Kirkuk University

College of education for pure science -Department of

Physics
M.Sc. physics Student
Sub: Radiation interactions with matter
Chapter three: Positron physics

By
Prof. Dr. Sabah Mahmoud Aman Allah
2022-2023

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1-What is Positron?
The positron is the first antiparticle of the electron of positively charged . It was
theoretically deduced by Dirac (1930) and later observed by Anderson (1932) in
cosmic rays. As any other antiparticle, the positron reflects its particle counterpart in
every respect, most of their physical properties are equivalent. The masses of the two
particles are identical and so are the absolute values of electric charges( of opposite
sign), spins, and magnetic moments and have continuous spectrum energy
characteristic , with end-point energies of several MeVs when emanating from a
radioactive source . However, the electric charge of the positron is positive causing its
magnetic moment to point in the direction of its spin. Many novel spectroscopic
methods have been developed to study the properties of normal matter based on
positron scattering or the observation of the annihilation photons. The application of
such spectroscopies has, however, been hampered by lack of a simple ,intense
positron source. Nonetheless, it is now technically feasible to construct intense
positron sources, and with their availability it will be finally possible to exploit the
richness of positron interactions for the benefit of science and industry .It’s worth to
mention that in a vacuum, the positron is a stable particle, but in materials, it
annihilates with an electron rapidly. The particle/antiparticle pair disappears in the
annihilation process producing gamma photons. The number of photons and their
energies are determined by the most basic laws of physics. The conservation of energy
guarantees that the summed energy of all the photons must be 1.022 MeV, the rest
energy (2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2) of the electron and positron together, while the spin conservation law
(and the conservation of momentum) determines the number of photons. If the overall
spin of the annihilating particle/antiparticle pair is zero, the number of photons is
even. On the other hand, if the summed spin of the pair is equal to one, odd numbers
of photons are formed. There is another important rule governing the photon
production. Every excess photon, even if other probabilistic factors are ignored,
decreases the annihilation probability by a factor of 1/137, that is, by the fine structure
constant. Consequently, combining the spin conservation law and this rule, the most
probable way of annihilation is the formation of two gamma photons from an S = 0
state. Although the smallest odd number is one, the one-photon annihilation is usually
hindered by the law of momentum conservation.(As the proposed single annihilation
photon possesses a non-zero momentum, a third ‘‘inert’’ particle is required besides
the annihilating pair to compensate the photon’s momentum by recoil. The case is
similar for zero photon annihilation from the S= 0 state, but two ‘‘inert’’ particles are
required for this rare process.) So, from an S= 1 state, the annihilation of a positron–
electron pair most likely produces three gamma photons. The momentum conservation
law rules the direction of photons, as well. In the case of two photon annihilation,
photons must depart collinearly and the three-photon annihilation determines a plane
in which photons should stay. This strict rule is usually altered slightly by the
momentum of the annihilating electron, thus providing a great opportunity to
construct a momentum-sensitive spectroscopy. In the case of two-photon annihilation,
the energy conservation law has one more serious consequence on photons. Both
should have an energy of 0.511MeV. This energy is so uniquely characteristic to
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 electron–positron annihilation that Anderson (1932) proved the existence of positrons
by the detection of this annihilation radiation. See table (1)

2 - Positron Sources (Where to Find It?)

Positrons are not normally present in our world, they are not building blocks of ordinary
matter .but the sources are as the following:

1)Any where we find annihilation radiation , this is an indicator the former presence of
positrons. The 0.511MeV radiation was found in hot galactic cores and even among
everyday cosmic rays. These positron sources, however strange and rare, serve as models
for the production of antiparticles in a world of particles. The common physical process
behind all the observed annihilation radiation sources is the well-known pair production
Note that positrons created by the weak decay of certain nuclei have traditionally been
known as𝛽 + particles, whereas after they have slowed down we call them simply
positrons, with the symbol e + . Since positrons are created out of the vacuum in
partnership with a second lepton, they appear with kinetic energies .In gamma ray
spectroscopy, positron–electron pair production is frequent, although unwelcome side
effect. On the other hand, under well-designed conditions, pair production might serve as a
positron source. Usually, synchrotron radiation or high-energy Bremsstrahlung from
accelerated electrons stopping in a heavy metal target is used to produce positron–electron
pairs in ‘‘industrial’’ quantities by pair production. This is how positrons are ‘‘made’’ for
large accelerators and positron–electron colliders.

2)Under laboratory conditions, the most convenient way of producing positrons is the use
of positron emitting radionuclides. Although PET, that is, positron emission tomography, is
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an important field applying positron sources, it is rather a diagnostic method than a
spectroscopy. For spectroscopic purposes 22Na is the most popular radionuclide. Its decay
scheme is given in Fig.(1).

Fig(1).

3) 𝜷 -Decay Sources
Positrons are created in 𝛽 -decay with a helicity equal to v/c due to the parity-violating
weak interaction. Positron emission may compete with other channels such as alpha
decay, K electron capture, 𝛽 − - decay, fission, and isomeric decay. There are some 2700
known isotopes, roughly 272 of which are stable and 13 of which are naturally occurring
radioactive isotopes. The rest, about 2400, are radioactive, and roughly half, or 1200, are
neutron deficient and thus could be positron emitters provided there is sufficient energy in
the 𝛽 decay transition (Z,A)⟹ (Z-1,A ) to the nucleus with next-lower atomic number Z
and the same atomic mass A.
The most common positron sources include 116𝐶, 137𝑁, 22 58 64 68
11𝑁𝑎, 27𝐶𝑜, 29𝐶𝑢,and 32𝐺𝑒.
There are a few others, such as
26 44 52 56 65 72 74 79 82 126
13Al, 22Ti, 25Mn, 27Co, 30Zn, 34Se, 33As, 36Kr, 38Sr, and 53I. that are occasionally used or
might be useful . The easiest 𝛽 decays to understand are the mirror nuclei listed in
Table(2), for which the atomic mass is A = 2Z - 1, where Z is the atomic number. Positron
decay involves the change of a proton into a neutron with the emission of a positron and a
neutrino.

p⟹ n + e++ ve

To the extent that the nuclear forces are invariant under rotations in isotopic spin space
(i.e., neutrons and protons feel the same nuclear force) the nuclear part of the binding
energy of two mirror nuclei is the same. The available energy is then simply the coulomb
energy difference minus the neutron-proton mass difference times c2. As the mass
increases, the decay energy increases and the half-life gets shorter, as can be seen from Fig.
(2).
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Figure (2a )is a plot of the available decay energy versus the quantity( A2/3- A-1/3 )which
should be proportional to the coulomb energy in a discrete proton nuclear model. The
straight line is fitted subject to the constraint that it intercept the vertical axis at -
1.805MeV = (mp - mn-me)c2, where mp , mn, , and me are the proton, neutron, and electron
masses. We conclude that details of the nuclear structure contribute ±0.2 MeV to the
energy. Similarly, the log-log plot of the half-lives versus atomic number in Figure (2b)
exhibits more scatter than one might hope. The mirror isotopes can be made by the (p,n)
reaction with relatively low-energy protons and with even lower threshold energies using
the (d,n) reaction. Only 116C and 137N live long enough to be useful. The reaction 115B (p,n)
11 12 13
6C has been used , and the reaction 6C (d,2n) 7N is being contemplated as a convenient
way to make positrons with a small accelerator . Many other positron emitters may be
made in the same manner as shown in Table 3. Of course, the higher Z nuclei may be
excited only using higher energy protons or alpha particles to overcome the coulomb
barrier. The most economical production of isotopes by this method takes advantage of the
giga-electron-volt protons at the beam dump of an accelerator to create a spectrum of
isotope products via spallation . The simplest way to make a large positron source is by the
(n,ɤ) reaction using thermal neutrons from a nuclear reactor. Table 3 gives some examples,
with 64Cu being the most famous .

Table(2)

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(6)
Table(3)

Various 𝛽 + emitters can also be made by (n,p) reactions using fast neutrons from a
reactor. The advantage is that the product isotope is a different element and can be
separated by chemical or physical means from the irradiated isotope to yield a source of
high specific activity. The (n,p) reaction is useful only for producing an unstable even-A
isotope that lies between two stable isotopes at Z = ±1. Although many isotopes satisfy
this condition, the unstable isotope may mostly decay by K electron capture, and its
lifetime may be too short or too long to be a good β+ source. Often the abundance of the
(Z+ 1 , A ) isotope is very low, especially as Z becomes large. Also the probability for K
capture increases with increasing A even for large available energies in the transition.
Table (4)

Table 5 gives several potential sources that could be made by ( n , p ) reactions. So far,
only 58Co has been made routinely for positron sources. Another possibility is 64Cu
which when made by 63Cu(n,𝛾)64C does not have a high specific activity because the
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 thermal neutron cross-section is small. If, on the other hand, it were made by ( n , p )
from 64Zn, the Zn might be vaporized to yield rather pure 64Cu . The energy valley for
the even-A isobars is double valued, with the even-Z-even4 nuclei lying on an energy
parabola that is typically a few mega-electron volts lower than that of the odd-odd
nuclei. Here, N is the neutron number of a nucleus. It may thus occur that an even-even
nucleus has a rather small energy for 𝜷+ decay (and therefore a long half life) to an
odd-odd nucleus that has a large energy for 𝜷+ decay and therefore a large 𝜷+ yield
and a short half-life. Such even-even nuclei are thus candidates for mother-daughter
𝜷+ sources. A few of the more promising possibilities are listed in Table 6. 68Ge is
often used to obtain positrons without coincident gamma rays or with a high
polarization due to the large endpoint energy of the β spectrum. The odd-A isobars lie
on a single energy parabola. Either the 𝜷+ energies thus tend to be so small that the
probability of positron emission is small or zero or the decay energy is so great that the
lifetime is too short for the isotope to be useful. For this reason there are few useful
odd-A positron sources.

Table (5)

The measurement of positron lifetimes in various materials is typically undertaken using

rather weak sources of 22Na which has a convenient 1.274-MeV gamma- ray that follows
within a few picoseconds of the creation of the positron. The time interval between the
gamma ray and the annihilation photons from the positron is measured by fast
phototubes coupled to plastic or BaF scintillators. The source may be made in situ by
direct irradiation of the sample in some special cases, it may be ion implanted into the
sample, or it may be deposited onto the sample in liquid form and dried. Most often the
source is deposited between two sheets of very thin material, Ni foils, that contribute only

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a single well-known lifetime component to the measurement. The ratio of the accidental
coincidence rate to the true rate is equal to the source strength times a relevant time
interval: if one wants a background rate that is less than of 0.0001the true rate when
measuring a lifetime of about 0.37 nanosec, the source strength must be less than 10 pico
Ci of 22Na. In the preparation of large sources, the efficiency of the physical and chemical
means of separation of the radioactive isotope from the parent material is important.
Large sources must be contained effectively, necessitating a covering window that can
withstand exposure to vacuum. Since positrons are created with a helicity, h = v / c , if no
averaging over positron velocities occurs, a polarized source is obtained. For maximum
polarization, it is important to deposit the source on a low-Z material to reduce
backscattering and to cover the source with a thicker window than ordinarily used to
attenuate the low-momentum particles that detract from the polarization.
Table (6)

5-3Comparison of Positron with photon

Positron Property photon
Theorized by Dirac 1930 Discovered by Max Planck 1900
And discovered by Anderson 1932
9.11x10-31kg Mass Zero

Any where we find annihilation radiation . Exists as Blocks of

The 0.511MeV radiation was found Electromagnetic
in hot galactic cores and even among Radiation
everyday cosmic rays. PET scan.
Leptons Classification Bosons
Fermi-Dirac Static Bose-Einstein
Anhilation ,stopping power , Interactions Compton scattering ,
With matter Photo electric effect,
Pair production
Anti-matter Consisted from Magnetic and electric
Fields
Positive Charge zero
defined Range Undefined
Ranges in matter Ranges in matter
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 1/2 spin 1
Stable in vacuum only Lifetime stable
3𝑘𝐵 𝑇 Mean free path 𝟏
𝜆𝛽+ = ( ∗ )1/2 𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑙 𝝀(𝒄𝒎) ≈
𝑚 𝝁

the photon Pauli exclusion the photon

does obey principle does not obey
Schrodinger Wave equation Schrodinger
equation equation
𝑝 = mv = ℏk , p = λ
h Momentum 𝐡
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 = ℏ𝐤 , 𝐩 =
𝛌
E=hf Energy E=hf==
𝐡𝐜
𝛌

5-3Comparison of Proton with positron

Proton Property Positron

Theorized by Discovered by Theorized :Paul
William prout 1985 Dirac 1928
Ernest Rutherford(1920) Discovered by Carl
Anderson 1932
1.67 x 10-27 kg Mass (0.511 MeV)
(938 MeV) 9.1 x 10-31 kg
𝑚𝑝 =6𝜋 5 𝑚𝑒
p or H Symbol 𝒆+ 𝒐𝒓 𝜷+
Inside nucleus Exists in
Baryon Classification fermion
Fermi-Dirac Static Fermi-Dirac
Three gluons duu Consisted from Have no internal
Structure
Positive Charge +1e
0.84 fm radius 2.818fermi
1/2 spin 1/2
lifetimes Lifetime Stable just in
between vacuum
10 to 1036 years
31

Schrodinger Wave equation Schrodinger

equation equation
h Momentum 𝐩 = ℏ𝐤
p = mv = ℏk , p = 𝐡
λ
𝐩=
𝛌
1 ℏ2 k 2 Energy 𝐄 = 𝐡𝐟
E= mv 2 =
2 2m

effected Effected by effected

Electric E
and
Magnetic B fields

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5-3Comparison of neutron with positron

Positron Property Neutrons

Carl Anderson Discovered by Chadwick 1932
Dirac
𝟗. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈 Rest mass 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈
Or 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 Or 𝟗𝟑𝟗. 𝟗 𝐌𝐞𝐕
Emitted from excited Exists in Inside nucleus
nucleus
Have no internal Consisted from Three gluons ddu
Structure
+1e Charge neutral
𝟏 spin 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
Schrodinger equation Wave equation Schrodinger equation
𝐡 Momentum 𝐡
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 = ℏ𝐤 , 𝐩 = 𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 = ℏ𝐤 , 𝐩 =
𝛌 𝛌
E=hf Energy 𝟏
𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 =
𝟐
ℏ𝟐 𝐤 𝟐
= 𝐤𝐁𝐓
𝟐𝐦
12400 Other equations of 𝟖𝟏. 𝟖
E(eV) = 𝐄(𝐦𝐞𝐕) = 𝟐 𝟐
λ(A0 ) Energy 𝛌 (𝐀 )
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟔 𝐓(𝐊)
Effected Effected by Not effected
Electric E
and
Magnetic B fields

3 –The Positrons in Materials

Although stable in a vacuum, any positron will eventually annihilate in normal matter
with an electron. Thus its effective lifetime is very short (t = 10-12 ⟹ 10-7 sec), however,
this incredibly short period is still enough for the positron to react with matter in several
ways. These physical (and sometimes even chemical) reactions alter from material to
material providing a number of unique possibilities to study materials through their
annihilation characteristics. The study of defects in metals and semiconductors is still the
largest subsection of the applications of positron annihilation spectroscopies demonstrating
the use of these methods in metal and semiconductor physics. Both bulk measurements with
22
Na sources and surface studies with low-energy beams are frequent. Pure metals and dilute
alloys have been studied in the past 30 years, thoroughly. Positron states have been
described theoretically in these materials by the help of the so-called trapping model (West
1973) and even positron distributions have been determined in numerous cases by ab initio
calculations (e.g., Gupta and Siegel 1980).Moreover, a vast number of experimental data
proved the calculations experimentally during the years of extensive studies.

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4- Thermalization of Positrons
Positrons, no matter how they have been produced, usually have considerable kinetic
energies initially. If these energetic positrons are injected into a material, the probability
of their annihilation is much smaller than that of collisions with the atoms and molecules
of the substance (Dirac 1930). The continual collisions decrease the kinetic energy of the
positron and slow it down to thermal energies (~0.1 eV). Obviously, the thermalization
takes place differently in different materials, but some common features can be easily
identified even in so entirely distinct materials as gasses and metals (Table 10). At the
beginning of the thermalization process, inelastic collisions dominate almost totally.
1) At this stage, positrons slow down to about 100 eV very rapidly. It takes only 1
picosec (10-12 sec) in metals (Brandt 1983), but 10 nanosec (10-9 sec) in gasses at
atmospheric pressure (Green 1966).
2) In the second stage, both elastic and inelastic collisions take place, together with some
negligible free (or direct) annihilation.
3) In the third stage, when the kinetic energy of the positron decreases below the lowest
electronic excitation level (~10 eV), elastic scattering becomes dominant. From then on,
free annihilation becomes more and more significant. At the end, positrons get to thermal
equilibrium with their surroundings, and their further fate depends very much on the
material. The whole process takes place in only 45 picosec in lead but it takes more than
100 ns in argon at 1 bar .From a material-centered point of view, the thermalization of
positrons is a process very similar to that of electrons. The initial stage of inelastic
collisions and the electromagnetic slowing down process form the usual radiation
products. In fluids and molecular or atomic solids, these are excited and ionized
molecules, free radicals, and electrons. In metals however, Plasmon and phonon
excitation also play significant roles in the thermalization of positrons.

Table (7)
State Final energy of the Slow down Duration time The fate of positron
Positron/eV Mechanism in Pb in Ar
I 100 Bremsstrahlung, 1ps 7 ns Slow down
Electromagnetic
ionization ,inelastic collision
II 10 Elastic and inelastic Slow down ,negligible free
Collisons Annihilation
III 0.1 Elastic collision, Slow down ,free
phonos Annihilation reactions
IV Thermal equilibrium Elastic collision 45psec 110 free
is reached nanosec Annihilation reactions

5- Positron States
Free annihilation is only one of the possibilities for thermalized positrons to stop
existing. In some substances it does not happen at all. In most materials, some or all of
the originally free positrons ‘‘react’’ somehow with their surroundings. The
consequence of the ‘‘reaction’’ is the formation of new positron states. Such positron
states differ from each other and from free positrons in their annihilation characteristics.
Moreover, although the possible states are the same for similar materials, their exact
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annihilation properties depend on local conditions. Consequently, these states make
positrons a valuable tool in studying the structure of materials. It is the easiest to
understand positron states in the case of metals. In a perfect, defectless single crystal,
thermalized positrons are in Bloch-states similar to those of electrons (Kittel 1979;
Mijnarends 1983). They are called free positrons. Before their annihilation, these
positrons scan expanded regions of the crystal and have a chance to meet both the
electrons of ionic cores and the Bloch-state conducting electrons. Another positron state
is formed when free volume-type crystal defects are present in the metal crystal. The
positively charged ionic cores are missing from these defects, so, usually they are
effective traps for any positive particle, including the positron in our case. Thus, in most
metals, vacancies, vacancy clusters, dislocations, and grain boundaries localize some or
all of the free positrons and produce another positron state, the trapped positron. These
localized positrons still can meet conducting electrons, but ionic cores are out of their
reach. Accordingly, their annihilation characteristics differ from those of free positrons
significantly.
6- Moderation
Moderation is the process by which high energy positrons are `converted` to slow
mono-energetic positrons. This process is carried out by letting the energetic positrons
interact with a material which has a negative work function for positron emission . The
key to the use of positrons for low-energy physics experiments is the fact that positrons
with a few hundred kilo-electron volts of kinetic energy slow down to the point at which
ionization is no longer significant in a time short compared with the annihilation lifetime
in most materials in other words, The positrons must be slowed to electron-volt energies
or less to be useful for solid-state and atomic physics experiments. Thus β decay
positrons may be implanted directly into a sample to study solid-state effects via the
annihilation photons, as was done almost exclusively for the first half of the history of
positron physics. Gradually conditions have been discovered that permit the slow
positrons to be collected from the surface of solid moderators to form controlled-energy
positron beams. Slow positrons may be easily focused and transported for analyzing
materials and for atomic physics studies. Possible solid moderators of two types: those
that have a negative affinity for positrons and work by diffusion include metals such as
W, Cu, and Ni and nonmetals such as diamond and the rare gas solids (Table 8). The
efficiency of moderation is given by a geometrical factor of order unity times the ratio of
the positron diffusion length to the stopping length and times the probability that
diffusing positrons encountering the surface will be emitted. Thus far, the moderators are
of thermal energy positrons in the solid and those that have a large band gap and a
positive affinity for positrons and operate by the diffusion of hot positrons.

Table (8)

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7-positron Annihilation Rate
The annihilation of the electron–positron pair is the process through which a particle–
antiparticle pair is transformed into energy (photons). Since the total energy of the
system involved in this annihilation (the pair formed by the free positron and one
electron of the solid) has a value 2 × m0c2 − Eb≅1022 keV,where m0 represents the
rest mass of the electron and the positron and Eb represents the binding energy of the
bulk electron, the energy of the emitted photons are in the same energy range as the γ
photons emitted by atomic nuclei. The probability rate, per unit time, for annihilation
of the positron with an electron from the medium Γ, is given by the product of the
collision cross section σ, with the electron speed v, and the probability of finding one
electron at the positron position, which is expressed by the overlap of the electron and
positron wave functions. For 2γannihilations in the nonrelativistic limit (since
thermalized positrons have very low kinetic energy), the collision cross section, as
calculated by Dirac, is given by
4𝜋𝑟02 𝑐
𝜎2𝛾 = … … … . . (1)
𝑣

and the probability rate Γ is given by

12
Γ ≡ Γ2𝛾 = 𝜎2𝛾 𝑣𝑛𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟02 𝑛𝑒 𝑐 = (𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ) … . . (2)
𝜌𝑠3

where r0 is the r0 = e2/m0c2 = 2.8 × 10−15m is the classical radius for both electron and
positron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, ne is the electronic density at the
annihilation site which is equals to
ρZ
ne =
A
m0 is the rest mass of the electron or positron, and 𝜌𝑠 is the electronic density
parameter given by

1 3 3
𝜌𝑠 =
𝑟0
√4𝜋𝑛 ………………(3)
𝑒

The expected values for the average positron lifetime are naturally dependent on the
electronic density of the medium. Lifetimes of the order of 100 picosec are expected
for positrons in metals, but the average lifetime will increase with the decrease of the
𝜌𝑠 parameter(semiconductors, polymers, and liquids).

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 7-Interaction of Positrons with Matter
a) Energy Loss and Thermalization
The different interaction processes that occur when energetic positrons enter a solid are
schematically represented in Figure (3) Some positrons are backscattered in elastic collisions at
the surface, and those entering into the solid rapidly lose their kinetic energy in a set of
ionizations and excitations with the electrons of the solid. In the case where the radioactive
source is placed inside the material, the backscattering process cannot take place. The energy
loss rates are typically 1 MeV/picosec when the positron energy is in the range from 100 keV to
1 MeV and 100 keV/picosec in the energy range from 100 eV to 100 keV, independent of the
material where the positron is moving . For kinetic energies less than 100 eV, the positron
energy loss rate strongly depends on the environmental characteristics:

1-In metals, the excitation of free electrons, with the creation of plasmons and electron–
hole pairs, is the dominant mechanism for positron energy loss. In the energy range
below 1 eV, the dominant process is phonon dispersion. The total positron
Thermalization time, as calculated at room temperature, is of the order 1–3 picosec,
much smaller than the typical lifetime of a positron in a metal, 100–200 picosec.

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 2-In semiconductors, when the positron energy is lower than the semiconductor energy
gap, electron–hole excitations are not possible, and the positron energy loss is due to
phonon dispersion. This dispersion is already effective for energies around 1 eV. The
calculated thermalization times are comparable with those obtained in metals .
3-In liquids, the ionizations and electronic excitations represent the main role for
energies greater than the ionization limit. For lower energies, the positron reaches
thermal equilibrium primarily through intra- and intermolecular excitations and through
rotational excitations of the molecules. The total duration of the process is less than1
picosecond .
4-In gaseous media, particularly in noble gases, the time scale needed for the positron to
reach thermal equilibrium is much longer, from 1 to 100 ns. In the low energy range
(<100 eV), through chemical processes, various interactions of the positron with atoms
and molecules of the medium may be considered, including Ps formation.
We can then conclude that, in condensed matter, the thermalization time of the
positron is relatively small (a few picoseconds) when compared with the average time
the particle lives in the medium and so can be neglected. After thermalization is
achieved, the positron attains thermal equilibrium with the medium, and its path can
be described through a diffusion process until annihilation with an electron of the
medium. Depending on the distance to the solid surface when it gets thermalized, the
positron can reach the surface during the diffusion and escape as a free particle or as
Ps, or be captured as a positron or Ps surface state.
b) Implantation Profile
The implantation profile (or stopping profile) of the positron in matter depends on
various aspects, in particular the material in which it is implanted and, especially, on its
energy. However, two distinct conditions can be considered:
• Positrons emitted by radioactive sources having a continuous energy spectrum,
characteristic of the β+ decay (maximal energy of the order of the MeV for most
radioactive isotopes commonly used).
• Positrons with well-defined energy produced by monoenergetic beam systems. The
stopping profile of energetic positrons emitted by a radioactive source can be described
by an exponential function:

𝑃(𝑧, 𝐸) = 𝛼𝑒 −𝑧𝛼 − − − − − −(4)

where P(z) represents the probability of positron penetration to the depth z (measured
from the surface in the case where the positron is implanted in matter from outside or the
average distance from the radioactive source when the source is located inside matter),
with the absorption coefficient α being given by
17𝜌
𝛼(𝑐𝑚−1 ) = 1.43 − − − − − (5)
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥

where ρ (g/cm3) is the material density and Emax (MeV) is the maximal energy of the emitted
positrons. For positrons emitted by a 22Na radioactive source (which is the isotope most used on
material studies), the characteristic penetration length, 1/α, is 0.11 mm in silicon, 0.050 mm in
germanium, and 0.014 mm in tungsten. In the case of positrons emitted by 11C, 13N, 15O, and 17F
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nuclei, the characteristic penetration length in water varies between 0.5 and 1.4 mm. For
monoenergetic positrons obtained from variable energy positron systems with energies up to
some tens of keV, the positron implantation profile of a positron with energy E, as simulated by
Valkealahti and Nieminen , to the form originally suggested for electrons by Makhov , obeys the
relationship:

Where m is a dimensionless parameter and z0 is related to the average stopping

depth, 𝑧̅ by

z
z0  ..........(4)
1  1 / m 
Where Γ is the gamma function is defined as [21]:

3 1
( )    0.886.........(5)
2 2
After that , the eq.(4)becomes

z0  0.886 z ...........(6)

While z is defined as

 AE n
z ..........(7)

Where n and A are empirical parameters. The more commonly used values for these
parameters, which are considered to give a better description of the material behavior, are

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where n and A are empirical parameters, ρ is the material density, Γ is the gamma
function, and P(z, E) represents the probability for the incident positron with energy E to
stop (thermalize) inside the region between z and z + dz (Makhov distribution). The
average positron stopping depth varies from the nanometer scale up to a few
micrometers when its energy is up to ∼=30 keV. This position selectivity along the
average stopping depth allows the monoenergetic positrons the possibility of depth
investigation from the surface until the bulk material. Using a variable energy positron
system, it is then possible to obtain the depth profile of defects close to the surface
region and to perform the analysis of interfaces of thin film and multilayer systems.
c) Diffusion and Mobility
After reaching thermal equilibrium inside the medium, the positron behaves as a
quantum-free particle and its movement can be described through the diffusion equation
Boltzmann equation. For thermal energies, the phonon dispersion is the dominant
process in solids and the diffusion coefficient, as calculated using the relaxation time
approximation; and the Nernst–Einstein relation is given by

Where m* is the effective positron mass, kB the Boltzmann constant, T the temperature,
e the positron charge, and τrel the relaxation time, which is the inverse of the dispersion
rate. The mobility and the average free path of the positron are, respectively, given by

And

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It has been experimentally confirmed through the observation of a T−1/2 dependence on
the diffusion coefficient that, in metals and semiconductors, the dominant dispersion
process is due to acoustical phonons, leading to

The values of the positron diffusion coefficient in metals and semiconductors at 300 K
is within the interval Do = 1–3 cm2 sec−1. Combining these values of the diffusion
coefficient with the typical positron lifetime values (τb ≈ 100 − 200 picosec), the
calculated average diffusion length of the positron is

These values of the positron diffusion length are, usually, much larger than the
average free path (Equation 3.10), l+ ≈ 5 − 10 nm, and the Broglie wavelength, λterm =
6.2(300K/T)1/2 nm, of the thermal positrons, which are the main reasons that justify the
application of the diffusion theory to describe the motion, after thermalization, of the
positron inside metals and semiconductors. In liquids, the positron diffusion length is also
of the same order of magnitude and is still much greater than interatomic distances, so that
diffusion theory also remains valid for these materials. In summary, the thermalized
positrons in condensed matter can be considered as waves, and the typical values of the
characteristic lengths are within the following scale:

From the analysis of these values, the following considerations can be made:

•In the so-called conventional positron systems, when positrons emitted from radioactive
sources are used, the implications of positron diffusion are not so important, as the
implanted positrons are distributed through a large region (>>L+).

• In the variable energy positron systems, and particularly in the low energy region (≤10
keV), where the average implantation depth is small and the distribution is sharp.

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 Positron Stopping power calculation (Pal et als method)
Stopping power (SP), the inelastic mean free path (IMFP), the continuous slowing down
approximation-range (CSDA-range) (R) and the energy straggling parameter are important
for application such as radiation biology, electron beam lithography, and chemical analyses
of surface regions of a solid and in calculation of radiation dose in radiotherapy. The study
of the passage of positrons and electrons through matter is an effective tool for exploring
the structure of matter. Positrons during transmission gradually lose their kinetic energy
and finally undergo an annihilation process with atomic electrons. The probability of
annihilation falls off rapidly with an increase of positron velocity. It has been shown that
the positron behavior during penetration through matter is the same as electron behavior in
regard to loss of energy, but the absorption of positrons in a medium is important for
checking the phenomenon of annihilation which causes the difference between the
stopping powers for electrons and positrons. In the energy region from 0.01 to 1000 MeV
which is of interest here, positrons lose energy mainly in two ways: (i)collision loss which
is effective at low energies (T < 1 MeV), and (ii) radiation loss or bremsstrahlung loss
which is important at high energies (T > 1 Me V) and high Z values. In spite of these two
types oflosses there occurs the annihilation of positrons with atomic electrons of the
absorber. The loss of energy by the annihilation process of positrons differs from that of
energy loss by electrons, and it should cause an increase in stopping power for positrons in
matter. Analytical data show that the stopping power for positrons in matter is less than
that for electrons. It is due to less energy loss by positrons in the collision process than by
electrons. The total stopping power S± of any stopping medium for positrons and electrons
±
is the sum of the collision stopping power 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙 and the radiative stopping power
±
𝑆𝑅𝑎𝑑 written as

…………(1)

where superscripts ( + ) and ( - ) stand, respectively, for positrons and electrons. Betbe and
Heitler have obtained an approximate relation between collision stopping power and
radiative stopping power as

…………………(2)

where Z is the atomic number of the target atom, T is the energy of incident positrons or
electrons in MeV. Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) one can get

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Berger and Seltzer have shown that the corrected formula for collision stopping power for
positrons is

Where

And 𝛿is the density effect correction.We have approximated Eq. (5) as

a dimensionless function depending on kinetic energy T in MeV of the incident positrons

and atomic number Z of the stopping medium, To is taken 1 Me V in order to make the
function F + dimensionless. Equations (3) and (6) represent the total stopping power
semiempirical equation for positrons and can be written as

where the function F + is given by

and 𝑃0+ , 𝑃1+ , and 𝑃2+ are the parameters dependent on atomic number Z as

where 𝑎𝑛+ , 𝑏𝑛+ , and 𝑐𝑛+ are the coefficien ts and n = 0, 1, and 2. Table I. We have calculated the
total stopping power valuesof elements of Z = 1 to Z = 92 and compounds for positrons in the
energy region 0.01-1000 MeV.
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Screening Angle of Positron
The screening angle 𝜂 for positrons has been calculated by Nigam et al , by using the
second Born approximation

1 2 1 − 𝛽2 0.231
𝜂𝐼𝐼 = 𝜒0 [1 + 2𝛼𝜒0 ( 𝑙𝑛𝜒0 + + 1.448𝛽)]2
4 𝛽 𝛽

−𝑍
Where 𝛼 = for positron penetrating the material and 𝜒0 is given by
137

3
ℏ √𝑍
𝜒0 = 1.12 ( )
𝑝 0.885𝑎0

Where 𝑎0 is Bohr radius and ℏ is the reduced Planck constant , and p the momentum of
positron defined by

𝛽2
𝑝 = 𝑚0 𝑐[( )]2
1 − 𝛽2

Where 𝑚0 𝑖𝑠 the rest mass of positron and c is light speed .

8-The Positronium
Positronium (Ps) is a quasistable bound system of a positron and an electron .The
positronium can be treated by the same quantum theory of the electron with two
important modifications:

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1) the sign of the Coulomb force is replaced by (+)sign .

2)absence of the Pauli exclusion principle with electrons in many electron systems. The
positron can form a bound state or scatter when it interacts with electrons or with
molecules. The positron wave function can be calculated more accurately than the
electron wave function by taking advantage of simplified, no-exchange interaction with
electrons. However, positron wave functions in molecular and atomic systems have not
been documented in the literature as electrons have. The figure below summarizes the
comparison between H and Ps atoms .

with reduced mass m0/2 (where m0 is the electron mass). The Schrödinger equation
for Ps is then identical to that for the hydrogen atom, when we replace the reduced mass
of the hydrogen by one half of the electron mass. The Ps binding energy in vacuum is 6.8
eV and its diameter is approximately 1.6 Å.The possibility of a positron–electron bound
system was suggested by Mohorovicic (1934) on the basis of theoretical considerations.
Several years later, it was given its present name (Ruark 1945), but its actual existence
was proved by delayed coincidence measurements only in 1954 (Deutsch 1954). The
symbol Ps was introduced by McGervey and De Benedetti (1959) to denote positronium
as a chemical element.

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In a certain sense, Ps is definitely an atom; it can be regarded as an isotope of hydrogen.
It’s worth to mention Physics of the positron and Ps is unique in itself, since the positron
possesses its own quantum mechanics, thermodynamics. The angular momentum sum for
the electron and the positron spins can have two possible results leading to two
fundamental Ps states: the singlet state, 10𝑆, named as para-positronium, p-Ps
(configuration with antiparallel spins); or the triplet state, , 31𝑆, referred to as ortho-
positronium, o-Ps (configuration with parallel spins). In the absence of external magnetic
fields, the formation probabilities for these two states are 25% and 75%, respectively.
The difference in energy between the different spin states, the so-called hyperfine
structure, is only 8.4 × 10−4 eV, which leads to all the possible states having
approximately the same formation probability. As a consequence, there will be, on
average, three o-Ps for each p-Ps formed. Following the parity conservation rules, the Ps
annihilation in vacuum from the p-Ps state can only be through the emission of an even
number of photons, whereas the o-Ps state annihilation occurs with the emission of an
odd number of photons. As was previously referred to, if we consider the collisions
between positrons and electrons with randomly oriented spins, the number of
annihilations with emission of three photons is considerably less than the number of
annihilations with emission of two photons. However, the electron–positron bound states,
p-Ps and o-Ps, where the spins have definite relative orientations before annihilation,
present quite different annihilation rates.

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With no external perturbation, the p-Ps and the o-Ps cannot be modified from their
formation states before their annihilations and, consequently, the ratio of 2γto 3γ Ps
annihilation should be 1/3. The lower annihilation probability, per unit time, for the 3γ
emission is also indicated by the longer lifetime of the o-Ps state. The experimental
values of p-Ps and o-Ps lifetimes, 125 picosec and 142 nanosec , respectively, are in
excellent agreement with the values previously calculated by West [9]. Nevertheless,
within a material where Ps formation is possible, the frequent collision of o-Ps with
atoms and molecules of the medium results in a fast exchange of its spin state. This spin
exchange can occur either through the change of the electron in the Ps by an electron
from a neighboring molecule, followed by annihilation (pick-off process); or, in special
cases such as in the presence of paramagnetic molecules, through the change of spin of
the Ps electron (spin conversion). In this way, the initial 1/3 ratio of the formation of the
two possible positron states is not preserved in time; and the ratio of the 2γ to 3γ
emission is, in this case, larger. As a consequence of this, a substantial reduction in the o-
Ps lifetime in materials is observed (typically, the reduction is two orders of magnitude,
for example, reaching values of few nanoseconds). The o-Ps lifetime then reflects the
ortho- to para-transition probability and is one of the basic properties used to study the Ps
interactions with neighboring atoms or molecules inside materials .Four models are
presently used to describe Ps formation in matter:

1)The Ore model: The Ps may be formed from the ionization produced by the energetic
positron with the subsequent binding to the free electron produced. This process can
occur if the positron kinetic energy satisfies the condition:(Ei–6.8 eV) ≤ E ≤ E*, where Ei
represents the ionization energy of the molecule and E* represents the energy needed for
electronic excitation of the molecule.

2) Resonant mechanism: The Ps formation process involving the last inelastic collision of
the positron with bound electrons resulting, through energy resonant absorption, in the
formation of an intermediary excited state of the positron–molecule system.

3) The Spur mechanism: through the capture of one of the many electrons, created by
ionization, during the last steps of the positron energy loss process.

4) Blob model is an extension of the Spur mechanism, taking into account the
distribution of free electrons formed by ionization during all the paths of the positron
inside the medium, in order to explain the change of Ps formation probability under the
influence of an applied external electric field .

The first two models( 1 and 2) are applied to the gaseous state whereas the last two
(3 and 4)are valid for condensed matter (liquids and solids). Positronium formation
frequently occurs in gases, liquids, solid polymers, and living tissues, that is, in materials
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with low electronic density and with enough free space to contain the Ps. In ionic
crystals, its formation is associated with the existence of defects. Positronium formation
in metals and semiconductors is inhibited by their compact structure, by the high
electronic density in the interstitial space between the atoms, and by the Ps atom
dimensions. In metals and semiconductors, the Ps formation can only occur on the
surface, either the external surface of the material or the surface of large dimension
cavities inside the material. In Figure 3.1, a schematic representation is shown of the
physical processes as seen by the positron implanted in water, from which it can be
observed that annihilation occurs preferentially through the emission of two gamma rays;
nevertheless, the 3γ annihilation is also present, although with a small percentage
(0.5%) and is mainly due to the formation of Ps.

9- Physical Properties of the Positronium Atom

Positronium is a system very similar to a hydrogen atom but its mass is 920 times
smaller, because the proton is substituted by the much lighter positron. The gross values
of the energy levels are decreased to half those found in the hydrogen atom. Because of
its lightness, the positronium atom has a smaller binding energy than a hydrogen atom,
that is, 6.8 eV instead of 13.6 eV. The smaller binding energy generates a two times
larger distance between the positron and the electron in positronium than the ground-
state proton–electron distance in a hydrogen atom. However, this does not mean that the
Ps atom is larger than a hydrogen atom. Strangely enough, they have the same size.
This seeming contradiction can be easily resolved by considering that the proton is
located in the center of the hydrogen atom, while the positronium is a totally symmetric
entity. In the Ps, the positron and the electron wave functions are identical, at least their
spatial part. Metaphorically speaking, the hydrogen atom is planetary system with a
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 heavy sun at its center (the proton) and a light planet around it (the electron). On the
other hand, the positronium is a binary system of two stars of the same mass circling
around their center of mass. The size paradox is only one of the unusual properties of
the positronium atom caused by the fact that it is constructed of a particle–antiparticle
pair. Some physical properties, not too significant in the case of hydrogen atoms, gain
unusual importance in the case of Ps atoms. Most books do not even mention that two
kinds of ground-state hydrogen atoms exist that are distinguished by their spins. This
seeming ignorance is understandable considering the fact that one should perform very
sophisticated measurements to find the differences between ortho-H and para-H (the
effect is well known in, e.g., high-resolution NMR spectroscopy). In the case of
positronium atoms the spin plays a more significant role and distinguishes ground states
much more significantly. Determined by the relative orientation of the spins of the
constructing electron and positron, the spin of a Ps atom is either 0 or 1 ℏ. The former is
called singlet or para-Ps (1S0, Singlet state), while the latter is the triplet or ortho-Ps
(3S1, Triplet state). According to the magnetic quantum number m, para-Ps exists only
in one state (m = 0), while ortho-Ps occurs in three states (m= +1, 0,-1). Therefore, the
statistical weight of the triplet state is three times larger than that of the singlet.
Although both states should be considered ground states, the energy of para-Ps is
significantly lower. Beside their energy, the lifetimes of the two states differ
significantly as well. Although the expression is similar for the two states, it gives quite
distinct lifetimes for ortho- and para-positronium:

where i stands for singlet or triplet states,𝜆 is the corresponding decay constant, 𝜏 is the
mean lifetime, and 𝜓(r) is the wave function of the positronium. The symbol 𝜎 denotes
the ‘‘cross section’’ of the annihilation from the corresponding spin state. It is determined
by fundamental constants of quantum electrodynamics (Schrader and Jean 1988).
Equation (27.3) yields 𝜏𝑠 = 1.25×10-10sec for the mean lifetime of free para-Ps in a
vacuum and 𝜏 𝑇 = 1.42×10-7sec for ortho-Ps (Asai et al. 1995). These lifetime values
are, seemingly, very short. However, in comparison with the vibration period of atoms in
a molecule (10 -14 sec) they are long enough to enable the positronium to take part in
interactions with the substance.

10-Reactions of the Positronium Atom

In a material with a random orientation of spins, three quarters of positronium atoms
are formed in triplet state (o-Ps) and the remaining ¼ is para-positronium. Usually, the
mathematical handling of the annihilation of p-Ps is so inconvenient that it is ignored
during the interpretation of annihilation data. Ignoring 25% of available signals seems to
be too much waste but the separability of o-Ps signals compensates for this seeming
disadvantage. Consequently, only the reactions of o-Ps are discussed below.
10-1 The Pick-Off Annihilation
The most general interaction between Ps and materials is the so-called ‘‘pick-off ’’
annihilation. It occurs in every material, although sometimes together with other Ps
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interactions. This interaction is based on the fact that the positron of the triplet
positronium atom can undergo 2 𝛾 -annihilation with an opposite-spin electron of a
colliding molecule. Thus, the positron–electron pair, which annihilates at the end, is in
singlet state (S = 0) instead of the original S = 1 state. As a result of this interaction, the
lifetime of ortho-positronium shortens considerably, but, owing to the shielding effect
of the Ps-electron, it is still longer than it would be in the case of free annihilation.
Pick-off annihilation is especially common in condensed phases. The pick-off
annihilation rate constant 𝜆𝑝 can be described (Hyodo 1985) by the overlap between
the wave function of o-Ps 𝜙(r- ,r+) and that of surrounding ‘‘alien’’ electrons 𝜓𝑣 (r):

where r0 is the classical electron radius, V is the volume of the sample and n i, nv are the
occupation probabilities of the Ps and electron states, respectively. (The symbols r - and
r+ indicate that the wave function is dependent on the positions of both the electron and
the positron. Note that in the overlap integral, r+ is replaced by r since the ‘‘alien’’
electron and the positron should be at the same place at the moment of the annihilation.)

10-2 The Ortho-Para Conversion

Another important interaction of positronium is the ortho-para conversion. It occurs
when the substance contains paramagnetic particles with unpaired electrons. When
colliding with such a particle, the orientation of one of the parallel spins of ortho-
positronium may be reversed, simultaneously with the reversion of the spin of the
unpaired electron of the colliding molecule. This interaction takes place via electron
exchange between the molecule and o-Ps. The para-positronium formed by this process
annihilates very rapidly, according to its short mean lifetime. Consequently, this effect
also leads to the decrease of the lifetime of positronium. Ortho-para conversion can be
demonstrated by the following reaction scheme (vertical arrows show the directions of
the spins):

Converters are usually free radicals and transition metal ions having unpaired
electrons. However, there is no close relation between the number of unpaired
electrons and the ‘‘strength’’ of the converter.
10-3 Localization of Ps
The next interaction of Ps is a reaction in a wider sense only, however, it
modifies the lifetime of Ps considerably. It is the localization (or trapping) of Ps
atoms in free volumes of the material. Consequently, this reaction is characteristic
of solids, where structural free volumes are stable. If the free volume behaves as a
potential well for Ps atoms, o-Ps can be localized in it. From then on, the
annihilation is determined by local physical properties of the free volume. The size
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 and the electron density of the free-volume affect the Ps lifetime through the pick-
off process. On the other hand, without this trapping, Ps ‘‘diffuses’’ from one free-
volume site to another in amorphous materials (Brandt et al. 1960) or gets into
Bloch-state in crystalline materials (Brandt et al. 1969). In these cases the
annihilation parameters are determined by a larger volume of the substance.

Positron Lifetime Spectroscopy

Nowadays positron lifetime spectra are almost exclusively measured by fast-fast
coincidence systems .Figure 27.2 outlines a general scheme of fast-fast coincidence
systems. For positron lifetime measurements, several special requirements should be
fulfilled. In positron lifetime spectroscopy, the whole system should be very fast
because of the expected very short lifetimes (from _100 ps to _100 ns). Thus, the
response of detectors (Leo 1987a) should be as fast as possible (rise time _2 ns). To
ensure the sharp response signal, fast plastic scintillators(Ne102, Ne111) or BaF2 are
applied instead of the conventional NaI(Tl), and photomultiplier tubes are chose
accordingly. The strict timing conditions call for constant fraction discriminators
instead of normal leading-edge systems. (A leading-edge discriminator produces its
output signal when the incoming signal reaches certain amplitude. The rise times of
these input signals vary with their amplitude and the delay of output signals varies
accordingly. Even differential discriminators accept a range of incoming amplitudes,
so, the output signals are scattered in time. Constant fraction discriminators
eliminate this problem by making the delay of output signals to be independent of
the rise time input signals.) The time-to-amplitude converter should be linear almost
totally and the A/D converter fast (1 MHz) and stable (McKenzie 1983). (The time-
to-amplitude converter measures the time elapsed between the detection of a start
and a stop signal and produces a proportional electric signal as an output. In the case
of positron lifetime spectroscopy, the start signal is provided by the prompt gammas
of the decay of 22Na and the stop signals by the annihilation g rays.) Fortunately,
several firms provide standard electronic units, the properties of which meet these
requirements. Even with the best available configuration, the time resolution of a
fast-fast coincidence system is about 190 ps for 22Na. This value is comparable with
the shortest lifetimes to be measured, and therefore the resolution curve of the
equipment plays a serious role in positron lifetime spectroscopy. The measured
spectrum (P) is a convolution of the resolution curve (G) and the actual lifetime
spectrum (S):

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G(t) is usually approximated by a Gaussian function. S(t) is the ‘‘decay curve’’ of
positrons.In most of the materials, several positron states coexist (e.g., free annihilation,
p-Ps, o-Ps), sothe combined decay curve is formed by a sum of exponentials:

where Ai denotes the relative weight of the ith positron state. Theoretically, n is the
number ofcoexisting states, but in practice, it is not considered larger than four. This
restriction is needed because exponential functions are not orthogonal. Consequently, a
sum of exponentials cannot be evaluated into more than four components reasonably
(La´nczos 1957). A characteristic positron lifetime spectrum is given in >Fig. 27.3. In
special cases, instead of the above sum, the lifetime spectrum is approximated by a
continuous distribution of exponentials:

where h(l) is the density function of states over l. The most characteristic example of
continuous distribution of states is supplied by polymers. In an amorphous polymer, the size
of the structural free volume (the ‘‘hole’’ between chains) varies randomly and so does the
electron density in these free volumes. If Ps atoms are trapped by the ‘‘holes,’’ their
lifetimes reflect the size distribution of free volumes .

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