution of the sesquioxide-rich minerals in a manner, which is
generally not reversible upon wetting. Dehydration also influences the formative process
of clay minerals. That is, in the case of total dehydration, strongly cemented soils with a
unique granular soil structure may be formed(Blight, 1997).

Laterites occur mostly in tropical and sub-tropical regions with hot, humid climatic
conditions. It has been suggested that a minimum annual temperature of around 25oc is
needed for their formation, and in seasonal situations there should be a concidence of the
warm and wet periods. If there is high rainfall during the cold seasons, laterite does not
develop freely. The minimum rain fall required for the formation of laterites is generally
at least 750mm.The higher rain fall above this value, the greater the leaching effect,
which removes the silica, reducing the Silica/Sesquioxide ratio and increase the degree of
laterization (CIRIA, 1995).

Regarding topography and drainage, the slope angle controls the amount of water
available to move downward through the weathering zone. On steep slopes run-off is
greater than infiltration; erosion is active, and conditions are generally not suitable for the
development of deep weathering. On the other hand on flatter slopes, run-off is not so
marked; only limited amount of erosion takes place; and long uninterrupted periods of
weathering can take place; producing deep weathered soil profile. On a level ground,
however, where drainage is impeded and the ground is waterlogged, black
Montimorillonite soils dominate instead of red soils (CIRIA, 1995).

10
ASCE, Geotechnical Engineering Division (Journal vol.111 NOS.1-6, 1985), describes
the weathering products of various environments, and suggested that clay mineral (Illites,
Montimorillonites, etc.) are favored by alkaline non leaching environment, while the
minerals (Kaolinite, Halloysite) are favored by acid leaching environments.

2.1.2.2 Profile of weathering

The alteration of rock by the process of chemical weathering takes place progressively
through a number of events and stages which result in a profile of weathering. Those who
have worked with tropically weathered residual soils have noted the frequent occurrence
of an upper clayey zone a few feet thick, underlain by a silty or sandy zone which, in
turn, pass through a very irregular transition in to weathered and finally into sound rock.
The thickness of each member of the profile varies from site to site because of the
complexity of the interrelationships among the controlling soil forming factors of rainfall,
temperature, time, character of parent rock, topography and vegitation. Soils formed
under similar weathering profiles will have similar characteristics (Lyon, 1971).

2.1.3 Hydrated and dehydrated laterite

In continuously wet regions the end products of the process of laterization are likely to be
characterized by high natural water contents, high liquid limits, and irreversible changes
up on drying. Limonite and goethite are hydrated oxides of iron, and gibbsite is hydrated
oxide of aluminum. Drying alters the characteristics of the material markedly. The
plasticity decreases and the grain size increases such that much of the clay sized material
agglomerates to the size of silt. When dealing with such materials, the engineer may need
to determine the index properties and the engineering properties on the basis of tests
performed at a natural water content and at varies degrees of air drying in order to
evaluate fully the range of properties associated with the physical conditions that may be
manifested at the test time. Serious engineering and construction problems have arisen
through failure to recognize materials likely to experience irreversible changes as a
consequence of desiccation (Lyon, 1971).

11
On the other hand, in regions subjected to distinct wet and dry seasons, the products of
laterization are likely to be characterized by low natural water content, low plasticity, and
the presence of concertions and cemented horizons. The alternate upward and dawn ward
movement of water causes concentration of iron or of alumina. Laboratory tests run on
the natural water content or on the air-dried samples lead to the essentially the same
results (Lyon, 1971).

The difference in behavior of hydrated and de-hydrated forms of laterites soils deserves
attention because of the danger of being misled by reports in the literature in which the
significance of the distinction may not be realized (Lyon, 1971).

2.1.4 Classification of residual soils

2.1.4.1 Reason for special classification requirements for residual soils

There are specific features or characteristics of residual soils that are not adequately
covered by conventional methods of soil classification such as the Unified Soil
Classification System. Among these features are the following (Blight, 1997),

a) The unusual clay mineralogy of some tropical and subtropical soils results in
characteristics that are not compatible with those normally associated with the group
to which the soil belongs according to existing systems such as the Unified Soil
Classification System.
b) The soil mass in-situ may display a sequence of materials ranging from a true soil to a
soft rock depending on the degree of weathering, which can not be adequately
described using existing systems based on classification of transported soils in
temperate climates.
c) Conventionl soil classification systems focus primarily on the properties of the soil in
its remolded state; this is often misleading with residual soils as their properties are
likely to be most strongly influenced by in situ structural characteristics in-herited
from the original rock mass or developed as a consequence of weathering.

12
Wesley (1988) proposed a practical system for classifying all residual soils, based on the
mineralogical composition and soil micro and macro-structure. Wesley’s classification
system is intended to provide an ordinary division of residual soils in to groups that
belong together because of common factors in their formation and / or composition,
which can be expected to give them similar engineering properties (Blight, 1997).

1.1.4.2 The proposed grouping

The first step in grouping of residual soils is to divide them into groups on the basis of
mineralogical composition alone with out reference to their undisturbed state (Wesley
L.D. and Irfan)(Blight, 1997). These groups are
I. Group A: Soils without a strong mineralogical influence, eg, Saprolites
(Residual soil with clear structural feature inherited from its parent rock).
II. Group B: Soils with a strong mineralogical influence deriving from clay
minerals also commonly found in transported soils (Black Cotton Soils).
III. Group C: Soils with a strong mineralogical influence deriving from clay
minerals only found in residual soils (based on clay mineral these can be, Allophane sub
group, Halloysite sub group, Sesquioxide sub group).

The group C, can be classified as the following sub-groups (Blight, 1997).

A) Halloysitc soils: The principal influence of halloysite appears to be that the

engineering properties of the soil are good, despite a high clay fraction, and fairly high
values of natural water content in terms of Atterberg Limits (i.e. a high liquidity index).

B) Allophonic soils: Allophonic soils are probably the most distinctive of all residual
soils due to the very unusual properties of the amorphous mineral Allophane. Allophane
soils have a natural moisture content ranging from about 80% to 250%, but which still
perform satisfactorily as a construction material. They are superior to other soils with
similar water content.

13
C) Soils influenced by the presence of Sesquioxides: The principal role of sesquioxides
appears to act as cementing agents, which bind the other mineral constituents in to
clusters or aggregations. With sufficient concentration of sesquioxides, the hard
concretionary material called laterite will be formed. This sub groups perhaps be termed
as Lateritic group (Morin and Todor, 1976), (Blight, 1997).

Generally, classification of laterites is also possible according to its genetic basis, size of
particle and degree of concertion. Besides the suggested grouping system presented, an
additional item of formation which is usually of major importance in influencing the
properties of residual tropical soils is the type of the parent rock and should always be
included in the grouping processes.

It was found during the recent study that most of the tropically weathered soils of Africa
could be divided in to three groups on a genetic basis, determined by the soil-forming
factors. The three major groups of significance have been defined by D’hoore (1964)
(Lyon, 1971). These are;

i) Ferruginous Soils: These occur in extremely arid conditions for lateritic soils, in areas
with pronounced dry seasons. Ferruginous soils are common they are hard and durable.
Marked separation of iron oxide is frequently observed which may be leached or
precipitated with the profile. Kaolinite is the predominant clay mineral in this type. It
requires an average annual rainfall of 600-1800mm for its formation.

ii) Ferallitic Soils: These occur in more humid areas for lateritic soils and in areas with
dense vegetation cover. Gibsite is the most common clay mineral observed and other
hydrated forms of alumina occur as well as hydrated iron minerals. Halloysite is fairly
common over volcanic rocks. The annual average rainfall requirement for its formation is
1500- 4000mm. Both of the above soils have SiO2 / R2O2 ratio of less than 2.0 and are
classified either as lateritic or laterite soils.

14
iii) Ferrisols: These are formed over all types of rocks in intermediate to high rainfall
areas where erosion has kept the place with profile develoment. They have similar
profiles to ferallitic soils, but with few weatherable minerals remaining. The entire clay
fraction comprises Kaolinite and amorphous oxides of iron and aluminum. These are
developed at deeper levels due to the surface erosion, and occur in regions of annual
average rainfall of 1250-2750mm. According to Morine W.J. and Todor P.C., Ethiopian
laterites fall under this group (Blight, 1997)

Moreover, based on soil forming factors, climate, topography, vegetation and parent rock,
tropical soils may be classified as, Latosols, Andosols and Saprolites in addition to the
above three groups. (Lyon, 1971)

I) Latosols and Andosols: These are generally formed from weathering of volcanic
rocks under humid tropical conditions. Halloysite and Allophane are common clay
minerals and these soils have usually high moisture content.

II) Saprolite Soils: They are residual soils with clear structural features inherited from its
parent rock. These soils have fragial character in grain size and the bond could be
strongly affected when pulverizing.

On the other hand, Nascimento et al. (1959) have suggested an interesting lithological
classification of lateritic soils as follows; (Lyon, 1997)
Lateritic clays <0.002mm
Lateritic silts =0.002-0.06mm
Lateritic sands =0.06-2mm
Lateritic gravel =2-60mm
Lateritic stones
And cuirasse >60mm

Moreover, (Anthony Young, 1976), (Lyon, 1997) has distinguished the following main
types and sub-divisions of laterite:

15
1) Massive laterite: Possesses a continuous hard fabric, subdivided in
to:
a. Cellular laterite: - with cavities approximately rounded.
b. Vascular laterite: - With cavities approximately tubular.
2) Nodular laterite: - Consists of individual particles approximately
rounded (also called Pisolithic laterite) subdivided in to:
a. Cemented nodular laterite: Individual concretions can be
seen but are strongly joined together by the same iron stone
material.
b. Partially cemented nodular laterite.
c. Non-cemented nodular laterite: Concretions from over 60
percent by weight of the total soil.
d. Iron concretions: Are separated by soil-but forms less than
60 percent by weight of the total horizon.

3) Recemented laterite: This contains fragments of massive laterite or

ferrugnized rock, broken and wholly or partly cemented.

4) Frruginized rock: Here, rock structure is still visible, but with

substantial isomorphous replacement by iron.

5) Soft laterite: Mottled iron-rich clay, which hardens irreversibly on

exposure to air to, repeated wetting and drying.

16
2.1.5 Regional Setting

Lateritic soils are beleved to corrospond to climates in which the wet period is warm; this
applies to semi-humid tropical and equatorial climates. On the other hand, sub-tropical
climates in which precipitation occurs in the cold season do not seem to favor laterization
even if the temperature is above 20oC. Laterites cover extensive areas in tropical countries
with intermittently moist climate. Generally the six main regions of the world in which
laterites occur are Africa, India, South-east Asia, Australia, Central and South America. It
should be emphasized that, because of shifts of climatic zone in the geological past,
Important areas of laterite can be found in areas now out side the tropics, (Zelalem,
2005).

17
2.2 Residual soil and laterization

Depending up on the extent of laterization, residual tropical soils could be classified as;
Lateritic and laterites. Lateritic soils are highly weathered and altered residual soil
formed by the in-situ weathering and decomposition of rocks in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions with hot, humid climatic conditions. Their formation also consists of
leaching out of free silica and bases and accumulation of oxides of iron, aluminum or
both, and this process is termed as laterization. Moreover they are rich in sesquioxides,
i.e.; iron oxides, aluminum oxides or both and low silicate content with considerable
amount of Kaolinite. Lateritic soils are usually red in color due to the existence of the
mineral iron oxides.

The degree of laterization is characterized by the ratio of Silica (SiO2) to Sesquioxide

ratio (S-S) as described in the previous section. Sesquioxide (R2O3) is the combined name
for Iron oxide (Fe2 O3) and Aluminum oxide (Al2 O3) the following classes of soils could
be possible based on laterization

S-S ratio >2, unlaterized soil

S-S ratio 1.33 – 2, Lateritic soil
S-S ratio <1.33 true laterite.

2.2.1 Lateritic soils

These are residual soils with a silicon dioxide (Silica) to sesquioxide ratio of between
1.33 to 2.0. Morin W.J. and Todor P. C, (Blight, 1997) use the term lateritic soil for all
reddish tropically weathered materials, irrespective of the presence of or absence of
concertions. They behave like fine-grained sands, gravels, and soft rock sand which
typically have a porous or vesicular appearance. Some Particles of lateritic soils tend to
crush easily under impact, disintegrating in to a soil material that may be plastic. They
could be self-hardening when exposed to drying; or if they are not self-hardening, they
may contain appreciable amounts of hardening laterite rock or laterite gravel.

18
2.2.2 Laterites
This is a surface formation in tropical areas enriched in iron and aluminum and develops
by intensive and long lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock. Laterites consist
mainly of Kaolinite, Goethite, Hematite and Gibbsite, which form in the course of
weathering. Moreover, many laterites contain Quartz as relatively stable relic mineral
from parent rock.

They occur most of the times in an already hardened state. It is also common for some
areas of the world to be observed having deposits that have not been exposed to the
drying process and are soft with a clayey texture and mottled coloring, which may
include red, yellow, brown, purple, and white. Moreover when these soils are exposed to
air or dried by lowering their water table, irreversible hardening will take place,
producing a material that is suitable for use as a building or road stone. As a result,
laterite is gravel sized; ranging From pea sized gravel to 3 inches minus (Passing 3
inches), although larger cemented masses are possible. A specific form of laterite rock,
known as plinthite is soft enough to cut with a metal tool, but it hardens irreversibly when
removed from the ground (Zelalem, 2005).

2.3 Sample preparations for tropical soils

2.3.1 Effect of pre-treatment

2.3.1.1 Effect of pre-test drying

Laterites formed under continuously wet regions are likely to be characterized by high
natural water contents; high liquid limits are observed to result in irreversible changes up
on drying. Up on drying the plasticity decreases and grain size increases such that much
of clay sized particles agglomerates to the size of silt (Lyon, 1971).

On the other hand, lateritic soils formed under seasons of distinct wet and dry seasons are
likely to be characterized by low natural moisture content, low plasticity, and presence of
concertions and cemented horizons. Laboratory tests run from natural water content or
from the air-dried state lead to essentially the same result (Lyon, 1971).

19
According to Townsed (1985), the effect of drying prier to testing is attributed to:(Blight,
1997)
a) Increased cementation due to oxidation of the iron and aluminum sesqueoxides, or
b) Dehydration of Allophane, or both.

The geotechnical behavior of soil is then altered up on drying due to the above reasons.
An important factor contributing to the closing up of the particle spaces is due to the
development of capillary stresses of significant magnitude. These capillary stresses lead
to particle aggregation and reduce the available surface for interaction with water, which
is reflected in the reduction of plasticity characteristics.

The water of hydration in the sesquioxides of iron and aluminum may be driven off by

oven drying at 105oc, which is conventionally the standard testing temperature for

temperate regions. This water normally takes part in the engineering performance of the
material, but is reflected in the test results as higher moisture content. These can be
checked by the following procedures; two specimens should be prepared for the
determination of moisture content. One specimen should be oven dried at 105oc until
successive weighing show no further decrease in mass. The moisture content should then
be calculated. The second sample should be air-dried (if feasible), or oven dried at
temperature of no more than 50oC and at maximum relative humidity (RH) of 30% until
successive weights show no further loss of mass. The two-moisture content should then
be compared. A significant difference (4-6%of moisture content obtained by oven drying
at 105oC ) indicates that “ Structural” water is present. This water forms part of the soil
solids, and should therefore be excluded from the calculation of moisture content. If a
difference is detected using the two different drying process, all subsequent tests for
moisture content determination (including those associated with Atterberg Limit tests,
etc) should be carried out by drying at lower temperature (i.e. either air-drying, or oven–
drying at 50oC and 30% RH) if possible, the lower drying temperature of 50oC should be
used to avoide the removing out of this water (Blight, 1997).

20
2.3.1.2 Effect of method and time of mixing on Atterberg Limits

In general, the greater the duration of mixing (i.e., the greater the energy applied to the
soil prier to testing), the larger the value of the resulting liquid limit, and to a lesser
extent, the larger the plasticity index. This has been attributed to longer mixing results in
more extensive break down of the cemented bonds between the clay clusters and within
peds (disaggregation of the particles), and thus formation of greater proportions of fine
particles (Blight, 1997).

In order to address this problem A.B.Fourie recommends the following, (Blight, 1997)
Five test specimens should be mixed with water to give a range of moisture contents
suitable for liquid limit and plastic limit determinations. The minimum amount of air-
drying should be used, and preferably none at all. Thus should not be too difficult as the
in-situ moisture content of majority of soils is at or below the relative plastic limit. The
mixing time should be standardized at 5 minutes, and the mixed specimens should be left
for moisture content equilibration overnight before testing.

On the following day the liquid limit should be determined with a minimum of further
mixing. A sub-sample from each of the specimens used in the test should be used for the
determination of moisture content, using the procedure. The remainder of each specimen
should then be mixed continuously for a further 25 minutes before again determining the
liquid limit. A significant difference (i.e. >5% of the liquid limit obtained from the test on
a specimen mixed for 5minutes) between the liquid limit from tests using 5 and
30minutes mixing times indicates a disaggregatinon of the clay-sized particles in the soil.
If this disaggregation is confirmed by repeating the above procedures, the entire program
of testing should:
I. Limit the mixing times to no more than 5 minutes
II. Make use of fresh soil for each moisture content point in Atterberg Limit tests.

The soil should be broken-down by soaking in distilled water, and not by drying and
grinding.

21
2.4 Tropical black clays
Dual (1965), More recently has adopted a more descriptive term “Dark Clay Soils”. The
term “Tropical Black Clays”, or “Black Clay Soils”, and “Black Cotton Soils” are used
more or less interchangeably. Although the term Dark Clay Soils is retained because of
its extensive occurrence in the literature and because it is widely used in many parts of
Africa (Lyon, 1971).

An appropriate engineering definition for tropical black clays is “dark gray to black soils”
with a high content of clay usually over 50%, in which Montimorillonite is the principal
clay mineral and which are commonly expansive. They are formed when there is poor
internal drainage and flatter slops exist (Blight, 1997). The main characteristics among
most tropical black clays are high clay content, dark color, tendency to expand and shrink
with change in moisture content (Lyon, 1971).

2.5 Tropical soils as construction materials

The behavior of residual tropical soils as construction materials varies with the group
characteristic and the constructional value depends on the type of the soil at hand.
Tropical soils generally are overconsolidated soils with high strength values (Blight,
1997). Lateritic soils used as a road and embankment construction materials are generally
thin strata occurring at shallow depth. So great care should be taken during material
investigation and excavation for construction material production. The deposit is likely to
vary in thickness, depth and quality both along-slop and down-slope (CIRA, 1995).
Hence, care should be made to prevent contamination of laterite while removing
overburden and stockpiling.

Concretionary laterites are valuable road pavement materials, widely used in tropics as a
sub-base, base material and for gravel roads. The term laterite, however, has tended to be
indiscriminately applied in tropical red soils. As a result the usefulness of laterites for
road construction has been underestimated. The sensitivity of these materials to test
procedures has to be assessed and the laboratory testing has to simulate the site condition.

22
It is clear that sensitive laterites change property during the construction processes due to
the disaggregation (Zelalem, 2005 ).

Lateritic soils, like any other group of soils, present certain chalenges as foundation
materials, though there is no specific stability of deformation problems associated
particularly with the process of laterization. The cementing action of iron oxide tends to
improve the strength and deformation characteristics of lateritic formation.

23
3. Sampling Area Description

3.1 General information

Asossa Town is the capital city of Beneshangul Gumuz Regional Government and
located at 675km from Addis Ababa in southwest direction. It is 96km from the Ethio-
Sudan border. The town has a flat terrain with an elevation of about 1650m above mean
sea level. All of the urban roads are almost earth roads of red to brown soil. Even, the
route connecting Asossa to the central part of Ethiopia and to Ethio-Sudan border is an
earth road or easily friable material for a significant length, which creates a problem for
the traffic movement in rainy season and not suitable in the dry season too (Pavement
Design of Asossa Town Urban Roads Upgrading Project, TCDE, 2000). The
geographical location of Asossa Town is shown on Fig 3-1 below.

3.2 Land cover and land use

Asossa area is a flat terrain with fertile land .The area is covered with grasses stretching
up to 4m height. Most of the area is cultivated following the route connecting Asossa to
central Ethiopia and Ethio-Sudan border (TCDE, 2000).

3.3 Geology
According to the Geological map of Ethiopia, 1996, the Geological formation of Asossa
Town and the surrounding are: flood basalt. The flood basalt is a good crushed aggregate
material for concrete works, base course, and asphalt works when it exists in sound form.
Granite is also observed during the field investigation around Asosaa Town existing in
sound form (TCDE, 2000). Moreover, All of the urban roads are almost earth roads of red
to brown sandy silty clay soil with a considerable amount of dark to gray soils

24
 Asossa Town/study
Area

Fig 3-1 The geographical location of Asossa Town

25
3.4 Climate
The climatic classification of Asossa Town is warm (“Kola”) with a temperature greater
than 20oC (Very warm), which is most of the times uncomfortable. It has a moisture index
ranging from 50 to 100 (intermediate or moist), i.e.; potential evapotranspiration is
mostly greater than precipitation.

It has mean annual rainfall of 1200mm with maximum rainfalls from the month of June
to September. Mean period of onset of the “Kiremt rains” is 26-30May and mean period
of cessation of the “Kiremt rains” is between 23 and 27 October. The area has a
maximum temperature of 33oC and a minimum temperature of 15oC.

The mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly maximum and minimum temperature are
presented in table below.

Table showing the mean monthly rainfall and mean monthly maximum and minimum
temperature (TCDE,2000).
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
RF 1 25 10 50 100 200 230 200 200 150 25 1
Tem. Max. 33 33 33 30 30 30 25 25 25 30 30 30
o
( C) Min 15 15 17 17 20 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

The elevation difference along the Nekemte – Asossa is shown in Fig 3-1

3.5 Soil Characteristics of Asossa

The soil type from Nekemte-Asossa is covered with a reddish soil type and rolling
terrain with high rainfall amount and the elevation above sea level reducing from 2500m
to 1650m. The town has a flat terrain with an elevation of around 1650m above mean sea
level. All of the urban roads are almost earth roads of red to brown sandy silty clay soil
with a considerable amount of dark to gray soils. The natural ground water table is
located at 7m minimum and 35m maximum with almost the same soil type up to 1.0m
and changing in grain size for soils is relatively stiff at 2m below the ground for most
locations. The Geological formation of Asossa Town and the surrounding are formed
from basalt.

26
All lateritic soils require minimum rainfall of 750mm for their formation with hot periods
and soil geology of mostly basaltic rock as a parent material. It is known that the rate of
chemical weathering is controlled by moisture and temperature (other conditions being

constant, chemical reaction rates approximately double for each 10oc rise in average

temperature). Generally based on the soil forming conditions and the actual situation of
the water table observed, one can classify Asossa soil as hydrated form of laterite soil
with high natural water content, high laboratory liquid limit changes irreversibly up on
drying.

Fig 3-2. Elevation difference along the main road, Nekempte-Asossa Town (Zelalem,
2005).

27
4. In-situ Properties and Laboratory test results
4.1 In-situ properties description

4.1.1 Sample description

The soil specimens for this Thesis work were collected from Asossa. Prior to sampling,
visual site investigations were made to consider the different soil types and to sample
evenly in the town. Accordingly nine test pits were chosen. Disturbed samples were
collected for this work, weighing about 6,500kg. The location of the test pits are shown in
Fig4-1
Table 4-1 Sample depth and the designation used for Asossa samples.
Sampling Sample
Serial No. Depth (m) Designation Location Visual
Color
observed
1 0.5-1 TP1-1
2 2 TP1-2 TP1 Reddish
3 0.5-1 TP2-1
4 2 TP2-2 TP2 Reddish
5 0.5-1 TP3-1
6 2 TP3-2 TP3 Reddish
7 0.5-1 TP4-1
8 2 TP4-2 TP4 Reddish
9 0.5-1 TP5-1 Reddish to
10 1.5-2 TP5-2 TP5 brown
11 0.8-1 TP6-1
12 1.5-2 TP6-2 TP6 Reddish
13 0.5-1 TP7-1 Dark to
14 2 TP7-2 TP7 black soil
15 3 TP7-3
16 0.5-1 TP8-1
17 2 TP8-2 TP8 Reddish
18 0.5-1 TP9-1
19 1.5-2 TP9-1 TP9 Grayish
20 3 TP9-3 selected fill

Where; TP = Test Pit

28
Samples desiginated as TP1 were collected along the on going asphaltic road side and are
named as TP1-1, TP1-2, etc referring to the first sample of the first test pit and the second
sample of the first test pit respectively. The top 50cm was removed prier to sampling. All
samples were sealed with plastic cover for the moisture content determination to reduce
moisture loss. TP2, TP3, TP4, TP6 and TP8 were also taken in the same way and tagged
as shown in the Table 4-1. The pit for TP1 is shown in Fig 4-2

TP5 and TP7 were taken at the lower levels but on a flat terrain positions with few
vegetation cover and were found to be almost black soils with different color but having
almost the same texture as the other soils.

TP9 samples were collected at the quarry site, the place where SATCON Construction
uses for a fill material for the road construction. The soil over this area has a grayish
color with coarser graded soil of pluveraizable texture and relatively high density. The
sample place is shown in Fig 4-2a. The soils having different colors were observed in the
laboratory and are presented as in Fig4-2a, 4-2b, 4-2c bellow.

29
 Asossa Twon

Fig 4-1 Locations of the samples taken in Asossa Town

30
Fig 4-2 The profile view of pit for the specimen TP1

Fig 4-2a Sampling location of the specimen TP9 used for the fill material

31
Fig4-2b Sample location TP9 which has less vegetation cover

Fig 4-2c The in-situ color observation for the soil sample

32
4.1.2 In-situ Atterberg Limit Values

Moist samples were collected, by sealing the specimen by plastic bags to minimize the
loss of moisture content of the soil. The in-situ moisture content was determined by air-
drying the sample. It took 4 days to dry to a constant weight. The Atterberg Limit tests
were conducted on a natural, as received soil specimen. The natural moisture content are
generally below the plastic limit and increase with depth for red soils and is nearly equal
or greater and increases with depth for black and grayish soils. The natural moisture
content along with its Atterberg Limit values are shown in Table 4-2

Table 4-2 Natural moisture content and Atterberg Limit values

Sampling Liquid Plastic Plasticity
Serial No. Designation Depth Limit Limit Index NMC
(m) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 TP1-1 0.5-1 57 22 35 23
2 TP1-2 2 54 23 31 24
3 TP2-1 0.5-1 57 22 35 22
4 TP2-2 2 58 26 32 23
5 TP3-1 0.5-1 55 24 31 21
6 TP3-2 2 48 20 28 23
7 TP4-1 0.5-1 57 27 30 24
8 TP4-2 2 52 20 32 22
9 TP5-1 0.5-1 68 22 46 27
10 TP5-2 1.5-2 67 21 46 26
11 TP6-1 0.8-1 57 25 32 22
12 TP6-2 1.5-2 52 21 31 25
13 TP7-1 0.5-1 58 24 34 23
14 TP7-2 2 56 25 31 25
15 TP7-3 3 55 25 30 27
16 TP8-1 0.5-1 60 22 38 21
17 TP8-2 2 57 23 34 25
18 TP9-1 0.5-1 69 31 38 27
19 TP9-2 1.5-2 72 40 32 26
20 TP9-3 3 71 38 33 28

4.1.3 Variation of Soil Properties along the Profiles

The soil was characterized along its profile for selected samples TP1 (TP1-1, TP1-2),
TP3 (3-1, 3-2) and TP9 (TP9-1, TP9-2, and TP9-3). The test result from the grain size
analysis showed that the coarser fraction increases down the profile. The plasticity index
of the soil under investigation decreases with depth and the natural moisture content is
found to increase with depth.

33
Table 4-3 Grain size distribution along test pit profiles
Plasticity
index
Serial Percentage amount of Particle size (%) NMC
NO. Designation Gravel Sand Silt Clay (%)
1 TP1-1 0 10 45 45 35 23
2 TP1-2 30 60.2 3.0 6.7 31 24
3 TP3-1 0 5 45 50 31 21
4 TP3-2 31 58 8.5 2.5 28 23
5 TP9-1 18.7 68.2 9.6 3.5 38 27
6 TP9-2 14 74 7 5 32 26
7 TP9-3 20.5 63.6 12.6 3.4 33 28

From the Table 4-3,one can see that for the small clay proportion, the plastic limit is high.
These large values show that the plastic limits were found after the manipulation of
Sensitive samples. However, the insitu soil may not have as large value as in the
laboratory. Moreover, the test conditions for Gradation and Atterberg Limit were not the
same, as the sample for the Atterberg Limit test were sieved and manipulated.

4.2 Laboratory tests and their results

4.2.1 Index Properties

Basically, soil is more complex material. The complexity is contributed by its existence
in almost innumerable varieties, by its combination of solid, liquid and gases. In many
instances the solid particles vary in size from big boulders to colloidal size. Further more,
the relative quantities of solid, liquid and gases in a given soil are found to change due to
physical causes such as loading, seasonal variation and change of temperature. The
physical properties of soils, which serve mainly for identification and classification, are
commonly known as index properties.

However, studies have revealed that tropical soils are different from temperate zone soils
in terms of genesis and structure. Their structures as compared to dispersed temperate
zone soils have necessitated modifications to the mechanical or grading tests; the
conventional pretreatment methods have considerable effect on the index properties of
tropical soils. Therefore, special consideration is required. (Blight, 1997).

34
The various properties of soils, which could be considered as index properties are:
• Grain size analysis
• Atterberg limits
• Free swell
• Specific gravity
The ASTM testing procedure is used in the laboratory. Most of the literature for tropical
soils is carried out using this method. For comparisons of the methods, ASTM equivalent
to that of AASHTO testing procedure is attached in Appendex-1.

Temperature effect on moisture content determination

Using an oven drying of 105oc is by far high for certain tropical soils as it can drive out
their water of hydration and resulting in an irreversible property change on the soil. This
effect can be overcome in the laboratory by conducting the natural moisture content of
the soil at different test temperatures.

Accordingly, the natural moisture content of the samples were determined in the
laboratory as suggested by (Blight, 1997), (CIRIA, 1995). That is drying the sample to an
oven temperature of 105oC and oven temperature of 50oc with maximum relative
humidity (RH) of 30% or equivalently air-drying. For this thesis work eight (8) samples
were collected and air-dried until no loss of weight is achieved and the same sample were
treated in an oven drying up to 105oC until constant mass is obtained. The values of the
moisture contents are presented and compared in Table 4-4. As it was stated in section
2.3.1.1, moisture variations of 4-6% or more indicates that there is loosely bounded
molecular ‘structural water’ present in the soil. From the test results, it is clear that the
natural moisture content difference is greater than 4%, which indicates that the soil of
Asossa contains a considerable amount of ‘water of hydration’ or ‘structural water’
leading to irreversible changes on drying, hence the test for this soil types must be
conducted by air drying.

35
Table 4-4 Moisture content at different temperatures
Sampling Oven dry
Serial No. Desigination Depth (m) at 105oc Air dried Difference
(%)
1 TP 1-1 0.5-1 29 23 6
2 TP 4-1 1.5-2 29 24 5
3 TP 4-2 2 27 22 5
4 TP 6-2 1.5-2 30 25 5
5 TP 7-1 1 30 23 7
6 TP 7-3 3 32 27 5
7 TP9-1 .5-1 32 27 5
8 TP9-3 1.5-2 34 28 6

4.2.1.1 Grain size Analysis

Soil particles may consist of size ranges from boulders to fine-sized clays. Grain size
analysis is used to determine the effective diameter of the soil particles that constitute and
strongly affect the uniformity characteristics of the soil mass. Mechanical analysis is used
for the coarse sized soils by using nest of sieve and hydrometer analysis is used for fine-
grained soils. For a soil-containing fine to coarse sized particles the combined analysis is
employed.

4.2.1.1.1 Test Procedures

I) Dry preparation

Particle size analyses were performed on the air- dried and oven- dried (AD and OD)
samples in accordance to ASTM D421-85. The air dried sample were prepared by
spreading the material in trays out side the room for nearly three to four days. The oven
dried samples were prepared by drying the sample at oven temperature of 105oc. All the
samples were screened through the nest of sieves. During the preparation, the samples
were divided in to two portions, particle sizes retained on 2mm sieve (Coarse size,
Mechanical analysis), and the particles passing 2mm sieve (fine analysis, hydrometer
analysis), and finally for soils of both sizes combined analysis was made. The results of
these analyses were expressed by a plot of percent finer (passing) by weight against size
of soil particles in millimeters on a log scale.

36
Remillon, (1967) and Terzaghi, (1958) found out that, it is nearly impossible to
completely deflocculate lateritic soils (Lyon, 1971). But for this thesis work, Sodium
Hexamosphate was used as a dispersing agent and 24-hours sedimantation time were
used. However, it was very difficult to disperse the particles of the specimen because of
the high cementing effect of the sesquioxide content in the soil. The soil after 24hours of
sedimentation in the graduated cylinder has shown little difference from the original
reading. Accordingly, longer time has to be used for Asossa soil. Generally, it has to be
noted that the dispersant should be standardized as well as the dispersing time. The
laboratory observation of the hydrometer after 24-hour solutions is shown in Fig4-2c.

II) Wet preparation

Wet soil preparations (As Received, AR) were carried out on moist samples for grain size
analysis tests following the procedures mentioned in (ASTM D2217-85), (Lyon, 1971).

4.2.1.1.2 Test results and discussions

The grain size analysis test results for all soil samples under investigation were
summarized in Table 4-5. The corresponding grain size distribution curve is shown in
Figs 4-3 and Figs 4-4 partly. The figures for all test results are shown on Appendix-B.

I) Effect of pre-drying
As received (AR), air-dried (AD) and oven dried (OD) samples were used to investigate
the grain size distribution of the specimen under investigation. The test results are shown
in Table 4-5 and Fig4-4 and Appendix-B. As stated in the previous sections (2.3.1.1),
pre-drying residual soils result in a lesser clay fraction due to the aggregation (cementing)
effect of tropical soils and the as received sample result in a relatively coarser fraction.
Moreover, this was observed during the investigation of Asossa soil as shown in the
Figures and Table4-5. Even though drying resulted in a coarser particle, temperature
variation has a lesser cumulative effect on the grain size distribution. This is because the
aggregated particles becomes weaker in bond and results in fine particles after washing
and up on drying. The loose particles can not regain their total bond to re-aggregate to
their initial bond due to the an irreversible mineralogical changes made up on washing

37
The specific gravity determined at an oven-dried condition resulted in a very small value
leading to an erratic out put on the hydrometer results leading to a distinct gradation
chart. Otherwise, the soil under investigation shows little difference on their gradation
chart up on temperature variations. Oven drying the sample gave ambiguous results for
the soil under investigation and should not be exercised for such soils.

II) Effect of sample location

Residual soils formed at the same profile and locations show similar characteristics due
to their mode of weathering, deposition and soil forming factors to which they are
exposed. Residual soils vary from a highly weathered soil to a strong un weathered rock
at the bottom. From the test results one can see that, the soil has distinct characteristics
where sampled at different conditions. TP9 samples are coarse sized particles and have
different index properties compared to the other samples, where as the remaining soils of
investigation show a common fine-sized particles.

The soil under investigation also shows different characteristics along its depth. This is
the fact that residual soils vary from highly weathered topsoil to unweathered (Intact
rock) which is stiff at the bottom. The soil under investigation showed a change of fine-
grained soil at the top and stiff to gravel sized soils when sampled along its profile. One
can see from Figs below for TP1 (TP1-1 and TP1-2) and TP3 (TP3-1 and TP3-2) that the
grain size changes completely from fine grained to gravel. Generally, one can see from
the test results and the site conditions of Asossa Town that the soil shows change of the
fine fraction from the topsoil to an increased coarse particle at a depth. From the actual
situation and the laboratory results, the soil of Asossa shows a decreased in fine
proportion and an increase in coarse sized particles in going down along the profile. It is
also observed that the soil changes to a very stiff (impossible to sample) gravel sized
particle over 2.5m. Soil samples with similar gradation curves have high probability of
having the same engineering properties. The result for each of the soil under investigation
is shown in Table4-5.

38
Table 4-5. Percentage amount of the gradation sizes for different conditions and profiles
Natural
moisture Percentage amount of particle size
Serial content Test
No. Designation (%) condition Gravel Sand Silt Clay
OD 0 10 25 65
1 TP1-1 23 AD 0 10 44 46
AR 0 5 50 45
OD 32 61.5 3.0 3.5
2 TP1-2 24 AD 30 60.2 3.1 6.7
AR 28 60 3.2 8.8
OD 0 8 32 60
3 TP2-1 22 AD 0 8 52 40
AR 0 8 52 40
OD 0 12.5 42.5 45
4 TP2-2 23 AD 0 12.5 40 47.5
AR 0 12.5 40 47.5
OD 0 10 45 40
5 TP3-1 21 AD 0 5 45 50
AR 0 10 45 40
OD 27 60.5 8.5 4.0
6 TP3-2 23 AD 31 58 8.5 2.5
AR 30 58 8.5 3.5
OD 0 10 52 38
7 TP4-1 24 AD 0 10 50 40
AR 0 5 45.5 49.5
OD 0 5 65 30
8 TP4-2 22 AD 0 10 45 45
AR 0 15 60 25
OD 0 6 44 50
9 TP5-1 27 AD 0 10 35 55
AR 0 6 50.5 43.5
OD 0 12.5 47.5 40
10 TP5-2 26 AD 0 12.5 32.5 45
AR 0 12.5 47.5 40
OD 0 15 50 35
11 TP6-1 22 AD 0 5 60 35
AR 0 15 60 25
OD 0 10 55 35
12 TP6-2 25 AD 0 10 40 50
AR 0 10 55 35
OD 0 9 35.2 35
13 TP7-1 23 AD 0 10 32.5 50
AR 0 15 50 35

39
 OD 0 10 35 35
14 TP7-2 AD 0 10 40 50
25 AR 0 10 55 35
OD 0 10 40 50
15 TP7-3 27 AD 0 10 55 35
AR 0 10 55 35
OD 0 5 60 30
16 TP8-1 21 AD 0 5 40 55
AR 0 8 37 45
OD 0 10 45 45
17 TP8-2 25 AD 0 10 55 35
AR 0 6 59 35
OD 18 69.5 10.5 2.0
18 TP9-1 27 AD 18.7 68.2 9.6 3.5
AR 18 67 7.6 4
OD 26 54.6 11.6 7.8
19 TP9-2 26 AD 14 74 7 5.0
AR 24 24 8 4
OD 20.8 63.9 12.8 2.5
20 TP9-3 28 AD 20.4 63.6 12.6 3.4
AR 20.5 63.4 12.4 3.7

_______________________________________________________________________
OD = oven-dried at temperature of 105degrees
AD = air-dried condition
AR = as received condition

III) Range of gradation curves

The range of gradation curves for Asossa soil is relatively wide. This is due to the fact
that for residual soils the sequence of materials ranging from a true soil to soft rock is
obtained depending on the degree of weathering. The range of grain size distribution
curves for the soil samples under investigation for this work is as shown in Fig4-4.

40
Fig 4-3 The hydrometer cylinder after the 24hour suspension

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP 1-2

94
Percentage passing

82
70 AR
58
47 AD
35 OD
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig 4-4a Grain size distribution curve under different pretreatment temperatures

41
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
TP 3-2

Percentage passing 94
82
70 AR
58
AD
47
35 OD
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig 4-4b Grain size distribution for specimen TP3 at different conditions

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP9- 1

94
Percentage passing

82
70
58 AR
47 OD
35
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-4c Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-1 at different conditions

42
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
TP9- 2

94
82
Percentage passing

70
OD
58 AD
47 AR
35
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-4d Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-2 at different conditions

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP9- 3

94
Percentage passing

82
70
58 OD
47 AR
35
23
12
0
100.00 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
0
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-4e Grain size distribution for specimen TP9-3 at different conditions

43
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
As recived

Percentage passing 94
82
70 TP9-1
58
47 TP9-2
35 TP9-3
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-5 grain size distribution for specimen TP9 at different depths

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Air-Dried
Percentage passing

100
90 TP3-1
80 TP3-2
70
60 TP1-1
50 TP2-1
40
30 TP6-1
20 TP8-1
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-6 The graph showing the range of grain size distribution curve of Asossa soil

44
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
Range for Asossa soil
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
60 Upper limit
50
40 Lower limit
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-7 The upper and lower bounds for gradation analysis

45
4.2.1.2 Atterberg Limits

Atterberg Limits are arbitrary boundaries through which a soil passes from liquid, to
plastic, semi solid and solid states. These boundaries are defined by moisture contents.
They are used to determine the consistency of fine-grained soils. Lateritic soils give large
range of results and it was also indicated that laterites result in the disaggregation of the
particles up on manipulations as stated in section 2.3.1.2 (Blight, 1997)

4.2.1.2.1 Test procedures

Atterberg Limits were determined for air-dried and oven dried samples (AD and OD as
per the ASTM D4318-00). The air-dried samples were prepared by spreading the
specimen in the air for about 3-4 days. The temperature was about 27oc. However, the
OD samples were prepared by putting the sample in an oven at a temperature of 105oc.
The wet preparation is also applied for the as received (AR) samples. The portions of the
samples passing the No. 40(0.425mm) sieve were used for the preparation of the sample
for this purpose.

4.2.1.2.2 Test results and discussions

In order to investigate the effect of temperature on the Atterberg Llimits, the samples
were oven dried (OD), air-dried (AD) and treated as received (AR). The test results are
shown in Table 4-6. From the test results one can see that the different treatments affect
the Atterberg Limits of these particular soils. The test results show great difference for
almost all soils. The Liquid Limit and the Plastic Limit decrease with temperature
increment and the increment is the large value, normally 5 to 6 percent would be the
acceptable range (Lyon, 1971). Hence the treatment conditions (temprature treatments)
strongly affect the Atterberg values for Asossa soil.

Unsoaking is drying the soil at oven of 105oc and conducting the Atterberg Limit with
out keeping the sample for moisture equilibration for 24-hours. Hence the treatment
conditions (temperature treatments) strongly affect the Atterberg Limit values for Asossa
soil and it is shown on Table4-6 below that the PI values do not vary significantly. As it

46
is seen on the Table4-6, the soil of Asossa is moist (Field moisture content of 13% and
above) and oven drying had already removed the structural water off the soil, hence the
as received property could not be reversed on soaking or unsoaking. More over this
shows that the clay fraction is not getting enough moisture when taken from oven and
mixed with water to determine the Atterberg values. Hence it is clear that one cannot use
oven temperature of 105oC for all the cases of the Atterberg Limit tests. For this thesis
work, the air-dried sample and a 24hrs soaked samples were taken as the appropriate
samples (Lyon, 1971).

Table 4-6 Atterberg Limit values at different testing conditions

Liquid Plastic Plasticity
Serial Sampling NMC Test Limit Limit Index
No. Designation Depth (m) (%) condition (%) (%) (%)
Unsoaked 54 18 36
1 Oven-dried 55 19 34
Air dried 57 22 35
TP1-1 0.5-1 23 As received 58 24 34
Unsoaked 49 19 30
2 Oven-dried 50 16 34
Air dried 54 23 31
TP1-2 2 24 As received 54 20 34
Unsoaked 53 18 35
3 Oven-dried 54 18 36
Air dried 57 22 35
TP2-1 0.5-1 22 As received 57 20 37
Unsoaked 56 22 34
4 Oven-dried 56 22 34
Air dried 58 26 32
TP2-2 2 23 As received 63 26 37
Unsoaked 53 22 31
5 Oven-dried 53 22 31
Air dried 55 24 31
TP3-1 0.5-1 21 As received 56 26 30
Unsoaked 41 19 22
6 Oven-dried 41 20 21
Air dried 48 20 28
TP3-2 2 23 As received 55 29 26
Unsoaked 49 17 31
7 Oven-dried 49 17 31
Air dried 57 27 30
TP4-1 0.5-1 24 As received 59 27 32
Unsoaked 52 19 31
8 Oven-dried 52 19 31
Air dried 52 20 32
TP4-2 2 22 As received 53 24 29

47
 Unsoaked 65 19 46
9 Oven-dried 66 19 47
Air dried 68 22 46
TP5-1 0.5-1 27 As received 68 20 48
Unsoaked 67 19 48
10 Oven-dried 56 15 41
Air dried 67 21 46
TP5-2 1.5-2 26 As received 67 19 48
Unsoaked 54 26 28
11 Oven-dried 54 26 28
Air dried 50 25 25
TP6-1 0.8-1 22 As received 58 27 31
Unsoaked 47 12 35
12 Oven-dried 47 12 35
Air dried 52 21 31
TP6-2 1.5-2 25 As received 55 20 35
Unsoaked 56 20 36
13 Oven-dried 57 21 36
Air dried
23 As received 58 24 34
TP7-1 0.5-1 58 25 38
Unsoaked 50 20 30
14 Oven-dried 50 20 30
Air dried 56 25 31
TP7-2 2 25 As received 52 25 27
Unsoaked 52 20 32
15 Oven-dried 52 20 32
Air dried 55 25 30
TP7-3 3 27 As received 55 25 27
16 Unsoaked 56 18 38
Oven-dried 57 18 39
Air dried 60 22 38
TP8-1 0.5-1 21 As received 60 19 41
Unsoaked 50 16 24
17 Oven-dried 52 16 36
Air dried 57 23 34
TP8-2 2 25 As received 57 20 37
Unsoaked 54 18 36
18 Oven-dried 54 18 36
Air dried 69 31 38
TP9-1 0.5-1 27 As received 69 31 38
Unsoaked 60 40 20
19 Oven-dried 61 24 37
Air dried 72 40 32
TP9-2 1.5-2 26 As received 72 40 32
Unsoaked 53 17 36
20 Oven-dried 56 19 37
Air dried 57 25 32
TP9-3 3 28 As received 71 38 33

• Unsoaked –Atterberg Limit conducted on an oven-dried sample at a

temprature of (105oC) with out keeping over night for moisture
equilibration.

48
a) Effect of Test Procedure on Atterberg Limits

The effect of mixing time on the Atterberg Limits ( disaggregation) was investigated by
conducting the Atterberg Limits at different test procedures as mentioned in section
2.3.1.2. The Atterberg Limit tests were conducted on the soil samples TP3-1, TP3-2,
TP4-1 TP4-2, TP6-1, TP7-1, TP7-2, TP9, according to the procedures mentioned in
(ASTM D4318-00, Lyon, 1971, Blight 1997). The Atterberg Limit tests were also carried
out on the as received soil sample (moist sample). The test results with their treatment
conditions are shown on Table 4-7.

As per the recommendations in the section 2.3.1.2, five moist (as received) soil samples
for each specimen were mixed with water to give the ranges of moisture contents. The
soil specimen were left overnight for moisture equilibration, the next day the Atterberg
Limit were conducted by mixing the specimens for not more than 5 minutes. The portion
of these specimens was continuously mixed for 25 minutes before conducting the
Atterberg Limits. The 5 minutes (LL 5min) and 25 minutes (LL 25min) Atterberg Limits
mixing times were conducted and the result summarized on Table 4-7. The difference of
‘>5%’ indicates that, there is a disaggregation of the clay sized particles up on
manipulation.

The test results indicate that, the soil of Asossa is susceptible to manipulations. The more
the manipulation (energy applied to the sample), the finer the resulting soil will be and
the larger the liquid limit and plastic limit and to a lesser extent the larger plasticity
index.
Hence the test for Asossa soils should be as per Fourie A.B (Blight, 1997), that is;
I). Limit the mixing times to not more than 5 minutes.
II). Make use of fresh soil for each moisture content point in Atterberg Limit tests.
The 5 minutes mixing time has almost the result as of the conventional test method. For
the purpose of investigating the effect, only Liquid limit were used and all samples are at
their natural condition (AR).

49
Table 4-7 Liquid Limit at different conditions and mixing times

Sample Liquid LL30-

Designation NMC (%) Pretreatment manipulation limit (%) LL5min
5 min 56
TP3-1 21 As Received 25 min 60 4
5 min 55
TP3-2 23 As Received 25 min 59 4
5 min 57
TP4-1 24 As Received 25 min 63 6
5 min 53
TP4-2 22 As Received 25 min 58 5
5 min 58
TP6-1 22 As Received 25 min 64 6
5 min 62
TP7-1 23 As Received 25 min 68 6
5 min 52
TP7-2 25 As Received 25 min 58 6
5 min 71
TP9-3 28 As Received 25 min 79 8

b) Effect of rewetting on Atterberg Limits

The effect of re-wetting was investigated by conducting and comparing Atterberg Limit
tests on soil samples prepared from its natural moisture content and that of the oven
drying at 105oc and rewetted. The results are shown in Table4-6 for all soils. From these
test results for the As Received and oven dry condition, one can see that there is a large
discrepancy between the two. Accordingly, this indicates that the laboratory results of the
Atterberg limit values for Asossa soil has to necessarily be simulated with the field
conditions with respect to wetting and drying prior to the test. The comparison between
AD and AR samples are also possible, however, they showed almost closer results.

50
Plasticity Chart
Basically, plasticity index, which is the numerical difference between liquid limit and the
plastic limit, represents the range of water content through which a soil is in plastic range.
The higher the numerical value of the plasticity index, the higher percentage of clay
fraction in the soil sample. This shows the plasticity index increases with the high
percentage of clay fraction present.

The type of the clay, however determined by considering the plasticity index in relation
to the liquid limit values. This could be obtained by a plasticity chart developed from
soils tested at different parts of the world (Budhu, 2000), (Zelalem, 2005). Clays, silts,
inorganic and organic soils lie in different regions on the plasticity chart. The line defined
as “A-line” is expressed by (Eq4-1). Is used to separate, inorganic clays of high or low
plasticity and organic clays and silts. The Graph showing the A-Line is shown in Fig4-8.
The results of soil under investigation on the plasticity chart is shown in Fig4-8. The soil
under investigation fall above the A-line, except the sample taken from TP9 (TP9-1, TP9-
2, TP9-3). A test result above the A-line shows red clays with Latosols having strong
montimorillonitic influence, which are inorganic. Almost all Soils of Asossa fall in this
region. The values below the A-line shows that there is a mineral content of Kaolinite,
Chlorite and Volcanic ash soils (Andosols) with strong Allophanic influence, accordingly
TP9 soils of Asossa were found to fall in this region. As stated in the section 2.2.2, the
predominant mineral content of laterite soils is Kaolinite.

PI = 0.73(LL-20) --------------------------------------------Eq.4-1

“U-Line” defined by equation 4-2 represents the upper limit of the correlation between
plastic index and liquid limit. It is true that results above this line indicates erroneously
execute hence repeating the test is usually recommended. For the soil under investigation,
the test results lie below the line defined by;

PI = 0.9(LL-8) ----------------------------------------------Eq.4-2

51
Note: The liquid limit and plastic limit values are in percent.

Plasticity Chart

A-Line
U-line
100 TP1-1
TP1-2
90 TP2-1
80 TP2-2
U-Line
TP3-1
70 TP3-2
Plasticity Index (%)

TP4-1
60 A- Line
TP4-2
50 Tp5-1
TP5-2
40
TP6-1
30 TP6-2
TP7-1
20 TP7-2
10 TP8-1
TP8-2
0 TP9-1
0 20 40 60 80 100 TP9-2
Liquid Limit (%) TP9-3
Fig4-8 Figure showing the locations of Asossa soil on plasticity chart

52
One Point Liquid limit Tests
One-point liquid limit tests can be used for tropical soils effectively. One-point liquid
limit method has been described and investigated by a number of authors, and various
formulas have been proposed. The most widely used one was developed by U.S
waterway experiment station (1949) and was given in the formula (Lyon, 1971);

LL = W (N/25)tanβ ------------------------------------------------Eq.4/3

Where: LL = Liquid limit

W= moisture content
N = No.ofblows for Liquid limit
β = 0.12 (ASTM, Waterway Experiment for Tropical soils, Lyon, 1971)

One can use the value of tanβ equal to zero when the number of blows is between 20 and
30 with in the accuracy. But, ASTM recommends β value of 0.12 is adequate for
determining the one-point liquid limit for lateritic and temperate soils. The results were
calculated and shown in Table 4-8.

From the test results, one can judge that the one-point Liquid Limit has almost close
results with the Cassagrande results and could be used for tropical soils. Moreover, for
the 25 number of blows the calculated result shows almost reasonably close values as the
test. Generally, this method could be used to determine the Liquid Limit values.

Table 4-8 Liquid limit value comparisons between one-point and conventional methods
Test No. Of Moisture Calculated. LL Tested LL
Serial No. Designation
condition blows Content (%) (%) (%)
32 39 41
Air-dried 27 57 63 54
24 57 63
1 TP 1-2
31 58 64
Oven-dried 27 57 63 50
24 85 98
30 52 53
Air-dried 27 45 46 48
2 TP 3-2 23 50 49
29 31 31

53
 Oven-dried 26 37 38 41
22 50 49
31 37 38
Air-dried 26 50 50 52
22 47 46
3 TP 4-2 29 37 37
Oven-dried 26 53 53 52
22 60 59
29 62 63
Air-dried 26 55 55 50
23 62 61
4 TP 6-1 31 51 52
Oven-dried 26 55 55 54
22 56 55
30 36 37
Air-dried 27 48 48 69
23 44 43
5 TP9- 1 28 53 54
Oven-dried 24 64 64 54
20 72 70
31 40 41
Air-dried 26 56 56 72
24 72 71
6 TP9-2 30 43 44
Oven-dried 27 53 57 61
23 74 73

4.2.1.2.3 Activity (Colloidal Activity)

Skempton’s colloidal activity is determined as the ratio of the plasticity index of the clay
content in the fines. It is generally low for lateritic soils. Because the predominant clay
minerals in lateritic soils are of Kaolinite group. These soils are known to be inactive
(activity less than 1.25). The low activity of most lateritic soils is due to the mode of
weathering that involves the coating of soil particles with sesquioxides, resulting in the
suppression of the surface activity of the clay particles (Lyon, 1971). Skempton observed
that, for a given soil, the plasticity index is directly proportional to the percent of clay-
size fraction (i.e., percent by weight finer than 0.002mm in size). Activity designated by
‘Ac’ is given by;

Ac = PI / C ------------------------------------------------------Eq 4-4

54
 Where C is percent of clay-sized fraction by weight. Activity has been used for
determining the swelling potential of clays. The colloidal activity values for the soils
under investigation are calculated and summarized in Table 4-9. The soil classification
according to Activity is shown on Table 4-10.

Table4-9 Degree of Colloidal activity

Activity Number, Ac Soil Type
<0.75 Inactive
0.75 –1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active

As mentioned by Morin W.J. and Todor P.C. (Lyon, 1997), residual soils have low
activity number. This is the due to the mode of weathering involving the coating of the
soil particles with the sesquioxides. From Table 4-10, one can see that the soil under
investigation has activity number <1.25(Normal), which agrees with the Morin’s
investigation of lateritic soils.

Table 4-10 Skemptons colloidal activity values

Sample Clay Plasticity

Serial No. Depth (m) Designation fraction (%) Index (%) AC (%)
1 0.5-1 TP1-1 46 35 0.76
2 0.5-1 TP2-1 40 35 0.88
3 2 TP2-2 47.5 32 0.67
4 0.5-1 TP3-1 50 31 0.62
5 0.5-1 TP5-1 55 46 0.84
6 2 TP5-2 45 46 1.02
7 1 TP7-1 50 34 0.68
8 1.5-2 TP7-2 50 31 0.62

55
4.2.1.3 Free Swell

This test gives a fair approximation of the degree of expansiveness of a soil samples. It is
done by pouring very slowly 10 cubic centimeter of dry soil passing No. 40 (0.42mm)
sieve in to a 100 cubic centimeter graduated measuring cylinder. It is let to stay for
approximately twenty-four hours until all the soils settle completely to the bottom of the
cylinder. Free swell is given by;

Vf − Vi
Free Swell (%) = ------------------------------------------------Eq 4-5
Vi
Where Vf = final volume
Vi = initial volume

The laboratory free swell test results were done on an air-dried and oven dried (105oc )
samples and is shown in Table 4-11. Accordingly one can see from the test that the free
swell values for Asossa soils range from 20% to 55%. Those soils with free swell of less
than 50% are considered to have low degree of expansion, Alemayeu .T and Mesfin. L,
(1999). Accordingly, the soil of Asossa is non-expansive soil (low expansion).

Table 4-11 Free Swell test results at different Conditions

Liquid Plastic Plasticty Free

Serial Designati NMC Test Limit Limit Index swell
No. on (%) condition (%) (%) (%) (%)

1
Oven-dried 55 19 34 33
TP1-1 23 Air dried 57 22 35 25

2
Oven-dried 50 16 34 25
TP1-2 24 Air dried 54 23 31 22

3
Oven-dried 54 18 36 32
TP2-1 22 Air dried 57 22 35 25

4
Oven-dried 56 22 34 30
TP2-2 23 Air dried 58 26 32 20

56
5
Oven-dried 53 22 31 30
TP3-1 21 Air dried 55 24 31 40

6
Oven-dried 41 20 21 25
TP3-2 23 Air dried 48 20 28 30

7
Oven-dried 49 17 31 30
TP4-1 24 Air dried 57 27 30 40

8
Oven-dried 52 19 31 35
TP4-2 22 Air dried 52 20 32 41

9
27 Oven dried 66 19 47 45
TP5-1 Air dried 68 22 46 27

10
Oven-dried 56 15 41 40
TP5-2 26 Air dried 67 21 46 35

11
Oven-dried 54 26 28 30
TP6-1 22 Air dried 50 25 25 25

12
Oven-dried 47 12 35 29
TP6-2 25 Air dried 52 21 31 22

13
23 Oven-dried 57 21 36 40
TP7-1 Air dried 58 24 34 50

14
Oven-dried 50 20 30 32
TP7-2 25 Air dried 56 25 31 55

15
Oven-dried 52 20 32 34
TP7-3 27 Air dried 55 25 30 25
16
Oven-dried 57 18 39 29
TP8-1 21 Air dried 60 22 38 25

17
Oven-dried 52 16 36 22
TP8-2 25 Air dried 57 23 34 25

57
 18
Oven-dried 54 18 36 19
TP9-1 27 Air dried 69 31 38 21

19
Oven-dried 61 24 37 15
TP9-2 26 Air dried 72 40 32 11

20
Oven-dried 56 19 37 30
Tp9-3 28 Air dried 57 25 32 25

4.2.1.4 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity, Gs, is used to calculate parameters such as clay fraction, void ratio
and porosity. In residual soils the specific gravity may be unusually high or unusually
low. It is thus essential that the specific gravity be determined in the laboratory using an
accepted standard test procedure.. The soil has to be in its natural moisture content. Pre-
test drying of the sample should be avoided as it tends to reduce the measured specific
gravity as compared to one at the natural moisture content (Blight, 1997).

The soil samples under investigation were determined using the ASTM procedure,
designation D854-58. Moreover, the tests were conducted at different test temperatures
(as received, air-dried and oven-dried) to see the effect of pre-drying the test results is
shown in Table 4-12. . From the test results, one can see that the as received and the air-
dried results are almost close even though it slightly reduces with air-drying. The specific
gravity of Asossa soil reduces strongly with oven drying. Generally, the specific gravity
of a soil under investigation reduces with laboratory test temperature increment. The
range of the test results are from 2.19 to 2.94 and this is as stated above that the result
could be high or low. The higher value is due to the fact that there is high iron content.

Table 4-12 Values of Specific Gravity at different test conditions

58
Seri Sampli NM Test
al Designati ng C condition Specific gravity
No. on Depth (%)
(m)
As received 2.55
1 TP1-1 0.5-1 23 Air dried 2.49
Oven-dried 2.27
As received 2.26
2 TP1-2 2 24 Air dried 2.59
Oven-dried 2.43
As received 2.56
TP2-1 0.5-1 Air dried 2.48
3 22
Oven-dried 2.3

As received 2.66
4 TP2-2 2 23 Air dried 2.5
Oven-dried 2.4
As received 2.67
5 TP3-1 0.5-1 21 Air dried 2.55
Oven-dried 2.45

As received 2.63
6 TP3-2 2 23 Air dried 2.63
Oven-dried 2.55

As received 2.63
24 Air dried 2.4
TP4-1 0.5-1 Oven-dried 2.18
7
As received 2.57
22 Air dried 2.45
Oven-dried 2.19
8 TP4-2 2

As received 2.48
Air dried 2.43
Oven-dried 2.22
9 TP5-1 0.5-1 27

As received 2.59
Air dried 2.5
Oven-dried 2.37
10 TP5-2 1.5-2 26

As received
2.64
22 Air dried
TP6-1 0.8-1 2.46
Oven-dried
11 2.44

59
 As received 2.54
25 Air dried 2.5
TP6-2 1.5-2 Oven-dried 2.45
12
As received 2.55
Air dried 2.5
TP7-1 0.5-1 Oven-dried 2.46
13 23
As received 2.52
2 Air dried 2.45
14 TP7-2 25
Oven-dried 2.24

As received 2.54
15 27 Air dried 2.44
TP7-3 3 Oven-dried 2.36

As received
2.46
16 21 Air dried
TP8-1 0.5-1 2.33
Oven-dried
2.28
As received 2.51
TP8-2 2 Air dried 2.44
17 25
Oven-dried 2.33
As received 2.94
18 27 Air dried 2.62
TP9-1 0.5-1 Oven-dried 2.57

As received 2.65
Air dried 2.76
Oven-dried
19 TP9-2 1.5-2 26 2.21

As received 2.85
TP9-3 3 Air dried 2.48
20 28
Oven-dried 2.4

60
4.3 Classification of the Soils

Different Autors used different classification techniques to classify residual tropical

soils; Wesley L.D. and Irfan T.Y. (Blight, 1997) classify soils based on the mineralogical
composition alone, While D’Hoor (1964) classify residual soils based on soil forming
factors. As stated in (Lyon, 1971), the AASHTO classification system is convenient as
the bases for classifying residual soils. The soil in this work was classified according to
the AASHTO M-145.The soil used for the classification purpose was air-dried sample.
Moreover, the soil was classified according to the USCS method and the result is shown
in Table 4-13.

According to the AASHTO classification, all soils except TP1-2, TP3-2, and TP9 lie in
the group A-7-6, which is inorganic clay of high to medium plasticity clay according to
the USCS classification. TP9 soils are grouped under the A-2-7 as the AASHTO method,
silty sands according to the USCS classification method. Soil from TP1-2 is grouped
under A-2-7 of AASHTO that is, clayey sand according to the USCS classification.
Generally, the soil under investigation consists mainly inorganic clay of high to medium
plasticity up to the depth of 2m and with some fractions of silty or clayey sands.

61
Table 4-13 Soil classification according to the AASHTO and USCS.

Percentage passing AASHTO %age amount of particle

classification size USCS classification system
Serial LL PI Group
No. Designation (%) (%) 2 0.425 0.075 Group Index Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Inorganic clay of high
1 TP1-1 57 35 100 92 90.42 A-7-6 35 0 10 44 46 plasticity, CH
2 TP1-2 54 31 45.5 18.4 12.52 A-2-7 0 30 60.2 3.1 6.7 Clayey sands, SC
3 TP2-1 57 35 100 92 91.63 A-7-6 35 0 8 52 40 MH
4 TP2-2 58 32 100 90.5 88.2 A-7-6 32 0 12.5 40 47.5 CH
5 TP3-1 55 31 100 96 94.5 A-7-6 33 0 5 45 50 CH
6 CL, inorganic clay of low to
TP3-2 48 28 46.54 18.4 13.71 A-7-5 0 31 58 8.5 2.5 medium plasticity
7 TP4-1 57 30 100 94.4 93.04 A-7-6 32 0 10 50 40 MH
8 TP4-2 52 32 100 93 90.46 A-7-6 31 0 10 45 45 CH/MH
9 TP5-1 68 46 100 90.6 87.55 A-7-6 44 0 10 35 55 CH
10 TP5-2 67 46 100 89.5 87.4 A-7-6 44 0 12.5 32.5 45 CH
11 TP6-1 50 25 100 94.3 92.1 A-7-6 26 0 5 60 35 MH
12 TP6-2 52 31 100 92.3 90.7 A-7-6 30 0 10 40 50 CH
13 TP7-1 58 34 100 94 92.9 A-7-6 35 0 10 32.5 50 CH
14 TP7-2 56 31 100 93.5 92 A-7-6 32 0 10 40 50 CH
15 TP7-3 55 30 100 94 92.5 A-7-6 31 0 10 55 35 MH
16 TP8-1 60 38 100 95.2 94.2 A-7-6 40 0 5 40 55 CH
17 TP8-2 57 34 100 94.6 93.81 A-7-6 36 0 10 55 35 MH
18 TP9-1 69 38 85.42 20.95 14.10 A-2-7 0 18.7 68.2 9.6 3.5 SM, Silty sands
19 TP9-2 72 32 86.06 17.43 13.06 A-2-7 0 14 74 7 5 SM
20 TP9-3 57 32 79.6 25.99 18.44 A-2-7 0 20.4 63.6 12.6 3.4 SM

62
5. Comparison and Discussions of the Test Results

5.1 Comparison of the test results with laterites and lateritic soils of Africa and soils
of Nejo-Mandi

Laterites and lateritic soils of Africa were studied by Morin W.J. and Todor P.C. (Lyon,
1971). During the study, samples were collected from different parts of Africa such as
Ghana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda etc. the characteristics and mineralogical content of the
soils taken from Ethiopia was studied as Ferrisol (Zelalem , 2005).

Index property comparisons

For the soil under investigation, Index property tests, were studied and comparisons were
made with known lateritic and laterites of Africa. Based on the soil forming factors as
stated in section 2.1.4.2, lateritic soils are classified by D’Hoore as; Ferrugineous,
Ferrallitic or Ferrisols . Accordingly the results of the index properties, gradation of these
soils of Africa and the corresponding values for Asossa soils are shown in Table 5-1 (5-
1a, 5-1b, 5-1C, 5-1d)

Tables 5-1a to 5-1c show the average values of various tests done at different countries,
i.e., Liquid Limit, Plastic Index and Gradation for Ferruginous, Ferrallitic and Ferrisols
showing different properties. As indicated in section 2.1.4.2, and on the tables,
Ferruginous soils are formed at a pronounced dry seasons, have hard and durable nature
and show lower plasticity as compared to the two. On the other hand, as stated in the
same section, Ferrallitic and Ferrisols show similar and higher plasticity values compared
to Ferruginous due to their formation at wet seasons. The data indicate that there is a
considerable similarity in the physical properties of these two soils. However, it is clear
that the mineralogical composition differs (Lyon, 1971) and the mineralogical
compositions are shown in Table 5-2.

63
The soil of Asossa when compared with the previous tested laterite and lateritic soils of
Africa show considerable similarities with the Ferrallitic and Ferrisols soils: More
similarity is observed with respect to the index tests shown in Tables 5-1b to5-1c.
Moreover, the test result shows that the value of plasticity is high as these soils due to the
mode of formation, i.e., they are formed at relatively wet climatic conditions. Average
soil test results for the three sub-groups of African laterite and Lateritic soils and Nejo-
Mandi soils along with the test results of Asossa soil is shown in Table 5-3 (Zelalem,
2005).

Generally, the soil of Asossa could be classified as Ferrisol, with almost close
characteristics with Cameron, Mali, Uganda and Ghana soils having high plasticity and to
a lesser extent, with Ferrallitic soils found in Kenya and Tanzania. However, Asossa soil
has a large value of clay fraction.

Plasticity Chart comparisons

The location of common clays and percentage Kaolinite soils on the Casagrande’s
plasticity charts, and the plasticity charts as investigated for Asossa soils are shown in
Fig5-a to 5-d. Fig5-a show the plot of Casagrande’s plasticity chart for soils containing
different amount of Kaolinite minerals. The results fall below the A-Line with respective
increase along the plasticity chart. The corresponding Montimorillonite, Illites,
Kaolinites, Halloysites and Chlorites are also shown in Fig5-b, showing Chlorites,
Halloysites and Kaolinites falling below the A-line.

The soil under investigation as stated in the section 4.2.1.2.2, fall above the region A-line,
except the sample taken from TP9 (TP9-1, TP9-2, TP9-3). Test results above the A-line
show red clays with Latosols behavior and could have strong montimorillonitic influence,
which are inorganic. Almost all soils of Asossa fall in this region. The values below the
A-line shows that there is a mineral content of Kaolinite, chlorite and volcanic ash soils
(Andosols) with strong Allophanic influence. Accordingly TP9 soils of Asossa were

64
found to fall in this region. As stated in the section 2.2.2, the predominant mineral
content of laterite soils is kaolinite.

65
Table 5-1aTypical Soil Test Results for Ferruginous soils
Liquid Plastic Plasticity
limit limit index 25 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.075
COUNTRY (%) (%) (%) AASHO GI mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
Ghana 26 15 11 A-2-6 0 45 20
Senegal 39 20 19 A-2-7 0 95 91 68 46 33 27 20
Upper Volta 38 14 24 A-2-6 1 100 97 80 66 51 38 25
Niger 21 11 10 A-2-4 0 97 89 73 64 55 40 25
Tanzania 34 19 15 A-2-6 6 100 100 100 100 100 93 61
Kenya 45 31 14 A-2-7 0 100 100 94 88 52 40 28
Uganda 38 17 22 A-2-6 2 100 100 96 83 61 51 34
Sudan 21 12 9 A-2-4 0 100 100 100 100 98 57 27
Gambia 36 16 20 A-2-6 0 98 77 53 42 34 28 22

Table 5-1bTypical Soil Test Results for Ferrallitic soils

Liquid Plastic Plasticity
limit limit index 25 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.075
COUNTRY (%) (%) (%) AASHO GI mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
Ghana 38 18 20 A-6 6 100 100 100 95 81 67 47
Liberia 56 29 27 A-2-7 2 100 95 72 72 41 36 27
Gabon 35 18 17 A-2-4 0
SerraLeone 55 31 24 A-2-6 1 100 98 90 68 37 29 27
Burundi 31 16 16 A-6 100 100 92 84 76 74 70
Dahomey 45 21 24 A-2-7 4 100 100 99 85 72 55 39
Ivory Cost 62 31 31 A-7-6 22 100 100 100 100 99 88 69
Mali 35 21 14 A-6 3 100 100 89 67 55 51 40
Uganda 39 19 20 A-6 2 100 100 91 82 73 53 38

67
Table 5-1cTypical Soil Test Results for Ferrisol soils
Liquid Plastic Plasticity
limit limit index 25 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.075
COUNTRY (%) (%) (%) AASHO GI mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
Ghana 53 34 19 A-7-5 3 50 37
Niger 28 16 12 A-2-6 0 100 100 98 82 68 39 26
Ivory Cost 48 24 24 A-7-6 18 100 99 83 65 60 50 40
Mali 55 31 24 A-7-5 3 100 100 89 61 51 43 38
Uganda 46 21 25 A-2-7 0 100 100 91 56 31 24 20
Kenya A-7-5 27 100 100 100 100 99 98 91
Cameron 65 37 27 A-7-5 19 100 100 100 98 97 88 66
Ethiopia 68 33 35 A-7-5 19 100 100 98 84 63 62 58
Ghana 57 25 32 A-7-6 12 100 100 65 50

Table 5-1d Soil Test results for Nejo-Mandi

Liquid Plastic Plasticity
COUNTRY limit limit index 25 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.075
(%) (%) (%) AASHO GI mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
58 37 21 A-2-7 0 92 82 61 45 31 25 20
Nejo-Mandi 57 37 20 A-7-5 17.5 100 87.5 78

68
Table 5-1e Typical Soil Test Results for Asossa soils
Liquid Plastic Plasticity
limit limit index 25 19 9.5 4.75 2 0.425 0.075
Designation (%) (%) (%) AASHO GI mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
90.42
TP1-1 57 22 35 A-7-6 35 100 100 100 100 100 92
TP1-2 54 23 31 A-2-7 0 100 100 85.34 67.8 45.5 18.4 12.52
TP2-1 57 22 35 A-7-6 35 100 100 100 100 100 92 91.638
TP2-2 58 26 32 A-7-6 32 100 100 100 100 100 90.5 88.2
TP3-1 55 24 31 A-7-6 33 100 100 100 100 100 96 94.5

TP3-2 48 20 28 A-7-5 0 100 100 96.4 73.13 46.54 18.4 13.71

TP4-1 57 27 30 A-7-6 32 100 100 100 100 100 94.4 93.0366
TP4-2 52 20 32 A-7-6 31 100 100 100 100 100 93 90.458
TP5-1 68 22 46 A-7-6 44 100 100 100 100 100 90.6 87.550
TP5-2 67 21 46 A-7-6 44 100 100 100 100 100 89.5 87.4
TP6-1 50 25 25 A-7-6 26 100 100 100 100 100 94.3 92.1
TP6-2 52 21 31 A-7-6 30 100 100 100 100 100 92.3 90.7
TP7-1 58 24 34 A-7-6 35 100 100 100 100 100 94 92.9
TP7-2 56 25 31 A-7-6 32 100 100 100 100 100 93.5 92
TP7-3 55 25 30 A-7-6 31 100 100 100 100 100 94 92.5
TP8-1 60 22 38 A-7-6 40 100 100 100 100 100 95.2 94.19
TP8-2 57 23 34 A-7-6 36 100 100 100 100 100 94.6 93.81
TP9-1 69 31 38 A-2-7 0 100 100 100 100 85.42 20.95 14.10
TP9-2 72 40 32 A-2-7 0 100 100 100 100 86.06 17.43 13.06
TP9-3 57 25 32 A-2-7 0 100 100 100 100 79.6 25.99 18.44

69
Table 5-2 Dominant mineralogical content for Laterite sub-group (Lyon, 1971)
Ferruginous Ferralitic Ferrisol
Hematite Gibbsite Kaolinite
Goethite Goethite Goethite
Kaolinite Kaolinite Hematite
Gibbsite

Table 5-3 Average soil property comparisons (Lyon, 1997) and (Zelalem, 2005)
Ferruginous Ferralitic Ferrisols

Test Other Other Other Nejo-

Executed Ghana countries Ghana countries Ghana countries Mendi Asossa
Passing
sieve size
(%)
25 99 99 99 99 95 99 94.6 100
19 98 96 96 97 94 99 88.3 100
9.5 93 89 86 90 86 92 73.3 99
4.75 75 76 70 80 73 74 62.2 94.6
2 51 65 54 70 52 61 51.6 89
0.425 46 51 46 54 40 51 45.0 74.7
0.075 30 32 34 40 37 44 38.3 72
0.002 13 16 19 26 25 24 9.2 21

`LL 31 33 42 47 46 55 59 59
PL 18 12 24 24 23 29 38 25
PI 14 15 19 23 23 27 22 34
FS - - - - - - - 30

70
Fig 5-a Kaolinite with various percentages of silts and admixtures plotted on
Casagrande’s chart (Zelalem, 2005)

Fig 5-b Location of common clay minerals on Casagrande’s plasticity chart (Zelalem,
2005)

71
Fig 5-c Plasticity chart of Nejo-Mandii Soils (Zelalem, 2005)

72
 Plasticity Chart

A-Line
U-line
100 TP1-1
TP1-2
90 TP2-1
80 TP2-2
TP3-1
70 U - Line TP3-2
Plasticity Index (%)

TP4-1
60
TP4-2
50 A-Line Tp5-1
TP5-2
40
TP6-1
30 TP6-2
TP7-1
20 TP7-2
10 TP8-1
TP8-2
0 TP9-1
0 20 40 60 80 100 TP9-2
Liquid Limit (%) TP9-3

Fig 5-d Plasticity Chart for Asossa soils

73
5.2 Discussions

The soil samples were collected from southwest Ethiopia, Asossa Town. The area had the
maximum annual rainfall of 1200mm occurring during June to September and
o
temperature varying between 15 C to 35 oC, which is warm. Hence, one can classify the
climatic condition of Asossa to be Tropical warm humid with seasonal variations
occurring. Asossa has a flat terrain with a geological formation of basalt. These
conditions are the most favorable condition for the formation of lateritic soils except the
flat terrain favors Black laterite formation. The test results added with the Geochemical
tests done for Nejo-Mandi soils by (Zelalem, 2005) show that the soil of Asossa could be
classified as laterite soil
.
Detailed investigations were done to determine the existence of ‘Structural Water’ that
could be driven off the sample during oven drying the sample at 105oc The difference in
the natural moisture content determined at the oven of 105oc and the air-dried sample
showed that there is structural water, i.e., the difference is greater than 4%. Hence one
should not use the oven temperature of 105oc, instead air-drying or equivalently oven-
dried at 50 oC and relative humidity (RH) of 30% could be used.

The disaggregating effect of the soil particles during manipulation was also investigated
by taking the liquid limit for the soil at different mixing times for the as received sample,
5 minutes and 25minutes. The difference of >5%implies that the manipulation has a
disaggregation effect on the soil sample. The test result showed that the soil has
concretions, which are sensitive to test manipulation. This is to mean that applying too
much energy to the sample destroys the structure of the soil and the resulting soil has
different index properties from the soil tested at a minimum mixing time. Hence one has
to conduct Atterberg Limit tests and compaction tests with a fresh sample for each point
on the curve with a minimized mixing time of 5 minutes.

Investigations was carried to see the effect of drying and wetting on Atterberg Limits of
soils prepared from natural moisture content with those of oven dried soil rewetted to the
point of test. The results are shown on Table 4-6 for all soils. From these test results for

74
the as received and oven dry condition, one can see that there is a large discrepancy
between the two. Accordingly, this indicates that the laboratory results of the Atterberg
Limit values for Asossa soil has to necessarily be simulated with the field conditions with
respect to wetting and drying prier to the test.

From the soil classification, almost all soils are clay-sized particles with the highest
probability of changing to a coarse graded fraction over 2m depths. All the soils except
the sample TP9 lie above the A-line which is characterized by a red inorganic clay and
having Montimorillonitic influence according to the pervious tests done on other lateritic
soils of Africa. This is in fact manifested in the behavior of the soil under investigation.
However, it is clear that, Classification of residual tropical soil using the USCS method
alone does not tell us exactly the mineralogical composition, hence, mineralogical tests or
field situations have to simulate with this method of classifying (Blight, 1997).

Lateritic soils are known to be inactive or normal with an activity number of <1.25, this is
the fact that the cementing agent (Sesquioxide) of the lateritic soil overcomes the activity
effect of the soil resulting in a strong bondage. For the soil under investigation, the
activity test results for all fine-grained soils show the value of less than 1.25, which is the
normal fact of lateritic soils. Hence, one can see that the soil of Asossa is inactive or
normal. This could also be shown by the free swell, that is, the free swell test result
shows that the soil under investigation has relatively low degree of expansion (<50%)

The in-situ Specific Gravity of the soil under investigation is between 2.46 to 2.94, with
the maximum value higher than the specific gravity of temperate soils, 2.65-2.70. The
higher value of specific gravity is the result of existence of iron oxide. The Specific
Gravity of coarse-grained soil is greater than that of fine-grained soil due to the high
concentration of iron oxide in the gravel fraction. This is also true that TP9 samples got
higher Specific Gravity, as they were the coarser of the samples collected.

75
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion

Based on the investigations made on the soils of Asossa Town, the following conclusions
are drown:

1. Based on the soil forming factors, actual field condition and the similarity observed
between Nejo-Mandi areas, the soil of Asossa is laterite having a high concentration
of iron and Aluminium oxides (sesquioxide).

2. The test results showed that, Asossa soil is sensitive to the temperature applied prior
to testing. The soil also contains considerable structural water that could be driven off
irreversibly when using oven drying of 105oc (Hydrated tropical soil). Hence air-
drying or oven drying of 50oc with relative humidity (RH) of 30% should be used for
every test during sample preparation.

3. It is observed that Asossa soil is sensitive to test procedures and the energy applied to
the soil during laboratory testing, hence disaggregation results in the test value
different from the in-situ condition. Accordingly, the minimum mixing time, usually
of 5minutes and fresh soil has to be used for each point on the Atterberg Limit.

4. The Activity test also showed that, the soil under investigation has activity number of
less than 1.25 and analogously the free swell tests give an average free swell of less
than 50%(Low Swell Potential). Therefore, Asossa soil is inactive as compared to the
swelling characteristic of fine grained soil.

5. From the gradation charts and the soil classifications made, Asossa soil is a fine-
grained soil with characteristics some how similar to Ferrisol soils. From the mode of
formation and comparisons of gradation charts, Asossa soil could be grouped as
hydrated forms of Ferrisol soil. According to the (Anthony Young, 1976)
classification of laterites, the soil of Asossa could be classified as Soft Laterite.

76
6. The test result showed that Asossa soil lies above the A-line for all soils except the
samples TP9.This is the due to the fact that, the clay fractions are higher after the
manipulation of the soil in the laboratory due to the sensitivity of the soil.

77
6.2 Recommendations

1. In this study Geochemical test results are correlated with the soil forming factors and
the seasonal variations existing with that of Najo-Mandi area and the actual field
situations and laboratory investigation, however, one has to conduct Geochemical
tests exclusively for Asossa soil in order to determine the extent of laterization.

2. The samples were collected from 675km from the laboratory. Moreover, the sample
was found sensitive to the energy applied to it. Hence, fresh soil representing the
actual field condition has to be further investigated for Asossa soil in order to
determine the actual soil behaviors.

3. The maximum sampling depths of the soil under investigations were 3m for two soils
and at 2m for the rest samples. Detailed investigations have to be made along more
samples of profiles.

78
REFERENCES:

1. AASHTO, 2004, Standard specification for Testing materials and Methods of

sampling and Testing.

2. Zelalem., 2005, Basic Engineering Properties of Lateritec Soils found in Nejo-

Mandi Road Construction, a Thesis presented to a School of Graduate Studies

3. Alemauew, T., and Mesfin, L.(1999), Soil Mechanics. Faculty of technology

Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa.

4. ASCE, 1985, Geotechnical Engineering Division.

Journal Vol. 111 Nos. 1-6.

5. ASTM, 2004, Special Procedures for Testing Soil and Rock for Civil
Engineering Purpose
.
6. Blight, G.E., (1997), Mechanics of Residual soils, A.A Balkema, the
Netherlands

7. Bowles, J.E., (1978), Engineering Properties of Soils and their Measurement.

McGraw Hill Book Company.

8. British Standards, 1990, Method of testing for Soils for Civil Engineering
purpose.

9. Budhu, M., 2000, Soil mechanics and foundation. John Wily and Sons, U.S
America.

10. ERA Design Manual, 2001. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

11. International Focus on Rural Roads Engineering (IFG), 2004, Design,

construction and Performance. Laterite.
Http/www.ifgworld.org/index.asp

12. K.R ARORA, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

13. Lambe, T.W., 1951, Soil testing for Engineers. John Wily and Sons, London.

14. LYON ASSOCIATIONS, INC. 1971, LATERITE AND LATERITIC SOILS

AND OTHER PROBLEM SOILS OF AFRICA. Kumasi, Ghana.

15. LYON ASSOCIATIONS, INC,1971, USAGE MANUAL for Sampling and

testing LATERITE AND LATERITIC SOILS and other Problem Soils of
AFRICA.BUILDING AND ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE, Kumasi, Ghana.

79
16. Rites and UNICONE, 2002, Designing Review study Report for Soils and
materials, Ethiopia.

17. Samuel, T., 1989, Investigation in to some of the Engineering Properties of

Addis Ababa Red Clay soils, a Thesis presented to school of Graduate
studies, Addis Ababa University

18. TCDE, 2000, Ethiopian Transport and Construction Design manual

19. The Occurrence, Distribution, Classification and Management of laterite and

lateritic soils.
http/www.bondy.ird.fr/pleins_texts/chaiers/ptp/1423.PDF

80
 Appendix – A

Comparison of AASHTO versus ASTM standards

The Table for the Appendix shows the summary of similarity between ASTM and
AASHTO standards. Except for the method of preparations for the Atterberg limits, all
the tests were conducted using the ASTM standards. Writing AASHTO equivalent under
remark column differentiates equivalent test procedures for both methods.

81
Table A-1. ASTM versus AASHTO standards
No ASTM Test description AASHTO Remarks
Designation Designation
1 D421-85 Dry preparation of disturbed sample T87-86
2 D422-63 Particle size analysis T88-00
3 D4318-00 Liquid limit T89-02
4 D4318-00 Plastic limit, Plasticity index T90-00
5 D2216-98 Laboratory determination of moisture T256-93
content
6 D854-00 Specific gravity of soils T100-03 ASTM Equivalent
7 D2217-85 Wet preparation of the sample T146-96

82
 Appendix-B

Grain size distribution curves under different testing conditions

The graphs in this appendix show the grain size distribution curves for various soils and
test conditions. FigsB-1a, b, c… was plotted for the soil samples treated at different
testing temperature. Grain size distribution curves for soils collected from different
locations are shown on Figs B-2. Profile consideration is also shown in the FigsB-3. The
range of grain size distribution curve is finally shown as FigB-3.

83
Grain size distribution curves under different pretreatment conditions for some soils are
shown in the Fig B-1a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, I, j shown below;

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP1-1
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
AS
60
50 AD
40 OD
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

FigB-1a Grain size distribution at different conditions

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP 1-2

94
Percentage passing

82
70 AR
58
47 AD
35 OD
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

FigB-1bGrain size distribution

84
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
TP2-1
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
60 AS
50 AD
40 OD
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

FigB-1c Continued

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP2-2
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
60 AS
50 AD
40 OD
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

FigB-1d

85
-----Continued

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP8-1

100
90
Percentage passing

80
70
60 AS
50 AD
40 OD
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-1e

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP8-2
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
AS
60
50 AD
40
OD
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-1f

86
--------Continued

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP9-1

94
Percentage passing

82
70
58 AR
47 OD
35
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-1g

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP9- 2

94
82
Percentage passing

70
OD
58 AD
47 AR
35
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-1h

87
----------Continued

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP9-3

94
Percentage passing

82
70
58 OD
47 AS
35
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

TP 3-2

94
Percentage passing

82
70 AR
58
47 AD
35 OD
23
12
0
100.000 10.000 1.000 0.100 0.010 0.001 0.000
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig4-1j

88
Grain size distribution curves for some soils collected from different places, and different
test conditions could be shown, but for air-dried condition only is presented for some
soils because the change was almost the same with varied temperatures.

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Air-Dried

TP3-1
Percentage passing

100 TP3-2
90
80 TP1-1
70
60 TP2-1
50 TP6-1
40
30 TP8-1
20 SF1
10
0 SF2
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Figs B-2.Grain size distribution curves for different soils.

Range of grain size distribution curves for the soil under investigation showing the
maximum and minimum range of gradation charts

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Range for Asossa soil
Percentage passing

100
90
80
70
60 Upper limit
50
40 Lower limit
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
GRAIN SIZE(mm)

Fig B-3. Range of grain size distribution.

89