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Agriculture Meteorology
Greek word “Meteoro” means ‘above the earth’s surface’ (atmosphere) “logy” means ‘indicating
science’. Branch of science dealing with that of atmosphere is known as meteorology.

Weather: Physical state of the atmosphere at a given place and given time. Eg. Cloudy day
Climate: Long term regime of atmospheric variables of a given place or area. Eg. Cold season.

India Meteorological Department-

• established in 1875.
• Principal government agency in all matters relating to meteorology, seismology and allied
subjects.
• Agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
• Responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and seismology.
• HQ- in New Delhi with regional offices at Mumbai, Kolkata, Nagpur and Pune.

Agricultural meteorology-
A branch of applied meteorology which investigates the physical conditions of the environment of
growing plants or animals.

Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the colourless, odourless and tasteless physical mixture of gasses which
surrounds earth on all sides.
Homosphere- The lower atmosphere where the chemical composition of gas is uniform.
Heterosphere At higher levels the chemical composition of air changes considerably.

Composition of atmosphere-
Different gases that are present in % by volume approximately.

Nitrogen (N2) = 78.08 Oxygen (O2) = 20.95

Argon (Ar) =0.93 CO2 =0.03
Neon (Ne) = 0.0018 Helium(He) =0.0005
Methane (CH4) =0.00017 Hydrogen(H2) =0.00006
Ozone(O3) =0.00004,

Vertical Layers of atmosphere based on temperature -

A. Troposphere-
“Trop” means mixing or turbulence and “sphere” means region. Average height is about 14 km, at
the equator it is 16 km and 7-8 km at the poles.
Various types of clouds, thunderstorms, cyclone and anticyclones occur in this sphere
because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols in it. So, this layer is
called as “seat of weather phenomena”. There is a decrease of temperature with increasing elevation at a
mean lapse rate of about 6.5°C per km (3.5 0F / 1000 Feet).

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Most of the radiation received from the sun is absorbed by the earth’s surface. So, the troposphere is heated
from below. In this layer, about 75 per cent of total gases and most of the moisture and dust particles present.
At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from the stratosphere which is known as
the “Tropopasue”. it is a transitional zone and distinctly characterized by no major movement of air.

B) Stratosphere
Exists above the tropopause (around 20 km onwards) to altitudes of
about 50-55 km. This layer is called as “Seat of photochemical reactions”.

The temperature of this layer increases with height which is due to the fact that the ultra-violet radiation
from the sun is absorbed by ozone in this region.

Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold at the bottom.
C) Mesosphere-
extends from 50 to 80 km from msl. Dominance of chemical process this sphere is called as “chemosphere”.

Temperature decreases with height. Mesosphere is the coldest region in the atmosphere with temperature
reaching the lowest value of nearly -95°C at the mesopause (80km). burning of meteoroids occurs at this
layer.

D) Thermosphere (Ionosphere)-
This layer lies at a height of from 80 km to 400 km above the earth’s surface.
The atmosphere in the ionosphere is partly ionised enriched ion zones exist in the form of distinct ionised
layers. So, this layer is called as the Ionosphere. The phenomena Pole Aurora occurs here. At North pole,
it is called the aurora borealis and at the south pole is called the aurora australis. Above the mesosphere the
temperature increases again and is in the order of 1000°C. The ionosphere reflects the radio waves, so long
distance radio communication is possible due to this layer. .

E) Exosphere. -
The outer most layer of the earth’s atmosphere is named as the exosphere and this layer lies between 400
and 1000 km. At such a greater height the density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low.
Hydrogen and Helium gases predominate in this outer most region.

Lapse rate-
The decrease in air temperature with height is known as the normal / environmental lapse rate
and it is 6.5°C/km.

Adiabatic lapse rate

Adiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a
katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range.

When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Because of this increase in
pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air,
The rate of change of temperature in an ascending or descending air mass through adiabatic
process is called as adiabatic lapse rate.

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The thermodynamic transformation which occurs without exchange of heat between a system and
its environment is known as adiabatic process. In adiabatic process, adiabatic cooling accompanies
expansion, and adiabatic warming accompanies compression.

Difference between Weather and Climate-

Weather reflects short-term conditions of the atmosphere while climate is the average daily weather
for an extended period of time at a certain location. Weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-
hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, is the average of weather over time and space

Factors affecting climate-

i) Latitude
The distance from the equator, either south or north, largely creates variations in the
climate. Based on the latitude, the climate has been classified as) Tropical ii) Sub-tropical iii) Temperate
iv) Polar.
ii) Altitude (elevation)
The height from the MSL creates variation in climate. Even in the tropical regions, the
high mountains have temperate climate. The temperature decreases by 6.5 ºC/Km from the sea
level. The above factors alter the kind of vegetation, soil types and the crop production.
iii) Precipitation
The quantity and distribution of rainfall decides the nature of vegetation and the nature of
the cultivated crops. The crop regions are classified on the basis of average rainfall which is as
follow.
Rainfall(mm) Name of the climatic region
Less than 500 Arid
500-750 Semi-arid
750-1000 Sub-arid
More than 1000 Humid
iv) Soil type
Soil is a product of climatic action on rocks as modified by landscape and vegetation
over a long period of time. The colour of the soil surface affects the absorption, storage and re-radiation of
heat. In black soil areas, the climate is hot while in red soil areas, it is comparatively cooler due to lesser
heat absorption.
v) Nearness to large water bodies
The presence of large water bodies like lakes and sea including its current affect the
climate of the surrounding areas, eg: Islands and coastal areas. The movement of air from
earth’s surface and from water bodies to earth modifies the climate. The extreme variation in
temperature during summer and winter is minimized in coastal areas and island.
vi) Topography
The surface of landscape (leveled or uneven surface areas) produces marked change in
the climate. This involves the altitude of the place, steepness of the slope and exposure of the
slope to light and wind.
vii) Vegetation

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Kinds of vegetation characterize the nature of climate. Thick vegetation is found in tropical regions
where temperature and precipitation are high. General types of vegetations present in a region indicate the
nature of the climate of that region.

Transfer of heat

All mater, at a temperature above the absolute zero, imparts energy to the surrounding space.
Three processes viz. conduction, convection and radiation are involved in heat flow or heat transfer.
Conduction
Heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of the substances or matter. Heat flows
from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that the temperatures between them are equalized. Eg. The
energy transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at one end. .
Convection
Processes of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the medium. This is
predominant form of energy transmission on the earth as all the weather related processes involve this
process. Eg. Boiling of water in a beaker .
Radiation.
Transfer of energy from one body to another without the aid of the material medium (solid, liquid
or gas). Radiation is not heat, only when radiation is absorbed by surface of a body heat is produced. Eg.
The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.

Insolation

Electro magnetic energy radiated into the space by the sun.

Factors affecting insolation
a. Energy output of the sun
b. Distance from earth to sun
c. Transparency of the atmosphere
d. Duration of daily sunlight period
e. Angle at which sun’s noon rays strike the earth.

Solar radiation
The flux of radiant energy from the sun is solar radiation. Heavenly bodies emit – short wave radiation
Near surfaces including earth emit - long wave radiation .

Band Spectrum Wavelength (µ) Importance

Ultra Cosmic rays < 0.005 Shorter wave lengths, Chemically

violet active, unless filtered there is
Gamma rays and X-rays 0.005 – 0.20 danger of life on earth.
Ultraviolet rays 0.20 – 0.39

Visible Violet 0.39 – 0.42

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Blue 0.42 – 0.49 Visible spectrum known as Light

essential for all plant metabolic,
Green 0.49 – 0.54 physiological processes.
Yellow 0.54 – 0.59

Orange 0.59 – 0.65

Red 0.65 – 0.76

Infra Infrared rays > 0.76 Essential for thermal energy of the
red plant (Source of heat)

Solar radiation and crop plants-

1. Shorter than visible range: Chemically very active, When plants are exposed to this radiation the
effects are detrimental., Atmosphere acts as regulator for this radiation and none of cosmic, Gamma and
Xrays reaches to the earth. The UV rays of this segment reaching to the earth are very low and it is
normally tolerated by the plants.
2. Higher than visible wavelength
Referred to IR radiation , It has thermal effect on plants, In the presence of water vapour, this radiation
does not harm plants, rather it supplies the necessary thermal energy to the plant environment.
3. Visible spectrum
Between UV & IR radiation and also referred as light. Light is indispensable to photosynthesis. Light
affect the production of tillers, the stability, strength and length of stem. It affects the yield, total weight
of plant structures, size of the leaves and root development.
Solar constant-
Solar constant is the energy received on a unit area at the outer most boundary of the earth (atmosphere)
surface held perpendicular to the sun’s direction, at the mean distance between the sun and the earth.
Solar constant is not a true constant. It fluctuates by as much as ± 3.5 % about its mean value depending
upon the distance of the earth from the sun. value of 1.94 cal / cm2 / min (133 wm-2) [1 Langley = 1cal]
35% of the energy is contributed by U.V. and visible parts and 65% by Infra Red.
Albedo
It is the percentage of reflected radiation to the incident radiation. Value is Highest in winter and at
sunrise and sunset. Pure water – 5-20%, Vegetation 10-40%, Soils 15-50%, Earth 34-43% and clouds
55%. High albedo indicates that much of the incident solar radiation is reflected rather than absorbed.
Depends up on
1. Angle of incidence of radiation. Albedo increase with decreasing elevation of sun with minimum
during noon.
2. Physical characteristics of surface
3. Season
4. Time of the day
For plant community albedo depends upon
1. Age of the crop
2. Percentage of ground cover

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3. Colour and reflectivity of the foliage

Disposition of Solar radiation-

a. 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds.

b. 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour.
c. 30% scatted downwards
d. 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere.
e. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth’s surface, after reflection, scattering and absorption.

Based on the response to light intensities the plants are classified as follows.
(i) Sciophytes (shade loving plants): The plants grow better under partially shaded conditions. (eg) Betel
vine, buck wheat etc.
(ii) Hetrophytes (Sun loving): Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter under high light
intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level. (eg) Maize, sorghum, rice etc. Red light is
the most favourable light for growth followed by violet – blue

AIR TEMPERATURE
Factors affecting air temperature
1. Latitude:
The time of occurrence of max. and min. monthly mean temperature depends on latitude of a place.
(eg.) The coldest month is January in northern regions of India while December in the south.
2. Altitude:
The surface air temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the mean sea level as the
density of air decreases. At higher altitudes as the density of air is less, the absorbing capacity of air is
relatively less with reference to earth’s longwave radiation.
3. Distribution of land and water:
Land and water surfaces have different specific heat. Land takes less time to heat and cool as
compared to water. Variations in air temperature are much greater over the land than over the water. It is
one of the reasons for Indian monsoon.
4. Ocean currents:
The energy received over the ocean surface carried away by the ocean currents from the warm
tropical areas to cooler polar areas. It affect the climate of coastal regions from where it is flowing.
5. Prevailing winds:
Winds can moderate the surface temperature. In the absence of winds, we feel warm in hot climates.
At the same time, the weather is pleasant if wind blows.
6. Cloudiness:
A thick cloud reduces the amount of insolation received at a particular place and thus the day time
temperature is low. At the same time, the lower layers in the atmosphere absorb earth’s radiation. This
results in increasing atmospheric temperature during night. That is why, cloudy nights are warmer.
7. Mountain barriers:
Air at the top of the mountain makes little contact with the ground and is therefore cold while in
the valley at the foothills makes a great deal of contact and is therefore warm. That is, the lower region of
the earth’s atmosphere is relatively warmer when compared to hillsides.

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE-
The atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air, which lies vertically above a unit area centered at a point.
The weight of the air presses down the earth with the pressure of 1.034 gm / cm 2. (1,013.25 hPa; 1,013.25
mbar), which is equivalent to 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi.[1] It is expressed in millibar
(mb) equal to 100 N/m2 or 1000 dynes/cm2. Unequal heating of the earth and atmosphere by the sun and
rotation of the earth bring about differences in atmospheric pressure.

Isobars: are defined as the imaginary lines drawn on a map to join places having the same atmospheric
pressure.

Diurnal and seasonal variation

(a) Diurnal pressure variation
Radiational heating (air expansion) and radiational cooling (air contraction) are the main reasons
for diurnal variation in the air pressure. Diurnal variation is more prominent near the equator than at the
mid latitudes. Equatorial regions absorbs more heat than it loses while the polar region gives up more heat
than they receive

b) Seasonal pressure variation

Seasonal pressure variations occurs, due to the effect caused by annual variation in the amount of
insolation, These variations are larger in the tropical region than the mid latitude and polar regions. Usually,
high pressures are recorded over the continents during the cold season and over the oceans during the warm
season.

Pressure systems of the world

The uneven distribution of solar radiation over different regions of the globe leads to contrast in surface
air temperature. This results in variations of surface atmospheric pressure systems, which are known as
standard atmospheric pressure systems belts.

i. Equatorial trough of low pressure (between 5°N and 5°S)

ii. Subtropical high pressure belt (Northern hemisphere) (25° and 35°N)
iii. Subtropical high pressure belt (Southern hemisphere) (25° and 35°S)
iv. Subpolar low pressure belt (Northern hemisphere) (60° and 70°N)

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v. Subpolar low pressure belt (Southern hemisphere)

(60° and 70°S)
vi. Polar high (Northern hemisphere)
vii. Polar high (Southern hemisphere)

The equatorial region receives more solar radiation

and thus the surface air temperature is high, which creates
lighter air near the ground compared to higher latitudes. The
above condition leads to low atmospheric pressure over the
equatorial region while sub-tropical high pressure belts
develop in both the hemispheres between 25 and 35 degree
latitudes due to relatively low surface air temperature. It is
due to low solar radiation received due to inclined sun’s rays
over the subtropical region when compared to the equatorial
belt. Likewise, alternate low and high atmospheric pressure
belt systems are developed across the globe from the equator
to the poles.

Causes of variation
The atmospheric pressure changes continuously due to several factors. The most important factors
are changes with temperature, altitude, water vapour content and rotation of earth.

a) Temperature
Hot air expands and exerts low pressure. Cold air contracts and exerts high pressure. So the equator has a
low pressure due to prevalence of high temperature but poles have a high pressure.

b) Altitude
At sea level, the air column exerts its full pressure. For every 10 m of ascend, the pressure get reduced by
1 hPa.
c) Rotation of the earth
On account of rotation of the earth, the pressure at 60-70°N and S becomes low. The rotation of the
earth near sub-polar belts, makes the air to escape from these belts which move towards the horse latitude
(30° - 35°N and 30 – 35°S)., by absorbing the air from sub polar belts the horse latitude becomes high
pressure belt. Air is deflected towards right in the Northern Hemisphere and Left in the Southern
hemisphere due to rotation of earth due to rotation of earth.

Wind
Wind: Air in horizontal motion is known as wind.

Wind systems of the world

The wind belts found on earth’s surface in each hemisphere are:

1. Doldrums

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Owing to continuous heating of the earth by insolation, pressures are low and winds converge and rise near
the equator. This intertropical convergent zone is known as ‘Doldrums’.
The location is 5°S and 5°N latitudes. Wind is light due to negligible pressure gradient.
Mostly, there are vertical movements in the atmosphere.
2. Trade winds (Tropical Easterlies)
The regular high temperature at the equator results in a high pressure forming in the upper levels
of the equator. Then, the air is transferred to the northward and southward directions until 35° North and
South in both the hemisphere. Due to this reduction in surface pressure on the equator (doldrums) there is
an increase in pressure at 35°N and 35°S which are known as horse latitude (sub-tropical high). As a result,
the winds flow from the horse latitude to the equatorial region. While moving, these winds are deflected by
Coriolis force to the right in northern hemisphere and to the left in southern hemisphere. These winds flow
from 35°N to the equator in NE direction and from 35°S to the equator in SE direction. These are known
as ‘Trade winds. ‘Tropical easterlies.
These are most constant winds in force and direction and flow over nearly half the globe.
3. Prevailing Westerlies
The winds that flow from sub-tropical high to the low-pressure area about 60-70° latitudes in both
the hemispheres are known as ‘Prevailing westerlies. In the northern hemisphere the direction of Prevailing
westerlies is SW and in southern hemisphere NW. They are forceful and are irregular as compare to the
trade winds in the tropical regions.
5. Polar Easterlies / Polar winds
A permanent high pressure exists on the poles. From these high-pressure polar regions, cold winds
flow to areas at about 60-65° latitudes in both the hemispheres. The winds flow in NE direction in the
northern hemisphere and in SE direction in the southern hemisphere.
Local winds
1.Mountain winds
Blows from mountain up slope to base, Occurs during night time, Cooling of air close to slope
takes place, Adiabatic heating decreases this phenomenon It is also known as ‘Katabalic winds’
2. Valley winds-
Blow from valley base to up slope.Occurs during day time. Over heating of air adjacent to slope
takes place. Adiabatic cooling decreases this phenomenon. Also known as ‘Anabatic winds’
3. Sea breeze
During the daytime, land is heated more than the adjacent body of water. As a result warmed air
over the land expands producing an area of low pressure. The cooler air starts moving across the coast line
from sea to land. This is the ‘Sea breeze; or ‘On shore breeze’.
4. Land breeze
At night because of nocturnal radiation land is colder than adjacent sea. There is a gentle flow of
wind from land to sea. This ‘off-share’ wind is called ‘Land breeze’.

Humidity:

The amount of water vapour that is present in atmosphere is known as atmospheric moisture or humidity.

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Absolute humidity: The actual mass of water vapour present in a given volume of moist air. It is expressed
as grams of water vapour per cubic meter or cubic feet.

Relative Humidity: The ratio between the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air and
the amount of water vapour required for saturation under fixed temperature and pressure. It is expressed as
percentage. The relative humidity of saturated air is 100 per cent.

Dew Point temperature: The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled in order to become
saturation at constant pressure and water vapour content. In this case, the invisible water vapour begins to
condense into visible form like water droplets.
There are harmful effects of high humidity. It enhances the growth of some saprophytic and
parasitic fungi, bacteria and pests, the growth of which causes extensive damage to crop plants. Eg: a. Blight
disease on potato. b. The damage caused by thrips and jassids on several crops. For almost all the crops, it
is always safe to have a moderate relative humidity of above 40%.

Types of Rainfall
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types – the convectional,
orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.

Conventional Rainfall
The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands
and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed. This process
releases latent heat of condensation which further heats the air and forces the air to go further up.
Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration, highly localised and is associated with
minimum amount of cloudiness. It occurs mainly during summer and is common over equatorial doldrums
in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and the islands of south-east Asia.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate – Latent Heat of Condensation

Orographic Rainfall-
When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it
expands (because of fall in pressure); the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes an orographic barrier (a mountain
range) head on. Because of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise. As the moisture laden air gains
height, condensation sets in, and soon saturation is reached. The surplus moisture falls down as orographic
precipitation along the windward slopes.
The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall. After
giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain
rainless and dry. The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
area (Some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian
desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats). It is also known as the relief rain.
Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall,
whereas Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm.
The Wind Descending on the Leeward Side is heated adiabatically and is called Katabatic Wind.

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Frontal Precipitation
When two air masses with different temperatures meet, turbulent conditions are produced. Along
the front convection occurs and causes precipitation (we studied this in Fronts). For instance, in north-west
Europe, cold continental air and warm oceanic air converge to produce heavy rainfall in adjacent areas.
Fronts – Frontogenesis – Stationary Front, Cold Front, Warm Front, Occluded Front
Cyclonic Rain
Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale. (we will see this in detail later)
The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that in a temperate cyclone is because
of frontal activity.

Monsoon-
The seasonal reversal of winds and the associated rainfall. This word is derived from the Arabic
word “Mausim”meaning “season” .Two types of monsoon systems are a) South West Monsoon, b) North
East Monsoon. Av. Annual rainfall in india is About 119 cm (1191 mm).
(a) South West Monsoon
Beginning of the year, temperature of the Indian Peninsular rapidly rises under the
increasing heat of the sun. During April and May the region of high temperature is shifted to north viz.,
upper Sind, lower Punjab and Western Rajasthan. This
area becomes the minimum barometric pressure area to which monsoon winds are directed.
The western branch of South West monsoon touches North Karnataka, Southern
Maharashtra and then it make its way to Gujarat. When the South West Monsoon is fully
operating on the Western India, another branch of the same is acting in the Bay of Bengal. It
carries rains to Burma, Northern portions of the east coast of India, Bengal, Assam and the
whole of North India in general.

Normal date for Onset of southwest monsoon

• south Andaman Sea : 20 May
• Kerala: 1 June2
• Mumbai: 10 June
• New Delhi: 29 June
• Entire country: 15 July
• Normal date of withdrawal from extreme west Rajasthan is 15 September.

b) North east Monsoon

During September end, the South West Monsoon penetrates to North Western India but
stays on for a full month in Bengal. On account of the increase in barometric pressure in
Northern India, there is a shift of the barometric pressure to the South East and North Easterly
winds begin to flow on the eastern coast. These changes bring on heavy and continuous rainfall
to the Southern and South Eastern India.
c) Winter Rainfall

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It is restricted more to Northern India and is received in the form of snow on the hills and
as rains in the plains of Punjab, Rajasthan and central India. Western disturbance is a dominant
factor for rainfall during these months in northwestern India.
d) Summer Rainfall-
The summer Rainfall is received from March to May as local storms. It is mostly received
in the South East of Peninsular and in Bengal. Western India does not generally receive these
rains.
Seasons Meteorological seasons over India are:
Winter Season: January – February
Pre Monsoon Season: March – May
Southwest Monsoon Season: June - September
Post Monsoon Season: October - December

Drought:
The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply of water through
rains. The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and evaporation by crop plants
in a defined area exceeds the amount of available moisture in the soil.
A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days continuously. Such length of non-
rainy days can also be called as dry spells.

Classification of Drought

i. Meteorological Drought
If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75 per cent) of the expected normal rainfall over a
wide area, then the situation is called meteorological drought. This is the basis for planning the cropping
pattern of that region or area.

ii.Hydrological drought
This is a situation in which the hydrological resources like streams, rivers, reservoirs, lakes, wells
etc dry up and ground water depletes because of marked depletion of surface water. If Meteorological
drought is significantly prolonged, the hydrological drought sets in.

iii.Agricultural Drought
This is a situation, which is a result of inadequate rainfall and followed by soil moisture deficit. the
soil moisture available to a crops insufficient, it affects growth and finally results in the reduction of yield.
This is further classified as early season drought, midseason drought and late season drought.

Weekly/Seasonal Rainfall Distribution

• Excess percentage departure of realised rainfall from normal rainfall is + 20% or more.
• Normal percentage departure of realised rainfall from normal rainfall is between - 19 % to
+ 19 %.
• Deficient percentage departure of realised rainfall from normal rainfall is between – 20 %
to - 59 %.

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• Scanty percentage departure of realised rainfall from normal rainfall is between – 60 % to

- 99 %

Rainfall distribution on All India scale

• Normal percentage departure of realised rainfall is within ± 10 % of the Long Period
Average
• Below Normal percentage departure of realised rainfall is < 10% of the Long Period
Average
• Above Normal percentage departure of realised rainfall is > 10% of the Long Period
Average
• All India Drought Year When the rainfall deficiency is more than 10% and when 20 to
40% of the country is under drought conditions, then the year is termed as All India
Drought Year
• All India Severe Drought Year When the rainfall deficiency is more than 10% and when
the spatial coverage of drought is more than 40% it is called as All India Severe Drought
Year.
Spatial distribution of Rainfall-
• Widespread (Most places) 75 % or more number of stations of a region reporting at least
2.5 mm rainfall.
• Fairly widespread (Many places)- 51% to 74 % number of stations of a region reporting at
least 2.5 mm rainfall.
• Scattered (at a few places) 26 % to 50% number of stations of a region reporting at least
2.5 mm rainfall.
• Isolated (At isolated places) 25% or less number of stations of a region reporting at least
2.5 mm rainfall.

Intensity of Rainfall-
• Trace Rainfall -Rainfall between 0.01 to 0.04 mm
• Very light rain- Rainfall is between 0.1 to 2.4 mm
• Light rain- Rainfall is between 2.5 to 7.5 mm
• Moderate Rain- Rainfall is between 7.6 to 35.5 mm
• Rather Heavy -Rainfall is between 35.6 to 64.4 mm
• Heavy rain -Rainfall is between 64.5 to 124.4 mm
• Very Heavy rain- Rainfall is between 124.5 to 244.4 mm
• Extremely Heavy rain Rainfall is more than or equal to 244.5 mm
• Exceptionally Heavy Rainfall This term is used when there is highest recorded rainfall at
or near the station for the month or season (only when amount exceeds 12 cm.)
• Rainy Day Rainfall is 2.5 mm or more.
Types of Precipitation-
Rainfall: Precipitation in the form of drops of water is called rainfall, when the drop size is more
than 0.5 mm.

• Virage: raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.

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• Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.

• Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy weather.
• Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the temperature is less than 0°C.
• Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; mixture of snow and rain or merely partially
melted snow.
• Hail: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is known as hail; 5 mm and 50 mm.

Heat wave- Departure of maximum temperature from normal is + 4o C to + 5o C or more for the regions
where the normal maximum temperature is more than 40o C and departure of maximum temperature from
normal is + 5o C to + 6o C for regions where the normal maximum temperature is 40o C or less (Heat Wave
is declared only when the maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40O C for plains and at least
30O C for Hilly regions). When actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat wave is declared.
Sky Conditions -Reported in terms of Octa wherein the sky is divided into 8 equal parts
0 octa Clear sky
1-2 octa of sky covered Mainly clear
3-4 octa of sky covered Partly cloudy
5-7 octa of sky covered Generally cloudy
> 7 octa of sky covered Cloudy
Isobar- A line of constant (atmospheric) pressure.
Isohyet- A line of constant rainfall amount.
Isotach -A line of constant wind speed
Isogon -A line of constant wind direction
Isotherm- A line of constant temperature

Snowfall -
Snowfall is measured either as the depth of snow which has fallen in a stated period, or melted and
measured as water. The depth of snow is usually measured in millimetres and its
water equivalent in millimetres and tenths obtained by dividing the snow depth by 10, assuming the density
of snow as 0.1’

Rainmaking
Principles of rainmaking:
Cloud seeding is one of the tools to mitigate the effects of drought. It is defined as a process in
which the precipitation is encouraged by injecting artificial condensation nuclei through aircrafts or suitable
mechanism to induce rain from rain bearing cloud. The rain drops are several times heavier than cloud
droplets. These mechanisms differs for cold and warm clouds.
Seeding of cold clouds
This can be achieved by two ways (1. Dry ice seeding and 2. Silver Iodide seeding).

1. Dry ice seeding

Remains solid at–80°C and evaporates, but does not melt, heavy and falls rapidly from top of cloud,
no persistent effects. This method is not economical as large quantity of dry ice is required.

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2. Silver Iodide seeding

crystals of silver iodide produced in the form of smoke acts as efficient ice-farming nuclei at
temperatures below –5°C. most effective nucleating substance because; its atomic arrangement is similar
to that of ice. silver iodide technique is more useful than dry ice techniques, because, very much less of
silver iodide is required per cloud. There is no necessity to fly to the top of the cloud.
Seeding of warm clouds

1) Water drop Technique

The basic assumption is that the presence of comparatively large water droplets is necessary to initiate the
coalescence process. So, water droplets or large hygroscopic nuclei are introduced in to the cloud.

2) Common salt technique

Common salt is a suitable seeding material for seeding warm clouds. It is used either in the form of 10 per
cent solution or solid.

Climatic Normals
The climatic normals are the average value of 30 years of a particular weather element. The crop
distribution, production and productivity depend on the climatic normals of a place.
Standardized key terms:
• Heat wave: When the temperature is greater than 4.50° C above usual temperatures for the
particular region.
• Severe heat wave: When the temperature greater than or equal to 4.70° C.
• Cold wave: When the temperature is less than 4.50° C above usual temperatures for the region.
• Severe cold wave: When minimum temperature is 20° C or lower.

Weather forecast
The prediction of weather for the next few days to follow. The Figure below depicts different weather
forecasting services normally practiced in a country.
Type of weather forecast

Types of forecast Validity period Main users Predictions

1 Short range Up to 72 hours Farmers marine Rainfall distribution, heavy rainfall,
a) Now casting 0-2 hours agencies, heat and cold wave conditions,
b) Very short range 0-12 hours general public thunder storms etc.
2 Medium range Beyond 3 days and Farmers Occurrence of rainfall, Temperature.
upto 10 days.
3 Long range Beyond 10 days Planners This forecasting is provided for Indian
upto a month and a monsoon rainfall. The out looks are
season. usually expressed in the form of
expected deviation from normal
condition.

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Types of forecast-

• Nowcasting- A short range forecast having a lead time/validity of less than 24 hrs.
• Short range forecasts- having a lead time / validity period of 1 to 3 days.
• Medium range forecasts- having a lead time /validity period of 4 to 10 days.
• Long range /Extended Range forecasts- Forecasts having a lead time /validity period beyond 10
days.
Usually this is being issued for a season. IMD issues Long Range Forecast for southwest
Monsoon rainfall and onset date for Kerala, Northeast Monsoon Rainfall and Winter precipitation
over Northwest India.

WEATHER NORMALS FOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS

Sl. Crops Optimum Temperature ° C Day length Rainfall

No. Germi Growth stage (mm)
nation
1 Rice Min 10 22-25 (flowering) 1500
°C 20-21(grain formn)
20-25(ripening)
2 Maize 35-44 ° C
3 Sorghum 7-10 25-30 Short day
4 Pearl millet 28-32 400-750
5 Wheat 20-22 16-22 250-1800
6 Ground nut 27-30 24- 500-1250
27
7 Sesame 25-27 Short day 500-650
8 Sunflower 20-25 500-700
9 Rape seed 18-25 Long day 300-400
and Mustard
10 Safflower 15-16 25-30 Day neutral 600-900
11 Soybean 15-32 30-33 600-650
12 Pigeon pea 20-30
13 Green gram 15 20-40 Short day 600-1000
14 Cow pea 12-15 21-35 Short day 600
15 Cotton 18 21-27 Day neutral 500
16 Jute 27-40 Short day 1500
17 Tobacco 28 25-35 500-1000
18 Sugar cane 24-30 Long day 2000-2500
19 Sugar beet 12-15 22-30 Long day
20 Potato 18-20 18-20

Device Quantity measured

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altimeter altitudes

anemometer windspeed

barometer air pressure

evaporimeter rate of evaporation

fathometer ocean depth

heliometer variation of the sun's diameter

hydrometer specific gravity of liquids (density of liquids)

hygrometer humidity

mercury barometer Atmospheric pressure

nephoscope to measure the speed and direction of clouds

psychrometer humidity

pyranometer solar radiation

pyrheliometer direct solar insolation

rain gauge measuring of rain

thermometer temperature

wind vane wind direction

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