UNIT- III Transmitters & Receivers (Part -1)

Syllabus: Transmitters: Classification of Transmitters, AM Transmitters,

FM Transmitters.
Receivers: Radio Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned radio frequency receiver,
Superheterodyne receiver, RF section and Characteristics - Frequency
changing and tracking, Intermediate frequency, Image frequency, AGC,
Amplitude limiting, FM Receiver, Comparison of AM and FM Receivers.
Elements of a Communication System:
Communication means sending, receiving and processing of
information between two or more devices. A collection of elements (devices)
which works together to establish a communication between the sender and
receiver is called a communication system.
Some examples of communication system include radio broadcasting,
television broadcasting, radio telegraphy, mobile communication, computer
communication etc. Two or more people communicating with each other by
using sound signals is also known as the communication system.
Block Diagram of Communication system:
The basic components of a communication system are information source,
input transducer, transmitter, communication channel, receiver, output
transducer, and destination.

Figure 1

Information Source:
As we know that the communication system establishes the
communication bridge between the sender (transmitter) and receiver. To

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establish this communication bridge between the sender and receiver, first,
we need information to send. This information originates in the information
source.
The information generated by the source may be in the form of sound
(human speech), picture (image source), words (plain text in some particular
language such as English, French, German etc.)

For example, if you are talking with your friend on a phone, you are
considered as the information source who generates information in the form
of sound.
Input Transducer:
If you want to talk (communicate) with your friend who is sitting
beside you, then you can directly talk with him by using voice signals
(sound signals). But if the same friend is farther away from you, then you
can’t directly communicate with him by using voice signals (sound signals)
because sound signals cannot travel larger distances. So in order to
overcome this problem and transmit information to larger distances, first we
need to convert this sound signal into another form of signal (electrical
signal or light signal) which travel larger distances. The device which is used
to convert this sound signal into another form of signal is called transducer.
A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy or
signal into another form of energy or signal. The transducer is present
at the input side and output side of the communication system. The
transducer that is present at the input side of the communication system is

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called input transducer. Generally, the input transducer converts the non-
electrical signal (sound signal or light signal) into an electrical signal.
The best example of an input transducer is the microphone which is
placed between the information source and the transmitter section. A
microphone is a device which converts your voice signals (sound signals)
into electrical signals.
Transmitter:
The transmitter is a device which converts the signal produced by the
source into a form that is suitable for transmission over a given channel or
medium. Transmitters use a technique called modulation to convert the
electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission over a given
channel or medium. Modulation is the main function of a transmitter.
When we send the signal to larger distances, it undergoes various
circumstances which makes the signal weak. In order to send the signals to
larger distances, without the effect of any external interferences or noise
addition and without getting faded away, it has to undergo a process called
modulation. Modulation increases the strength of a signal without changing
the parameters of the original signal. Thus the resulted signal overcomes the
various effects which make it to become weak.
Communication Channel:
The communication channel is a medium through which the signal travels.
or
The communication channel is a wired or wireless medium that is used to
send the signal from the source (transmitter) to the destination (receiver).
or
The communication channel is a wired or wireless medium that connects
the transmitter and receiver for sending the signal.
Communication channels are divided into two categories: wired and
wireless. Some examples of wired channels include co-axial cables, fiber
optic cables, and twisted pair telephone lines. Examples of wireless channels
are air, water, and vacuum.
Although channel provides a way for communication, it has one
drawback. The communication channel reduces the signal strength

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(attenuates the signal) that carries the information. This reduction in signal
strength is mainly caused by the addition of external noise, physical
surroundings, and travel distance. Thus the signal received by the receiver
is very weak. To compensate this signal loss, amplifiers (the device that
amplifies the signal strength) are used at both the transmitter and the
receiver side.
Noise:
Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system
via the communication channel and interferes with the transmitted signal.
The noise signal (unwanted signal) degrades the transmitted signal (signal
containing information).
Receiver:
The receiver is a device that receives the signal (electrical signal) from
the channel and converts the signal (electrical signal) back to its original
form (light and sound) which is understandable by humans at the
destination.
TV set is a good example of a receiver. TV set receives the signals sent
by the TV transmitting stations and converts the signal into a form which is
easily understandable by the humans who are watching TV.
Output Transducer:
The transducer that is present at the output side of the communication
system is called output transducer. Generally, the output transducer
converts the electrical signal into a non-electrical signal (sound signal, light
signal, or both sound and light signal).
The best example of an output transducer is the loudspeaker which
is placed between the receiver section and the destination. The loudspeaker
converts the electrical signals into sound signals which are easily
understandable by the humans at the destination.
Destination:
The destination is the final stage in the communication system. Generally,
humans at some place are considered as the destination. A destination is a
place where humans consume the information.
For example, if you are watching TV, you are considered as the destination.

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TRANSMITTER:

In the below shows the detailed block diagram of communication system, the
upper section is called the transmitting section and Lower section is Receiver.

The main parts of transmitter are

Microphone: It converts sounds into electrical signals in wires. It is the
opposite of a loudspeaker.
Modulator: The audio signal is modulated into the radio frequency carrier in
this modulator stage.
Frequency generator: The frequency generation stage will decide the
frequency on which the transmitter will operate.
RF power amplifier: The power amplification of the radio signal is carried out
in the final stage. It makes the signal stronger so that it can be transmitted
through the channel over long distances.
An antenna is a transducer which converts electrical signals into
electromagnetic waves.

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 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF TRANSMITTER:
• Modulation
• Carrier generation
• Amplification (Power)
Every transmitter has three basic functions as follows:
Firstly the transmitter must generate a signal of correct frequency at a
desired point in the spectrum.
Secondly it must provide some form of modulation to modulate the carrier.
Third it must provide sufficient power amplification in order to carry the
modulated signal to a long distance.
CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO TRANSMITTERS:
1. According to the frequency range involved.
2. According to service involved.
3. According to the power used.
4. According to the type of modulation used.
1. Classification Based on Transmitted Frequency:
• Low frequency (LF) transmitters (30 KHZ- 300KHZ)
• Medium frequency (MF) transmitters ( 300 KHZ-3 MHZ)
• High frequency (HF) transmitters (3 MHZ- 30MHZ)
• Very high frequency (VHF) transmitters (30MHZ-300 MHZ)
• Ultra high frequency (UHF) transmitters (300 MHZ- 3GHZ)
• Microwave transmitters (>3GHZ)
2. Classification Based on Type of Service Involved:
• Radio broadcast transmitters.
• Radio telephony transmitters.
• Radio telegraph transmitters.
• Television transmitters.
• Radar transmitters.
• Navigational transmitters.
3. Classification Based on Power used:
• Low level Modulated AM Transmitters
• High level Modulated AM Transmitters

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4. Classification Based on Type of Modulation:
• CW Transmitters
• AM Transmitters
• FM Transmitters
• SSB Transmitters
i) Continuous Wave (CW) Transmitters:
• The CW Transmitter is the simplest type of transmitter.
• It is a simple crystal oscillator circuit.
• This oscillator generates a carrier signal of the desired frequency.
• Information to be transmitted is expressed in a special form of code
using dots and dashes to represent letters of the alphabet and
numbers.
• The information transmitted in this way is called as continuous wave
(CW) transmission.
The key is a simple hand operated switch connected in emitter of the
transistor. By closing the key, we can turn on the crystal oscillator on and
by opening the key the oscillator is turned off.
When the key is closed, the oscillator produces a sinusoidal signal at a
frequency equal to the crystal frequency, whereas with the key open, the
output of oscillator is zero. The key is opened and closed in order to produce
zero output and dots or dashes. Dots correspond to the short duration
output whereas a dash corresponds to a long duration output.
The required messages can be transmitted using different combinations
of dots and dashes for different alphabets and letters.
Advantages:
• Simple to construct
• Compact and portable
• Can be operated on batteries
Disadvantages:
• A skilled operator is required to convert the message to be sent into a
coded form of dots and dashes.
• Long distance communication is not possible.
• Voice or picture cannot be sent.

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ii) Continuous Wave (CW) Transmitters:
Amplitude modulation technique is used in AM transmitters, here the
amplitude of carrier is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the
modulating signal, keeping its frequency and phase constant.
In AM Transmitter, AM signal is transmitted by a transmitter. The
information is contained in its amplitude variation.
• Used in radio & TV broadcasting.
Types of AM Transmitters:
a) Low Level modulation transmitters.
b) High Level modulation transmitters.
a) Low Level Modulation Transmitters:

• The generation of AM wave takes place at a low power level.

• The generated AM signal is then amplified using a chain of linear
amplifier ( A , AB or B).
The detailed block diagram of Low Level Modulation Transmitters
shown below:

The RF oscillator produces the carrier signal. The RF oscillator is

stabilized in order to maintain the frequency deviation within the prescribed
limit. The carrier frequency is equal to the transmitter frequency.

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 Usually, the transmitter operates on assigned frequencies or channels.
Crystal provides the best way to obtain the described frequency with good
stability. We cannot use the LC oscillator because they have low frequency
stability.
• The carrier signal from the crystal oscillator is applied to the
modulator with a modulating signal. At the output of the modulator,
we get the AM wave.
• The modulating signal is obtained from a source such as a
microphone and applied to a buffer processing unit.
• The buffer is a class A amplifier which isolates the AF source from the
rest of high-power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level.
• The amplified modulating signal is applied to the modulator along
with the carrier. At the output of the modulator, we get the AM wave.
• The AM signal is then amplified using a chain of linear amplifier to
raise the power level.
• The linear amplifier can be class A, AB or B type amplifiers. The linear
amplifiers are used in order to avoid the wave form distortion in AM
wave.
• The amplitude modulated signal is then transmitted using transmitted
antenna.
• The transistorized modulator circuits can be used for low level
modulator due to the low power which is to be handled.
• The low-level transmitter does not require a large AF modulator
power, so its design is simplified.
• Overall efficiency is much lower compared to high level modulation.
This will reduce to the use of less efficient linear amplifiers.
Audio Processing: The AF modulating signal is passed through an audio
processing unit before applying it to the modulator.
• This block carries out some form of “speech processing” in the form of
filtering and amplitude control.
• The weak signals amplified automatically with a higher gain and strong
signals are amplified with smaller gain. This will bring all the signals
to a sufficient level.

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b) High Level Modulation Transmitters:

• The generation of AM wave takes place at high power levels.

• Highly efficient class C amplifiers are used in high level modulation.
• Efficiency is more than low level modulation.
The detailed block diagram of high Level Modulation Transmitters
shown below:

• Many of the AM transmitters use the high-level modulation technique.

• The crystal oscillator produces the required carrier signal. The class A
amplifier following the oscillator acts as a buffer which isolates the
oscillator from the high-power circuit.
• The output of this class A amplifier is applied to a class C power
amplifier. It raises the power level of the carrier to an intermediately
high value.
• The AF modulating signal is applied to the audio processing unit
which processes this signal as discussed in the previous section.

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Comparison between Low-Level and High-Level Modulation:
S. No Parameter Low–Level Mod. High-Level Mod.

1 Power level Modulation is carried out at Modulation is carried out

low power level at high power level.
2 Amplifier Need lesser amplifier stages. Need more amplifier
stages stages.
3 Power After modulation linear Nonlinear amplifiers can
efficiency amplifiers can only be used. also be used. This leads to
This gives lower power higher power efficiency.
efficiency.
4 Power Power losses in amplifiers is Power losses is less, the
losses higher, the cooling problem cooling problem is not
is severe. severe.
5 Applicatio Used as higher power Used in TV transmitters.
ns broadcast transmitters.

FM TRANSMITTER:
• In FM, frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion with the
amplitude of the modulating signal keeping its amplitude constant.
• Used in radio, TV sound broadcasting & police wireless transmission.
• In FM transmitter the FM signal is transmitted by a transmitter.
• The information is contained in its frequency variation. The FCC has
assigned a band of 20 MHz to the commercial FM broad cast service.
• FM band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz
• FM BW 20 MHz band is divided in 100 channels, each having a
bandwidth of 200 KHz.
• For providing high quality reliable music the maximum frequency
deviation allowed is 75 KHz, with a maximum modulating signal
frequency of 15 KHz.
The working of FM transmitter can be explained as follows.
• The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-
amplifier, which boosts the level of the modulating signal.

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Block Diagram of FM TRANSMITTER:

• This signal is then passed to high pass filter, which acts as a pre-
emphasis network to filter out the noise and improve the signal to
noise ratio.
• This signal is further passed to the FM modulator circuit.
• The oscillator circuit generates a high frequency carrier, which is sent
to the modulator along with the modulating signal.
• Several stages of frequency multiplier are used to increase the
operating frequency. Even then, the power of the signal is not enough
to transmit.
• Hence, a RF power amplifier is used at the end to increase the power
of the modulated signal. This FM modulated output is finally passed
to the antenna to be transmitted.
Comparison of AM and FM Broadcasting:
S.No AM Broadcast FM Broadcast

1 It requires smaller transmission It requires larger bandwidth.

bandwidth.
2 It can be operated in low, It needs to be operated in very
medium and high freq. bands high and frequency bands.
3 It has wider coverage. Its range is restricted to 50 km.
4 The demodulation is simple. The process of demodulation is
complex.
5 The stereophonic transmission In this, stereophonic
is not possible. transmission is possible.
6 The system has poor noise It has an improved noise
performance. performance.

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 UNIT- III Transmitters & Receivers (Part -2)

Syllabus: Receivers: Radio Receiver - Receiver Types - Tuned radio

frequency receiver, Superheterodyne receiver, RF section and
Characteristics - Frequency changing and tracking, Intermediate frequency,
Image frequency, AGC, Amplitude limiting, FM Receiver, Comparison of AM
and FM Receivers.
Radio Receivers:
• A Radio Receiver is an electronic device that receives radio waves and
converts the information carried by them to a usable form. (or)
• Radio receiver is an electronic equipment which pick ups the desired
signal, reject the unwanted signal and demodulate the carrier signal
to get back the original modulating signal.

• The radio receiver has to be cost-effective.

• It should receive the corresponding modulated waves (AM/FM).
• The receiver should be able to tune and amplify the desired station.
• It should have an ability to reject the unwanted stations.(i.e, Filter out
all other stations).
• It demodulates the carrier signal to get back the original modulating
signal.
Classification of Radio Receivers:
a) Depending upon the application:
b) Depending upon fundamental aspects / Principle:
a) Depending upon the application:
1. AM Receivers :
 AM Receivers is an electronic circuit which receive Amplitude
Modulated signals.
 AM Radio receiver range from 550 KHz to 1650 KHz

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  Receive broadcast of speech or music from AM transmitters
which operate on long wave, medium wave or short wave
bands.
 AM Receiver and transmitter are simple but it need
synchronization
2. FM Receivers:
 FM receiver is the circuit that receive Frequency Modulated
signals.
 FM frequency rages from 88 to 108 Mega Hertz.
 It receive broadcast programs from FM transmitters which
operate in VHF or UHF bands.
 FM Receiver and transmitters are more complex as compare to
AM Receiver.
3. Communication Receivers :
 Used for reception of telegraph and short wave telephone
signals.
4. Television Receivers :
 Used to receive television broadcast in VHF or UHF bands.
5. Radar Receivers :
 Used to receive radio detection and ranging signals
b) Depending upon fundamental aspects / Principle:
1. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receivers:
• Composed of RF amplifiers and detectors.
• No frequency conversion
• It is not often used.
• Difficult to design tunable RF stages.
• Difficult to obtain high gain RF amplifiers
2. Super-heterodyne Receivers:
• Down convert RF signal to lower IF frequency
• Main amplification takes place at IF
3. Communication Receiver:
• Down convert RF signal to two IF frequency

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Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver:
TRF receiver includes three major parts.
• RF stage
• a detector stage and
• an audio stage .

Figure1: Functional Block diagram of Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the
received signal to a level sufficient to drive the detector stage. (or) in these
stages that the tuning of the receiver takes place as shown in below figure 2.

Figure2: Block diagram with cascade of Tunned circuits in TRF receiver

• RF section (Receiver front end): used to detect the signal band limit
the received RF signal and amplifying the received RF signal.
• AM detector: Demodulates the AM wave and converts it to the
original information signal.
• Audio section: Used to amplify the recovered signal (i,e the audio
signal finally appears in the earphones (or loudspeaker) as a sound.

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Operation of TRF Receiver:
After receiving signal from the Antenna, RF Amplifier is used to
increase the signal strength. This is also tunned Amplifier which is used
to select the required signal by adjusting the resonant frequency. So
Tunned circuit is used as BPF.
After the signal was amplified to a suitable level, it is then
demodulated (detected) to convert RF to AF, AF Amplifier and Power
Amplifier are used to increase the signal to the required level of loud
speaker.
Advantages of TRF:
• TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the broadcast
frequency 550 KHz to 1650 KHz.
• High sensitivity.
Disadvantages of TRF:
o TRF receivers are simple to design and allow the broadcast
frequency 550 KHz to 1650 KHz. But at the higher frequency, it
produces difficulty in design. i,e
 Instability
 Variation in BW
 Poor Selectivity
o It has poor audio quality.
a) Instability:
 Due to high frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to
breaking into oscillation.
 As gain of RF amplifier is very high, a small feedback from output to
input with correct phase can lead to oscillations.
 Correct phase means a positive feedback and it takes place due
through stray capacitances
 As reactance of stray capacitances decreases at higher frequencies
resulting in increased feedback.
 Forcing the device to work as an oscillator instead of an amplifier.

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b) Variation in Bandwidth:
 The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with the center frequency
when tuned over a wide range of input frequencies.
 As frequency increases, the bandwidth (f/Q) increases. Thus, the
selectivity of the input filter changes over any appreciable range of
input frequencies.
Ex:

c) Poor Selectivity:
 The gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range.
 Due to higher frequencies ability to select desired signal is affected.
Ex: The Frequencies Allotted AM is 550 KHz to 1650KHZ.
• The above range of frequencies are called Medium Wave (mW) band of
Frequencies. In this radio stations are multiplexed using FDM.
• The Band Allotted to each station is 10 KHz.
• For FM, Frequencies Allotted is 88MHz to 108MHZ.
• Practically, BW given means it includes Guard Band (GB)in FDM &
Guard time in (TDM).
• No. of Stations = (1650KHz-550KHz)/10KHz = 110 (Radio Stations)

Due to these drawbacks TRF are rarely used.

SUPER HETRODYNE RECEIVER: The shortcomings of the TRF receiver
are overcome by the super heterodyne receiver.

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Characteristics of Radio Receivers:
The characteristics of a Radio Receiver are as follows:
a) Sensitivity
b) Selectivity
c) Fidelity
d) Image Frequency
e) Image Frequency Rejection Ratio
f) Adjacent Channel Selectivity (Double Spotting)
a) Sensitivity:
It is defined as the minimum signal strength required for the input of
a receiver to get a standard output. Sensitivity depends on the Overall gain
of the Receiver. (or)
The minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input of the
receiver and produce a usable demodulated information signal with a
minimum acceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast-band AM receiver is 50 μV.
Example(1):

Example(2):
If receiver has poor sensitivity….

 The ability of receiver to detect the weakest possible signal is

known as sensitivity.

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b) Selectivity:
It is defined as the ability of the Receiver to select the required
frequencies only. Adjacent channel Interference occurs when tunning circuit
range is greater than 10KHz. (or)
Used to measure the ability of the receiver to accept a given band of
frequencies and reject all other unwanted signal frequencies.
Note: Assume that the receiver is tunned to 805KHz, Tunned circuit should
select the frequencies from 800KHz to 810KHz. This is possible if the
resonant frequency is adjusted to exactly 805KHz and the Quality Factor
should be 80.5.

**Simultaneous Variations of Resonant Frequency and Q is not possible in a

tunned Circuit.
Example(1):

Example(2): If receiver has poor selectivity…….

It refers to the ability of a receiver to select a signal of desired

frequency while reject all others. The bandwidth of a tuned circuit is a
measure of the selectivity.

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c) Fidelity:
It is defined as the ability of the receiver to reproduce all audio frequencies
at the output of the receiver. Fidelity indicates the Quality of the Audio
signal. (or)
The receiver’s ability to reproduce all the modulating frequencies of the
original information.

 In AM Audio frequency always limited to 5KHz.

 IN AM Radio, Audio signal is band limited to 5KHz because the BW
allotted to each Radio station is 10 KHz. The highest frequency
reproduced at receiver if 5KHz. So the signal fidelity is very low in AM
Radio.
Example(1):
If receiver has poor fidelity…

The ability of receiver to reproduce faithfully all the frequency components

in the baseband signal is called fidelity.

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Superheterodyne Receiver:
The superheterodyne Receiver also has the same essential components as in
TRF receiver, except mixer, local oscillator and intermediate-frequency (IF)
amplifier.
Definition: Superheterodyne receiver works on the principle of
heterodyning which simply means mixing. It is a type of receiver which
mixes the received signal frequency with the frequency of the signal
generated by a local oscillator.
The output of mixer provides a lower fixed frequency also known as
Intermediate frequency.
These receivers are called super heterodyne receivers as the frequency
of the signal generated by the local oscillator is more than the frequency of
the received signal..
Working of Super heterodyne Receiver:
Superheterodyne receiver mainly comprised of the following
components:

Receiving antenna: The receiving antenna receives the signal which was
sent by the transmitter. It sends the received signal for further processing.
RF amplifier: The received signal is fed to the RF amplifier stage so as to
amplify it, as the signal gets attenuated during long-distance transmission.
It Consists of a pre-selector and an RF amplifier Pre-selector is a broad-
tuned band pass filter with an adjustable centre frequency used to reject
unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise bandwidth. RF amplifier
determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in
determining the noise figure for the receiver.

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Local Oscillator: This circuit basically generates a signal with a fixed
frequency and the output is then fed to the mixer. In AM broadcast system,
the intermediate frequency is 455 KHz that simply means that local
oscillator should select such a frequency which is 455 KHz above the
incoming signal frequency.
Mixer: Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequency to intermediate
frequencies (i. e. heterodyning process). The shape of the envelope, the
bandwidth and the original information contained in the envelope remains
unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are translated
from RF to IF. (i,e fi=fo-fc )
The constant frequency at its output is gained by capacitance
tuning. In capacitance tuning, several capacitances are arranged together
and operated by a controlling knob. It doesn’t matter what the incoming
signal frequency is, the RF amplifier and local oscillator must be tuned to it.
IF amplifier: This section basically amplifies the output of the mixer. It
Consist of a series of IF amplifiers and band pass filters to provides the
receiver sensitivity (gain) and selectivity (bandwidth requirement) to the
receiver. The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less
expensive to construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
Demodulator: Demodulator is placed exactly after the IF amplifier so that
the constant frequency signal is demodulated and the message signal can be
extracted from it.
Audio amplifier: It consists of several cascaded audio amplifiers The
original signal is fed to the audio amplifier which does not hold distortion or
noise so that it can amplify audio signal to a particular level.
Power amplifier: Here, the signal is further amplified to a particular power
level which can activate the loudspeaker. The amplified signal is finally fed
to the loudspeaker circuit which converts the electrical form of the signal
into an audio sound signal which can be heard by the listeners.
AGC (Automatic Gain Control): Adjust the IF amplifier gain according to
signal level (to the average amplitude signal almost constant). AGC is a
system by means of which the overall gain of radio receiver is varied
automatically with the variations in the strength of received signals, to

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maintain the output constant. AGC circuit is used to adjust and stabilize
the frequency of local oscillator.
Types of AGC – a) No AGC b) Simple AGC c) Delayed AGC
Advantages:
 It operates at low signal level.
 The mixer provides fixed frequency operations.
 Provides excellent selectivity and sensitivity.
Disadvantage:
 Overall system cost is increased as additional circuits are used.
Applications:
Superheterodyne receivers find its use in various places as in Television,
Radio receiver, commercial radios.
Various Blocks of AM Superheterodyne Receiver:
1. RF section and Characteristics
2. Mixer or conversion section
3. Local oscillator
4. Intermediate Frequencies and IF amplifiers
5. Pre Selector
6. Image Frequency
7. Image Rejection Ratio (IRR) ( )
8. Tracking
9. Automatic Gain Control
1. RF section and Characteristics:
A radio receiver always has an RF section, which is a tunable circuit
connected to the antenna terminals. It is there to select the wanted
frequency and reject some of the unwanted frequencies.

Figure: A Simplified Block Diagram of RF Front-end

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Reasons for use and functions of RF amplifier:
• Greater gain i.e better sensitivity
• Improved image-frequency rejection
• Improved signal-to-noise ratio
• Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals, i.e better selectivity
• Better coupling of the receiver to the antenna.
• Prevention of spurious frequencies from entering the mixer and
heterodyning there to produce an interfering frequency equal to the IF
from the desired signal.
• Prevention of re-radiation of the local oscillator through the antenna
of the receiver.
2. Mixer or conversion section:
It consists of two components
• Mixer
• Local oscillator:
Mixer stage:
• Heterodyning takes place in the mixer stage.
• Radio frequencies are down converted to intermediate frequency
• Mixer is used to change the carrier frequency of a modulated signal.
• fc is up converted (UC)
• fc is down converted (DC)
• Carrier and sidebands are translated to high frequencies without
effecting the envelope of message signal.

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• The output of the multiplier consists of sum & difference frequencies
called Up converted and Down converted signals.
• The process of generating sum & difference frequencies are called as
mixing (or) Heterodyning
• BPF is used to select any one of these two signals
• In receivers Down conversion is used

25
Example:

3. Local oscillator:
This circuit basically generates a signal with a fixed frequency and the
output is then fed to the mixer.

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Problem (1):

27
4. Intermediate Frequencies and IF amplifiers:
The following are the major factors influencing the choice of the
Intermediate Frequency in any particular system
1. If the IF is too high, poor selectivity and poor adjacent channel
rejection results unless sharp cutoff filters are used in the IF stages.
2. A high value of IF increases tracking difficulties
3. As the IF is lowered, image frequency rejection becomes poorer.
4. A very low IF can make the selectivity too sharp, cutting off the
sidebands. This problem arises because the Q must be low when the
IF is low and therefore the gain per stage is low.
5. If IF is very low, the frequency stability of the local oscillator must be
made correspondingly higher because any frequency drift is now a
larger properties of the low IF than of a high IF.
6. The IF must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver, or else
instability will occur and heterodyne whistles will be heard, making it
impossible to tune to the frequency band immediately adjacent to the
IF.
Frequencies Used in IF:
• Standard broadcast AM receivers use an IF within the 438- 465
KHz range, with 455 KHz by far the most popular frequency.
• AM, SSB and other receivers employed for shortwave or VHF
reception have a first IF often in the range from about 1.6 to 2.3MHz,
or else above 30 MHz.
• FM receivers using the standard 88-108 MHz band have an IF
which is almost always 10.7 MHz
• Television receivers in the VHF band and in the UHF band use an IF
between 26 and 46 MHz, with approximately 36 and 46 MHz the two
most popular values.
• Microwave and Radar receivers, operating on frequencies in the 1-10
GHz range, use intermediate frequencies depending on the
application, with 30, 60 and 70 MHz among the most popular.

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IF Amplifier:
• The IF amplifier is a fixed-frequency amplifier with the very important
function of rejecting adjacent unwanted frequencies. It should have a
frequency response with steep skirts.
• FET and integrated circuit IF amplifiers generally are double tuned at
the input and at the output, bipolar transistor amplifiers often are
single tuned.

• The above circuit is two stage amplifiers, with all IF transformers

single tuned. This departure from a single stage, double tuned
amplifier is for the sake of extra gain and receiver sensitivity.
• If a double tuned transformer were used, both sides of it might have to
be tapped, rather than just one side as with a single tuned
transformer. Thus a reduction in a gain.
Adjacent Channel Selectivity (Double Spotting):
• This is well known phenomenon, which manifests itself by the picking
up of the same short wave station at two nearby points on the receiver
dial. It is caused by poor front-end selectivity.
• The front-end of the receiver does not select different adjacent signals
very well, but the IF stage eliminating almost all of them.
• Double spotting may be used to calculate the intermediate
frequency of an unknown receiver, since the spurious point on the
dial is precisely 2fi below the correct frequency.

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5. Pre Selector:
Mixer along The with Tunned circuit is called as Pre-Selector.

Pre-selector is a broad-tuned band pass filter with an adjustable

centre frequency used to reject unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the
noise bandwidth.
Gang Tuning:
• The adjustment for the center frequency of the pre selector and the
adjustment for local oscillator are gang tuned.
• gang tuned means The two adjustments are mechanically tied
together and single adjustment will change the center frequency of the
pre selector and the local oscillator
Example:

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6. Image Frequency:
An image frequency is an undesired input frequency equal to the
station frequency plus (or minus) twice the intermediate frequency.
The image frequency results in two stations being received at the same
time, thus producing interference.
Concept of Image frequency:
When the receiver demodulates the incoming desired signal at fRF,
unfortunately it demodulates down to IF also an unwanted signal at
fRF+2fIF.This frequency is called image frequency.

Above figure shows that the horizontal axes are frequency and the
vertical axes are voltage. Without an adequate RF filter, any radio signal S2
(green) from the antenna at the image frequency fImage is also heterodyned

to the IF frequency fIF along with the desired radio signal S1 (blue) at fRF,
so they both pass through the IF filter (red). Thus S2 interferes with S1.

fIF = fLo -fs

fsi = fs + 2(I.F.)

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Note: 1) Any unwanted signal causing interference to the wanted signal is
called Noise.
2) Reducing fsi is not possible after the mixer because both fs & fsi
occupied the same frequency range.
Example1:

Example (2):
With a LO(local oscillator) tuned to 110 MHz, there are two incoming signal
frequencies that can generate a 10 MHz IF frequency. A signal broadcast at
100 MHz (the wanted signal), and mixed with the 110 MHz LO will create the
sum frequency of 210 MHz (ignored by the receiver), and the difference
frequency at the desired 10 MHz. However, a signal broadcast at 120 MHz
(the unwanted signal), and mixed with the 110 MHz LO will create a sum
frequency of 230 MHz (ignored by the receiver), and the difference frequency
also at 10 MHz. The signal at 120 MHz is called the image of the wanted
signal at 100 MHz. The ability of the receiver to reject this image gives the
image rejection ratio (IMRR) of the system.

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7. Image Rejection Ratio (IRR) ( ):
Numerical measure of the ability of a pre-selector to reject the image
frequency. (OR)
The image rejection ratio ( ), or image frequency rejection ratio, is the
ratio of the intermediate-frequency (IF) signal level produced by the desired
input frequency to that produced by the image frequency.
The image rejection ratio is usually expressed in dB. When the image
rejection ratio is measured, the input signal levels of the desired and image
frequencies must be equal for the measurement to be meaningful.
The Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IRR) is characterized by its RF
filter which can be determined on the basis of its relative response of a
parallel tuned circuit.

fsi is reduced by 100

Note: IRR = α Image Rejection Ratio should be as High as Possible

(Ideally it should be Infinity)

Q = quality factor of a pre-selector

Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it cannot be
removed. In order to reject the image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to
the mixer stage. I. e. the bandwidth of the pre-selector must be sufficiently
narrow to prevent image frequency from entering the receiver.

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A Tunned circuit can also be used at the RF Amplifier to improve the IRR.
*** Improvement of IRR:
To Improve IRR either Q or IF should be increased.
Case1: When Q is increased:
When Q is increased the BW of the Tunned circuit decreases, The gain at the
fsi increases .Hence IRR Increases ( But Practically not possible which will
effect the Selectivity)

fsi

Case2: When I.F. is increased

When IF is increased the separation between fs & fsi also increases (which
reduces gain ) which is Good. So the gain at fsi decreases and IRR improves.

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Problem(1): A Receiver having NO RF Amplifier is tunned to 1000KHz the
I.F. is 455KHz & Q is 100 Calculate a) fsi & IRR b) Repeat the above
Calculations if receiver is tunned to 25MHz.

Solution:

Problem (2)

Solution: In most receivers the local oscillator frequency is higher than

incoming signal i.e. 𝒇𝟎(𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓) = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝒇𝒊
Where 𝒇𝒔------- signal frequency
𝒇𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒔𝒊 -------- Image frequency
𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝟐𝑰𝑭 = 𝒇𝒔 + 𝟐𝒇𝒊
𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟒𝟓𝟓)
𝒇𝒔𝒊 = 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝑲𝑯𝒛
so, answer is 2110 KHz
Problem(3):

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Problem (4):

Problem(5):
For a super heterodyne receiver, the intermediate frequency is 15 MHz and the
local oscillator frequency is 3.5 GHz .if the frequency of the received signal is
greater than the local oscillator frequency ,than the image frequency is

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8. Tracking:
• The super heterodyne receiver has number of tunable circuits which
must all be tuned correctly if any given station is to be received.
• The ganged tuning is employed to do this work, which mechanically
couples all tuning circuits so that only one tuning control or dial is
required.
• Usually there are three tuned circuits: Antenna or RF tuned circuit,
mixer tuned circuit and local oscillator tuned circuit. All these
circuits must be tuned to get proper RF input and to get IF frequency
at the output of the mixer.
• The process of tuning circuits to get the desired output is called
tracking.

Figure: Superheterodyne Reciever

• The local oscillator frequency (fo),must be precisely adjusted to a
value which is above the signal frequency(fs) by IF. i.e. fo=fs+IF
• If this tuning is not done precisely then the frequency difference
i.e.(fo-fs) is not correct.
Any error that exists in the frequency difference will result in an incorrect
frequency being fed to the IF amplifier. Such errors are known as
“Tracking errors” and these must be avoided.
Tracking error: the difference between the actual local oscillator frequency
to the desired frequency.
Due to the tracking errors the stations will appear away from their
correct position on the frequency dial of the receiver.
To avoid tracking errors standard capacitors are not used, and
ganged capacitors with identical sections are used.

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 A different value of inductance and special extra capacitors called
trimmers and padders are used to adjust the capacitance of the oscillator
to the proper range.
There are two types of Tracking:
1)Two Point tracking
o a) Padder Tracking
o b) Trimmer Tracking
2) Three point Tracking
1) Two Point tracking: a) Padder Tracking:

Error in padder tracking

• A Small variable capacitor Cp called as the padder capacitor is

connected in series with the oscillator coil.
• Due to the series connection of Cp and Cosc the effective capacitance will
be less than Cosc alone.
• This will increase the oscillator frequency making the tracking error
positive.
• The padder capacitor is adjusted to have zero tracking error on two
extrme points on the frequency dial.
b) Trimmer Tracking:

Error in Trimmer Tracking

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 • A small variable capacitor CTr called as the trimmer capacitor is
connected in parallel with the main capacitor Cosc .
• Due to parallel connection of CTr and Cosc the effective capacitance will
be greater than cosc alone.
• This decreases the oscillator frequency making the error negative.
• The Trimmer is adjusted to get zero error at two points on the
frequency dial.
2) Three point Tracking:

Associate Tracking Error

• This combines the padder and trimmer tracking.

• The three frequencies of correct tracking i.e. at which zero tracking
error exists are normally 600 KHz,1500 KHz and the geometric mean
of the two i.e.950 KHz.
• It is possible to keep the tracking error below 3 KHz.
9. Automatic Gain Control (AGC):
• Signals receiving at receiver input are not of same strength.
• Signals of strong station are strong and from weak stations are weak.
• If receiver gain constant, then receiver o/p will fluctuate proportional
to i/p signal strength which is not desired
• The automatic gain control (AGC) was introduced to stop
variations in signals causing large variations in the received
volume.
• So AGC adjust receiver gain automatically to have constant o/p
irrespective of i/p strength.

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AGC Characteristic curve:

Types of AGC:
i) No AGC
ii) Simple AGC
iii) Ideal AGC
iv) Delayed AGC

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ii) Simple AGC:
• It will change overall gain of a receiver automatically
• Thus, keep receiver o/p constant even when i/p signal strength
changes.
• Receiver gain is automatically reduced as i/p signal becomes stronger.
Advantages: Simplicity
• Low cost
• Disadvantages: Weak signals are also attenuated
• Applications: Low-cost domestic radio receivers
iii) Ideal AGC:

• For the portion ‘OA’ i.e for weak signal no AGC is applied.
• After point ‘A’ AGC is applied, keeping receiver o/p constant
• Thus, there is no gain reduction for weak signals
iv) Delayed AGC:

• In this AGC o/p is zero. When i/p signal is strong then AGC diode is
forward biased AGC o/p will be constant (Vb + Vd)
• Thus delayed AGC reduces gain for strong signal and not for weak
signals.

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 • We can say characteristics of delayed AGC is like ideal AGC But here
we can adjust point B ,by adjusting delay adjust potentiometer.
Advantages: Weak signals are not attenuated
Disadvantages: Complex than simple AGC
Applications: High quality communication receivers.

FM Receiver:

Figure: Block Diagram of FM Superhetrodyne Receiver

Operation:
The RF section selects the incoming modulated signals and is
amplified. It is then fed into the mixer and local oscillator. Here the
frequency of the modulated signal is changed to intermediate frequency.
For FM receivers, this IF is 10.7 MHz.

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 The intermediate frequency wave is amplified using IF amplifier and
then its amplitude is maintained constant using a limiter*. The output of
this section is applied to the FM detector which demodulates the
modulated wave.
The AF signal from the FM detector is then passed on through a de-
emphasis network, where the various frequencies attain their original
power distribution. Finally it is fed into the loud speaker after performing
AF amplification.
Amplitude Limiter:
Noise in FM Signal:

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44
Comparision between AM Receivers and FM Receivers:

AM Receiver FM Receiver

AM: 550 kHz – 1650 kHz FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz

FM demodulator basically a frequency

AM detector basically envelope detector
to amplitude converter

No limiter and de-emphasis stage limiter and de-emphasis stage needed

IF 455 kHz IF 10.7MHz

For AM radio, each station occupies a For FM radio, each station occupies a
maximum bandwidth of 10 kHz maximum bandwidth of 200 kHz

AM: B.W = 2fm FM: B.W = 2(Δf + fm) (Carson’s Rule)

Input signal is AM wave Input Signal is FM wave

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