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Introduction to Macbeth 17

Bevington, David. “General Introduction.” The In a good tragedy, such as Macbeth, readers and
Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Updated audience members get pulled into the play by iden-
Fourth edition. New York: Longman, 1997. tifying with the protagonist, who is painted as a great
and admirable person wielding considerable influ-
Greenblatt, Stephen. “Shakespeare’s World.” Norton
ence in society. Having established this point of iden-
Shakespeare. New York: W.W. Norton and Co.,
tification, Shakespeare then leads his audience
1997.
through the downfall of this character, involving the
Kastan, David Scott, ed. A Companion to Shake- audience in the hero’s pain and suffering, as well as
speare. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999. his or her mistakes. This identification slowly sepa-
McDonald, Russ. The Bedford Companion to Shake- rates as, through the course of the play, the audience
speare: An Introduction with Documents. Boston: gains more knowledge of the situation than the hero
Bedford-St. Martin’s Press, 1996. does. This distance and enlarged view allows the
audience to foresee the hero’s demise. Though no
longer identifying with the hero, the audience is still
INTRODUCTION TO MACBETH trapped in the tension of the play and released only
Macbeth is among the shortest and most intense of by the protagonist’s death.
Shakespeare’s plays, as well as one of the best known In most tragedies, the decline of the character
and most widely recognized. Macbeth is generally arises from circumstances of the protagonist’s own
viewed as one of Shakespeare’s four great tragedies, creation. Because tragic heroes are almost always
in addition to Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. The responsible for their demise, critics and scholars
play’s penetrating exploration of human nature, sometimes identify their mistakes as stemming from
ambition, evil, gender, human relationships, and some sort of tragic flaw, be it indecision, ambition,
kingship — along with the periodic appearance of pride, or jealousy. Though Shakespeare’s tragic heroes
supernatural forces — has captivated audiences and are complex and cannot be easily reduced to one
critics for centuries. abstract principle, identifying a character’s tragic flaw
Like all of Shakespeare’s works, Macbeth is an can provide a wonderful place to begin studying
incredibly rich and rewarding play to read and study. the play.
It was written more than 400 years ago, so this intro-
duction provides cultural, theatrical, and publication
contexts. The introduction also highlights many of The rise and fall of Macbeth
the themes and concepts that Shakespeare explores. Macbeth is one of Shakespeare’s fastest and most
straight-forward tragedies in its portrayal of the rise
and fall of Macbeth, a nobleman of Scotland who is
Shakespeare’s tragedies also a successful military leader. Early in the play, he
Although Shakespeare wrote many comedies and his- encounters three “weird sisters,” usually referred to
tory plays, he seems to be best known for his as witches. These witches refer to him by his current
tragedies. A tragedy usually depicts the fall of a man title, Thane of Glamis; then by a title that he is not
of high station or class, such as a king, a prince, or a yet aware of, Thane of Cawdor; and finally by a title
general. Occasionally, as in Romeo and Juliet, it por- that he does not yet possess, King of Scotland.
trays the fall of a couple. Main characters in a tragedy When Macbeth later learns that he has been
can fall from power or fall from happiness, but they named Thane of Cawdor, he begins to believe that
almost always die by the end of the play.
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18 CliffsComplete Macbeth

the weird sisters have the gift of prophecy. He then Threatened by Banquo’s prophecy, Macbeth
must decide between waiting patiently for the begins to behave like a tyrant, killing Banquo and
prophecy to come true or killing the current king, trying to kill his son, Fleance. His paranoia takes
Duncan, and forcing it to come true. Prompted by over, and he begins to kill anyone who seems to pose
his wife (and by the announcement that Malcolm, a threat to his reign. Literally haunted by apparitions,
Duncan’s son, is the heir to throne), Macbeth kills Macbeth continues his horrific behavior until Mal-
Duncan and becomes the King of Scotland. colm returns with the help of Macduff, another Scot-
tish nobleman, and support from England. Macbeth
Unfortunately for Macbeth, the witches’
is killed, and at the play’s end, Malcolm becomes
prophecy also indicated that although he would be
king and restores Duncan’s line to the Scottish
king, his friend Banquo’s descendents would estab-
throne. We do not see the witches’ prophecy for Ban-
lish a line of kings after Macbeth. (An apparition that
quo come true, but because Fleance survives the
Macbeth sees in Act IV, Scene 1 of the play indicates
attempt against his life, the possibility exists that
that Banquo’s line stretches all the way to King James
Banquo’s line will someday assume the throne.
VI of Scotland, who became King James I of Eng-
land during Shakespeare’s lifetime.)

A scene from a 1997 production at the Savonlinna Opera Festival.

Clive Barda/PAL
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Introduction to Macbeth 19

Historical sources of the story major alteration concerns Lady Macbeth, who fig-
Though Macbeth is not considered a history play, the ures very little in the historical accounts but is quite
title character is a Scottish historical figure. As we shall prominent in Shakespeare’s play. Lady Macbeth
see when we look at its cultural context, this play also appears only once in Holinshed’s Chronicles, and her
has intimate links with Early Modern England. His- only action is to persuade her husband to commit
torically, Macbeth ruled as King of Scotland for 17 regicide (the murder of a king). Critics have specu-
years, from 1040 to 1057. The accounts of this period lated that Shakespeare’s depiction of Duncan’s mur-
in Scottish history vary. They all agree, however, that der and Lady Macbeth’s active and ambitious role
Macbeth gained the throne by killing King Duncan (drugging the servants and smearing them with
and lost the throne to Malcolm by being killed. blood) may be borrowed from Holinshed’s account
Shakespeare relied upon these histories as well as other of Captain Donwald and his wife’s murder of King
sources in the composition of this play. Specifically, Duffe. As we can see, in addition to revising histor-
he drew heavily from Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles ical sources, Shakespeare frequently integrated vari-
of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1587), but he may ous accounts to construct one coherent story.
also have been familiar with George Buchanan’s The revisions to the historical accounts of Mac-
Rerum Scoticarum Historae (1582). beth are more easily understood when we understand
Shakespeare deviates from these historical the culture in which Shakespeare was writing. Pin-
sources a great deal in his exploration of the themes pointing the date of composition for this tragedy will
of kingship, human nature, and evil. These alter- allow us to get a better glimpse at the play’s imme-
ations to the story include portraying the tragic hero diate context.
in a more evil manner while painting Banquo (King
James I’s ancestor) in a more sympathetic light. For
example, Holinshed’s and Shakespeare’s depictions The birth of the play
of Duncan differ wildly. Historically, Duncan is The earliest published version of Macbeth appears in
described as a young, weak, and ineffective king. But the First Folio in 1623, though many critics feel that
Shakespeare’s Duncan is an older, benevolent, influ- this edition of the play is modified from the lost orig-
ential, and virtuous king, whose murder is a crime inal. The first reference to a production of Macbeth
against nature itself. pushes the play’s date back to 1611. A Jacobean play-
Furthermore, in Holinshed’s account, Banquo goer named Simon Forman recorded in his Book of
figures more prominently in Macbeth’s ascension to Plays that he saw this work performed on April 20,
the throne because he serves as Macbeth’s accomplice 1611 at the Globe theatre.
in Duncan’s murder. Shakespeare’s Banquo maintains Upon examining references to contemporary
his loyalty to Duncan, telling Macbeth that he will events and people, however, critics have concluded
help as long as it does not compromise this loyalty: that Macbeth was most likely written and first per-
“So I lose none / In seeking to augment it, but still formed in 1606. In the intervening 17 years, the play
keep / My bosom franchis’d and allegiance clear, / I was revised (around 1609), most likely by dramatist
shall be counsell’d” (II.1.26–29). Thomas Middleton, who added some of the witches’
In Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth’s descent into songs in Act III, Scene 5 and Act IV, Scene 1. Mid-
tyranny occurs over what seems a matter of weeks, dleton may also be responsible for other lines in the
and there is no mention of the ten years of peaceful play, though we cannot be certain. Keep in mind,
rule that Scotland enjoyed under Macbeth. The final as explained in the “Introduction to Early Modern
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20 CliffsComplete Macbeth

England,” that a play belonged to the theatre com- the practice of primogeniture, which meant that a
pany. Therefore, revisions by other playwrights were king’s eldest son inherited the throne.
common. Middleton’s additions to Macbeth do not
In the eleventh century, Scotland changed the
detract from the quality of Shakespeare’s work;
way it selected its kings. Prior to that time, kings
rather, they provide scholars and critics with oppor-
were elected by a council of noblemen (or thanes).
tunities to learn more about the ways in which plays
In the eleventh century, Scotland adopted the patri-
were produced in Early Modern England.
lineal system, so the throne was passed from father
to eldest son. This historical information is impor-
The ascension of James I tant to our understanding of the play. After Macbeth
The event that had the biggest impact on the 1606 kills Duncan, Malcolm and Donalbain fear for their
production of Macbeth — and which may have been lives and flee the country. Thus, Duncan’s sons are
responsible for Shakespeare writing this play — is suspected of playing an active role in their father’s
the ascension of King James VI of Scotland to the death. This implication and their absence leaves the
English throne, thus becoming King James I of Eng- throne available to Macbeth. In Act II, Scene 4, Mac-
land. In May 1603, shortly after he became king, duff tells fellow nobleman Ross that Macbeth “is
James became the personal patron of Shakespeare’s already nam’d, and gone to Scone / To be invested.”
acting company, causing it to change names from the That Macbeth is named king implies a reversion to
Lord Chamberlain’s Men to the King’s Men. This the process of election to the throne.
patronage provided many benefits to the theatrical
These questions of kingship could be found in
company, including increased opportunities to per-
Shakespeare’s England as well. Because Elizabeth did
form at court and financial assistance when the the-
not marry, she never produced a male heir. This fact
atres were closed because of plague. Because of this,
prompted anxieties and questions over succession in
some critics view the production of Macbeth a mere
the minds of many people in Early Modern England.
three years after James’s ascension to the English
Without a male heir, Elizabeth named James VI of
throne as Shakespeare’s tribute to his company’s
Scotland (who could trace his lineage to Henry VII,
patron. Others have argued the opposite — that this
Elizabeth’s grandfather) as King of England on her
play is more a criticism of King James than a tribute
deathbed. Though James’s succession did not face
to him.
much opposition, Shakespeare is clearly grappling
with questions of kingship that were raised during
Divine right versus elected kingship James’s succession of Elizabeth.
Regardless of Shakespeare’s intentions toward the
king, James and his beliefs play a large part in this The Gunpowder Plot
play. James was supposedly a direct descendent of
Macbeth also mirrors a plot to assassinate King James
Banquo, and critics assert that in Macbeth’s appari-
that had been discovered in 1605 — a year before
tion of Banquo’s royal descendents (in Act IV, Scene
Shakespeare’s play appeared on stage. This curtailed
1), James is the last king portrayed in the vision. As
attempt at James’s life is commonly referred to as the
discussed in the “Introduction to Early Modern Eng-
Gunpowder Plot, because officials found a large
land,” King James believed in the divine right of
amount of gunpowder and iron bars in a basement
kings, which is the assertion that the king is God’s
below Parliament the day before King James was to
emissary on Earth and that kingship is passed patri-
personally open a new session. Under divine right,
lineally through the father. This belief system led to
regicide was the worst crime possible. It is no
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Introduction to Macbeth 21

coincidence that one of the

most striking references to
early seventeenth-century
England in Macbeth appears
directly after Macbeth kills
Duncan.
At the beginning of Act
II, Scene 3, Macbeth’s porter
answers the knocking at
Macbeth’s gate that began in
the previous scene. While
complaining about the
incessant pounding, the
porter refers to the person
knocking as an “equivocator,
that could swear in both the
scales against either scale”
(II.3.8–10). Modern editors
and scholars, such as
Stephen Greenblatt and
David Bevington, assert that
this line is a direct reference
to the Jesuit thinker Henry
Garnet. In addition to being
executed for his participa-
tion in the Gunpowder Plot,
Garnet wrote A Treatise of
Equivocation, which pro-
vided a justification for
lying. The treatise argued
that a statement was not a
lie if it could possibly be
true from another perspec-
tive. Consequently, this ref- Macbeth and the weird sisters in a 1993 National Theatre production.
erence is one of the ways in Fritz Curzon/PAL
which modern editors have
the supernatural existed during Elizabeth’s reign,
placed Macbeth’s composition in 1606.
James’s fascination extended to a personal interac-
tion with these forces.
Focus on the supernatural
News from Scotland (1591) recounts the trial of
In addition to exploring theories of kingship in the
Scottish witches from the town of Forres. The
play, Shakespeare also capitalized on James’s interest
witches allegedly had attempted to kill James while
in the supernatural. Though interest in witches and
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22 CliffsComplete Macbeth

he was king of Scotland by trying to cause a ship- Shakespeare, while these weird sisters seem to figure
wreck during his voyage to Denmark. The publica- prominently, only Banquo and Macbeth see them or
tion includes a woodcut of James, who had presided know of their existence and their role in the rise of
over the trial, personally interrogating the witches. Macbeth to the throne of Scotland. This obscurity,
some critics argue, pushes them to the margins of the
The weird sisters in Macbeth resemble these
play. Thus, Shakespeare presents their influence and
witches in their activity. Before Banquo and Mac-
even existence ambiguously. Some modern critics
beth encounter them in Act I, Scene 3, the weird sis-
have even speculated that they might be a psychic
ters discuss sending tempestuous storms to a sailor’s
projection by Macbeth, though this would not
ship because his wife would not share her chestnuts
explain why Banquo sees them as well.
with one of them. In addition, Banquo, just before
he sees the weird sisters, asks Macbeth, “How far is’t
call’d to Forres?” (I.3.39). Thus, these weird sisters
are linked to the witches in News from Scotland both Themes explored
by their behavior and their geographical location. Though Macbeth may be one of Shakespeare’s most
topical plays, with its strong links to current events
James himself wrote a work about witches called
in Jacobean England, it also explores a wide variety
Daemonologie (1597). In this work, James discusses
of themes that do not necessarily relate to specific
not only how witches operate and the extent of their
events. For instance, Shakespeare explores a great
power, but also their relationship to the Devil.
number of dichotomies — or paired opposites —
According to James, the purpose of witches was to
such as good and evil, order and disorder, reason and
harm the king; thus, witchcraft was considered trea-
emotion, and reality and illusion. Using these
son. Certainly, the witches in Macbeth wield consid-
dichotomies, he investigates themes related to human
erable influence over the regicide of Duncan.
nature, ambition, gender, and the family.
James also believed that witches were agents of
the Devil who could bestow prophecies. Witches Virtue versus evil
would use these prophecies to tempt the faith and
Many of the major characters in this play are virtu-
virtue of men. Interestingly, the weird sisters tempt
ous; the major exceptions are the Macbeths. Mac-
both Banquo and Macbeth in the play. Macbeth suc-
beth begins as an admirable character whose loyalty
cumbs to his desires and ambitions while Banquo
to Duncan and military prowess gain him the title
(supposedly James’s ancestor) remains loyal and
of Thane of Cawdor. However, upon hearing the
virtuous.
prophecy of the weird sisters, he begins to contem-
However, the presentation of the witches may plate the murder of Duncan. His thoughts turn to
not be as flattering to James as it appears. In his Bed- “horrible imaginings” (I.3.139).
ford Cultural edition of the play, William C. Carroll
By using the word “horrible” to describe his
notes that under James’s influence, the Scottish peo-
thoughts of regicide, Macbeth alerts us that he is
ple believed in and hunted witches. The English, on
acutely aware of the nature of his actions. He
the other hand, were slightly more skeptical about the
acknowledges more than once that Duncan does not
existence of witches. Obviously, the presence of a king
deserve to die. In his first true soliloquy, Macbeth
who believed in witches caused a stir in England.
imagines that Duncan’s “virtues / Will plead like
The controversy over the existence of witches angels trumpet-tongu’d against / The deep damna-
may be reflected in this play. As Greenblatt points tion of his taking-off ” (I.7.18–20).
out in his introduction to Macbeth in the Norton
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Introduction to Macbeth 23

After killing Duncan, Macbeth initially is these hands ne’er be clean?” (V.1.38). Her mental
haunted by the horror of his actions and regards struggles escalate, and Lady Macbeth eventually
himself with repugnance. But he soon becomes more commits suicide, suggesting that her conscience pro-
callous as his murder of innocents continues with vides her with a sort of redemption that Macbeth
Macduff ’s family. By the end of the play, his tyranny could never find.
has reached its peak as he continues to destroy any-
one who opposes him, including Young Siward. Reason versus passion
Through Macbeth’s descent into tyranny, Shake-
During their debates over which course of action to
speare explores the power of evil and illustrates how
take, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth use different per-
it can use human ambition to consume a person.
suasive strategies. Macbeth is very rational, contem-
Lady Macbeth presents a slightly different case plating the consequences and implications of his
study of evil. Like her husband, she clearly is not a actions. He recognizes the political, ethical, and reli-
virtuous character. But while Macbeth becomes gious reasons why he should not commit regicide. In
increasingly evil and less sympathetic as the play pro- addition to jeopardizing his afterlife, Macbeth notes
gresses, Lady Macbeth moves in the opposite that regicide is a violation of Duncan’s “double trust”
direction. that stems from Macbeth’s bonds as a kinsman and
as a subject (I.7.12).
In the early stages of the play, when Macbeth
hedges about whether to kill Duncan, Lady Macbeth Lady Macbeth, on the other hand, has a more
convinces her indecisive husband to follow through passionate way of examining the pros and cons of
with his plans. Greenblatt notes in his introduction killing Duncan. She is motivated by her feelings and
to Macbeth in the Norton Shakespeare that she uses emotional arguments to persuade her husband
accomplishes this in two primary ways. First, she to commit the evil act. Interestingly, though she uses
questions his masculinity by connecting his ability her zeal to convince her husband to kill Duncan, she
to murder Duncan with his manhood. She taunts adopts a detached and pragmatic view of their crimes
her husband by asking him if he would prefer to “live after they are committed, while Macbeth becomes
a coward in thine own esteem” (I.7.43). emotionally gripped with horror and repugnance.
Lady Macbeth even returns the daggers to the king’s
Second, Lady Macbeth is rhetorically much
bedchamber and smears blood on his servants to
more vicious than her husband in her beliefs and her
implicate them in the crime. From her perspective,
determination. In a statement that is often cited to
“what’s done is done” and need not be regretted
demonstrate the evil nature of Lady Macbeth, she
(III.2.12).
claims that she would willingly sacrifice her own
child if she had sworn to do so. Despite their atroc- Despite this initial detachment from guilt, Lady
ity, these are only words. And despite being the pri- Macbeth ultimately is unequipped to deal with the
mary force behind Macbeth’s actions, Lady Macbeth consequences of their actions. Conversely, Macbeth
ultimately seems to be more haunted by their deeds initially reacts emotionally with repugnance and
than Macbeth is. Unlike Macbeth, she cannot remorse but later reasons that “blood will have
descend fully into evil. blood” (III.4.122). Macbeth coldly deduces that he
must continue to act villainously in order to main-
After many murders have taken place, Lady
tain his crown. His continued villainy is accompa-
Macbeth repeatedly sleepwalks, rubbing her hands
nied by a deadening of emotions. Macbeth realizes
in a vain effort to wash off a spot of blood that she
that he will be unable to clean himself of the crime
sees continually. In exasperation, she asks, “[W]ill
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24 CliffsComplete Macbeth

of regicide, saying that his hands could turn the This request is part of what David Bevington, in
green seas red (II.3.61–63). He reasons that, having his introduction to Macbeth in the fourth edition of
chosen his course of action, “returning [would be] as the Complete Works of Shakespeare, sees as “sexual inver-
tedious as go[ing] over” (III.4.138). The deadening sion” in the play. Clearly, gender is out of its traditional
of his emotions culminates in Act V when Macbeth order. This disruption of gender roles is also presented
greets news of his wife’s death with no outward grief, through Lady Macbeth’s usurpation of the dominant
saying that “[s]he should have died hereafter” role in the Macbeth’s marriage; on many occasions,
(V.5.17). she rules her husband and dictates his actions.
The disruption of gender roles is also represented
Gender roles in the weird sisters. Their very status as witches is a
Lady Macbeth is the focus of much of the explo- violation of how women were expected to behave in
ration of gender roles in the play. As Lady Macbeth Early Modern England. The trio is perceived as vio-
propels her husband toward committing Duncan’s lating nature, and despite their designation as sisters,
murder, she indicates that she must take on mascu- the gender of these characters is also ambiguous.
line characteristics. Her most famous speech Upon encountering them, Banquo says, “You should
addresses this issue. In Act I, Scene 5, after reading be women, / And yet your beards forbid me to inter-
Macbeth’s letter in which he details the witches’ pret / That you are so” (I.2.45–47). Their facial hair
prophecy and informs her of Duncan’s impending symbolizes their influence in the affairs of the male-
visit to their castle, Lady Macbeth indicates her desire dominated warrior society of Scotland. William C.
to lose her feminine qualities and gain masculine Carroll, in his Bedford Cultural edition of Macbeth,
ones. She cries, “Come, you spirits / That tend on sees the witches and the question of their gender as
mortal thoughts! unsex me here, / And fill me from a device Shakespeare uses to criticizes the male-dom-
the crown to the toe top full / Of direst cruelty” inated culture, where titles are acquired through what
(I.5.38–41). Carroll describes as “murderous violence.”

Nature out of
order
The disorder of nature,
as well as gender, is a
major theme in this
play. The hierarchical
view of the universe
described in the “Intro-
duction to Early Mod-
ern England” is violated
and disrupted at almost
every turn. The unnatu-
ral and disruptive death
of the monarch is paral-
leled by equally violent
disruptions in nature
The weird sisters in a Savonlinna Opera Festival production, 1997. itself.
Clive Barda/PAL
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Introduction to Macbeth 25

On the night of Duncan’s death, the nobleman that humans can commit. It depicts Macbeth’s con-
Lennox claims there were “Lamentings heard i’ the scious decision to descend into evil and tyranny in
air; strange screams of death / And prophecying with the name of personal ambition, and it illustrates the
accents terrible / Of dire combustion and confus’d disorders in politics, gender, nature, and religion that
events / New hatch’d to the woeful time” this decision causes.
(II.3.61–64). Many critics see this parallel between
Unlike many of Shakespeare’s other tragic
Duncan’s death and disorder in nature as an affir-
heroes, Macbeth feels the agony of his decision in
mation of the divine right theory of kingship. As we
the beginning rather than the end of his fall. Emo-
witness in the play, Macbeth’s murder of Duncan and
tionally deadened by his actions, Macbeth ends the
his continued tyranny extends the disorder to the
play with a terrible determination to fight against fate
entire country.
and die in the process. Moments before he dies off-
stage, he tells his foe, “Lay on, Macduff, / And
damn’d be him that first cries, ‘Hold enough!’”
Timeless tragedy (V.8.33–34). Shakespeare’s play reveals a great deal
Though Macbeth is firmly rooted in the contexts of about the political, social, and theatrical beliefs and
Early Modern England, this play remains timeless practices of Early Modern England. It also reveals a
for its penetrating and extensive portrait of the evils great deal about being human.
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26 Characters in the Play

CHARACTERS IN THE PLAY

Menteith Angus Caithness

nobles of
aids th
Lady Macbeth
murde e noble of
r of Duncan Lennox
Porter
Ross

son of

son of
wife of
ga
te

rs
ke

rde
co

ep
us

mu
er

Malcolm Donalbain
in

fo
r
of

suspects of murder
Macduff Macbeth Hecate
pre
dic

ruler of
loyal friend of

t fu
ally of

tur
eo
f
f
Old Siward ure o
ct fut Three witches
predi
Banquo
son of

son of

Young
Siward
Fleance