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All content is © 2008 - 2023 The Backseat Pilot LLC

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 RECENT UPDATES
Most of the recent updates are indicated with a Red bar in the left margin (not shown in the PDF)
To View/Remove the Red Bar in Word, select the Review tab, Track Changes drop down, then Track Changes

DATE LESSON UPDATE

Dec 2022 II.B. Aeromedical Factors Added Illusions (section 5)
II.C. Regs & Pubs Related to IFR Expanded IFR specific AIM references
III.A. Weather Information Added Recognizing Weather Hazards (Section 14)
V.A. ATC Clearances Reorganized and added information for clarity
V.B. Compliance w Procedures… Entirely reorganized, added required pilot reports to ATC
V.X. The ATC System New lesson to supplement Instrument syllabus
VIII.A-D. Apps, Missed, Circling Added Safety & Efficiency to match ACS req.
XI.A. ADM, CRM, & Risk Mgmt. New lesson to supplement syllabus & ACS req.

Sep 2022 II.A. Flight Inst & Nav Equipment Added VOR MON (min op network) information
III.A. Weather Information Added Model Output Statistics (MOS) information
III.B. XC Flight Planning Added VOR MON information
Aug 2022 III.B. XC Flight Planning (Sec. 4) Updated NOTAM (Notice to Air Mission) terminology
Jun 2022 III.A. Weather Information Added info on preflight self-briefings and AC 91-92
May 2022 III.B. XC Flight Planning Updated NOTAM information
Apr 2022 Numerous Lessons Updated to coincide with CFII PowerPoint
III.A. Weather Information Updated Convective Outlook Chart information
Feb 2022 All lessons Updated FAR links
Nov 2021 VII.B. Holding Procedures Reorganized, added Drawing holds, link to Hold doc
IX. Emergency Operations All lessons - Reorganized, added pictures/links
X. Post Flight Procedures All lessons - Reorganized, added pictures/links

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 CONTENTS
I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. The Learning Process .......................................................................................................................................7
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication ........................................................................................... 15
I.C. The Teaching Process .................................................................................................................................... 22
I.D. Teaching Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 26
I.E. Critique and Evaluation ................................................................................................................................. 33
I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities ................................................................................... 39
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity ...................................................................................................................... 44
II. Technical Subject Areas
II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments & Navigation Equipment .................................................................................. 50
II.B. Aeromedical Factors .................................................................................................................................... 68
II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations............................................................................. 82
II.D. Logbook Entries Related to Instrument Instruction .................................................................................... 92
III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Weather Information .................................................................................................................................. 96
III.A. Weather Theory (Additional Info to III.A. Weather Information)............................................................. 113
III.B. Cross-Country Flight Planning ................................................................................................................... 126
III.C. Instrument Cockpit Check ......................................................................................................................... 135
IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson...................................................................................................................................... 139
V. Air Traffic Control Clearances and Procedures
V.X. ATC System (Additional info not required in the PTS/ACS) ....................................................................... 141
V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances .................................................................................................................... 146
V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances ...................................... 151
VI. Flight by Reference to Instruments
VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight – Control & Performance .................................................................. 175
VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight........................................................................................................................... 182
VI.B. Turns ......................................................................................................................................................... 188
VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight .................................................................. 192
VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents .................................................................................................. 197
VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents ......................................................................................................... 202
VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Compass Headings ........................................................................................... 208
VI.G. Steep Turns............................................................................................................................................... 213
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 VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes .................................................................................................. 217
VII. Navigation Systems
VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigational Systems and DME Arcs ............................................................. 224
VII.B. Holding Procedures ................................................................................................................................. 228
VIII. Instrument Approach Procedures
VIII.A. Non-Precision Instrument Approach ...................................................................................................... 234
VIII.B. Precision Instrument Approach .............................................................................................................. 243
VIII.C. Missed Approach .................................................................................................................................... 251
VIII.D. Circling Approach ................................................................................................................................... 256
VIII.E. Landing from a Straight-In Approach...................................................................................................... 261
VIII.X. Procedure Turns...................................................................................................................................... 265
IX. Emergency Operations
IX.A. Loss of Communications ........................................................................................................................... 272
IX.B. Approach with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators ................................................................... 276
IX.C. Engine Failure during Straight-and-Level Flight and Turns ....................................................................... 280
IX.D. Instrument Approach and Landing with an Inoperative Engine (by Ref to Instruments) ........................ 284
X. Post Flight Procedures
X.A. Checking Instruments and Equipment ...................................................................................................... 291

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I. Fundamentals of Instructing
I.A. The Learning Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the learning process as
required in the PTS.

Elements 1. The Learning Theory

2. Characteristics of Learning
3. Principles of Learning
4. Levels of Learning
5. Learning Physical Skills
6. Memory
7. Transfer of Learning

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the learning process and can integrate the knowledge when
Standards instructing learner.
I.A. The Learning Process

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
This will explain why you will or will not remember this lesson.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Understanding how people learn, and applying that knowledge to the learning environment.

Why
As a flight instructor, the ability to effectively teach learners is imperative. Understanding how people learn
and how to apply that knowledge is the basis for effective teaching.

How:
1. The Learning Theory
A. Definition – A body of principles used to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes
B. Learning is explained by a combination of 2 basic approaches: Behaviorism and the Cognitive Theory
C. Behaviorism (Positive Reinforcement, rather than no reinforcement or punishment)
i. Stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior reinforced by someone, other than
the learner, to shape or control what is learned
a. The instructor provides the reinforcement
ii. Frequent positive reinforcement and rewards accelerate learning
iii. The theory provides the instructor ways to manipulate learners with stimuli, induce the desired
behavior or response, and reinforce the behavior with appropriate rewards
D. Cognitive Theory (Focuses on what is going on inside the learner’s mind)
i. Learning isn’t just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a learner thinks/understands/feels
ii. Two Major Branches of the Cognitive Theory
a. The Information Processing Model
• The learner’s brain has internal structures which select and process incoming material,
store/retrieve it, use it to produce behavior, and receive/process feedback on the results
b. The Social Interaction Theory
• Stress that learning and subsequent changes in behavior take place as a result of interaction
between the learner and the environment
• The social environment to which the learner is exposed demonstrates or models behaviors,
and the learner cognitively processes the observed behaviors and consequences
• Techniques for learning include direct modeling and verbal instruction
• Behavior, personal factors, and environmental events all work together to produce learning
iii. Both models have common principles
a. They both acknowledge the importance of reinforcing behavior and measuring changes
b. Some means of measuring learner knowledge, performance, and behavior is necessary
E. Behavioral + Cognitive
i. Plan, manage, and conduct aviation training with the best features of each theory
ii. Provides a way to measure the behavioral outcomes and promote cognitive learning

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I.A. The Learning Process

2. Characteristics of Learning (PRMA)

A. To be effective, the learning situation should be purposeful, a result of experience, multifaceted, and
involve an active process
B. Purposeful
i. In the process of learning, the learner’s goals are of paramount significance
a. Each learner has specific intentions and goals
b. Learners learn from any activity that tends to further their goals
c. Individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is
trying to get them to learn
ii. To be effective, instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the learner’s goals
C. Result of Experience (Learn by Doing)
i. Learning is an individual process and the learner can learn only from personal experiences
a. Previous experiences condition a person to respond to some things and to ignore others
b. Instructors are faced with the problem of providing learning experiences that are meaningful,
varied, and appropriate
ii. If an experience challenges the learner, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of
past experiences, or physical activity, it is more effective
iii. If learners are to use sound judgment and develop decision making skills, they need learning
experiences that involve knowledge of general principles and require the use of judgment in solving
realistic problems
D. Multifaceted
i. The learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements,
emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once
ii. While learning the subject at hand, learners may be learning other things as well
a. They may be developing attitudes about aviation, they may learn self-reliance, etc.
E. Active Process (Constantly Engage the Learner)
i. If learning is a process of changing behavior, that process must be an active one
a. For learners to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only
inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually
3. Principles of Learning (REEPIR)
A. Principles of learning provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively
B. Readiness
i. Individuals learn best when they’re ready to learn and don’t learn well if there’s no reason to learn
ii. if learners have a strong purpose, clear objective, and a definite reason for learning, they make
more progress than if they lack motivation
iii. Under certain circumstances, the instructor can do little, if anything, to inspire a readiness to learn
a. If outside responsibilities, interests, worries, etc. weigh heavily, they may have little interest
C. Exercise
i. Things most often repeated are best remembered
ii. Learners learn by applying what they have been told and shown
a. Every time practice occurs, learning continues
iii. The instructor must provide opportunities for learners to practice, and at the same time make sure
that this process is directed toward a goal

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I.A. The Learning Process

D. Effect
i. Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling
ii. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the learner positively and
give them a feeling of satisfaction
E. Primacy
i. The state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression
a. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time
ii. Every learner should be started right; Un-teaching is much more difficult than teaching
iii. The first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow
F. Intensity
i. A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience
a. A learner will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute
ii. The instructor should use their imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible
a. Instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aides to improve realism, motivate
learning and challenge learners
G. Recency
i. Things most recently learned are best remembered
a. The further removed time-wise from a new fact/understanding, the more difficult to remember
ii. Repeat, restate, or reemphasize, important points at the end of a lesson to help in remembering
4. Levels of Learning
A. Four Basic Levels
i. Rote Learning – The ability to repeat something which one has been taught, without understanding
or being able to apply what has been learned
ii. Understanding – Comprehension of what has been taught
a. The learner consolidates old and new perceptions into an insight on a subject/maneuver
iii. Application – The skill for applying what has been learned
a. Understands, has had demonstrations, and has practiced until consistent
b. Don’t stop here!
iv. Correlation – Correlation of what has been learned with things previously learned/subsequently
encountered
a. The objective in aviation instruction
b. EX: Can correlate the elements of turn entries with performing lazy eights and chandelles
B. Domains of Learning (What is to be learned: Knowledge, Change in Attitude, Physical Skill, or combo)
i. Besides the 4 basic levels of learning, several additional levels have been developed:
ii. Cognitive Domain (Knowledge); often referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
a. Educational objectives refer to knowledge which might be gained as the result of attending a
ground school, reading about aircraft systems, listening to a preflight briefing, etc.
b. The highest objective level may be shown by learning to properly evaluate a maneuver
Objective Level Action Verbs
Evaluation Assess, evaluate, interpret, judge, rate, score, write
Synthesis Compile, compose, design, reconstruct, formulate
Analysis Compare, discriminate, distinguish, separate
Application Compute, demonstrate, employ, operate, solve
Comprehension Convert, explain, locate, report, restate, select
Knowledge Describe, identify, name, point to, recognize, recall

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I.A. The Learning Process

iii. Affective Domain (Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values)

a. This hierarchy attempts to arrange attitudinal objectives in an order of difficulty
• Measuring educational objectives in this domain is not easy (concerned with attitudes, etc.)
b. Most techniques for evaluation of achievement rely on indirect inferences
• EX: Evaluating a positive attitude toward safety

Objective Level Action Verbs

Characterization Assess, delegate, practice, influence, revise, maintain
Organization Accept responsibility, adhere, defend, formulate
Valuing Appreciate, follow, join, justify, show, concern, share
Responding Conform, greet, help, perform, recite, write
Receiving Ask, choose, give, locate, select, rely, use

iv. Psychomotor Domain (Physical Skills)

a. Typical activities include learning to fly a precision approach, programming a GPS receiver
b. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex, the requirement for integration of
cognitive and physical skills increases
Objective Level Action Verbs
Origination Combine, compose, construct, design, originate
Adaptation Adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganize, revise
Complex Overt Same as below except more highly coordinated
Response
Mechanism Same as below except with greater proficiency
Guided Response Assemble, build, calibrate, fix, grind, mend
Set Begin, move, react, respond, start, select
Perception Choose, detect, identify, isolate, compare
v. All 3 domains of learning are pertinent
a. A high level of knowledge and skill is required as well as a well-developed, positive attitude
5. Learning Physical Skills
A. Knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills
i. Based on extensive practice, which leads to the storage of skill knowledge
B. Stages of Skill Acquisition
i. Cognitive
a. Basis in factual knowledge – learner memorizes the steps to perform a skill
b. Best way to prepare a learner is to provide a clear, step-by-step example
c. Demonstrate the skill emphasizing the steps and techniques
ii. Associative
a. Practice is required to learn the skill
b. Verbal instructions become more meaningful
c. Over time the learner understands how to associate individual steps with likely outcomes
• Begins to assess their progress and make adjustments
iii. Automatic Response
a. Automaticity – Byproduct of practice
b. Less attention is required to perform the skill
• Possible to give attention elsewhere or do other things simultaneously
C. Knowledge of Results
i. As important for learners to know when they are right as when they are wrong
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I.A. The Learning Process

ii. Should be told as soon after the performance as possible, and not allowed to practice mistakes
a. Primacy – Learn it right the first time
D. Developing Skills
i. Progress depends on repeated practice
ii. Learning proceeds at a fast pace in the beginnings and slows as performance becomes more skilled
a. In later stages, learning is more gradual
iii. Learning plateaus are normal
a. Prepare the learner for this
E. Types of Practice
i. Deliberate
a. Learner practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice
ii. Blocked
a. Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic
• Enhances current performance but doesn’t improve concept or long-term learning
iii. Random
a. Mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session
b. Leads to better retention as learner recognizes similarities and differences of each skill
6. Memory
A. General
i. Memory includes 3 parts: Sensory, Short Term, and Long Term
ii. The total system operates like a computer
a. Accepts input, a processing apparatus is contained, storage capability, and an output function
B. Sensory Register (Quick Scan, Precoding)
i. Receives input and quickly processes it according to a preconceived concept of what is important
a. Other factors can influence reception of info
• If it is dramatic or impacts more than one of the senses it is more likely to make an
impression
b. It immediately recognizes certain stimuli and sends them to the working memory for action
• This is called precoding (EX: Fire Alarm – working memory is immediately made aware of the
alarm and preset responses begin to take place)
C. Working or Short-Term Memory (Coding, Rehearsal, Recoding)
i. Within seconds relevant info is passed here where it may temp remain or rapidly fade, depending on
individual priorities
ii. Rehearsal or repetition of the information and sorting or categorization into chucks help retention
a. Sorting process is called Coding (Usually takes 5 - 10 seconds; if interrupted, the information is
lost after 20 seconds)
iii. Time limited and Capacity limited (time limitation can be overcome by repetition)
iv. The coding process may involve recoding to adjust info to individual experiences
a. This is when actual learning begins to take place
b. Recoding: the process of relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in
memory
v. Developing a logical strategy for coding information is a significant step in the learning process
D. Long-Term Memory (Process, Store, Recall)
i. Where information is stored for future use
a. For it to be useful, some special effort must have been expended during the coding process
• The more effective the coding process, the easier the recall
ii. One of the major responsibilities of the instructor is to help learners use their memories effectively
E. Theories of Forgetting (FIRR)
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I.A. The Learning Process

i. Fading
a. A person forgets those things which are not used
b. But the memory is actually there locked in the recesses of the mind
• The difficulty is summoning it up to consciousness
ii. Interference
a. An experience has overshadowed the memory, or the learning of similar things has intervened
b. Two conclusions from interference:
• Similar material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar material
• Material not well learned suffers most from interference
iii. Retrieval Failure
a. Inability to retrieve the information
iv. Repression or Suppression
a. The submersion of ideas into the subconscious mind
b. Memories are pushed out of reach because the individual does not want to remember the
feelings associated with it
• Repression is an unconscious form of forgetting
• Suppression is a conscious form
F. Retention of Learning
i. The instructor needs to make certain that the learner’s learning is readily available for recall
a. Teach thoroughly and with meaning
ii. Praise Stimulates Remembering
iii. Recall is Promoted by Association
a. Each bit of information/action which is associated with something to be learned tends to be
recalled
iv. Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention
a. Without motivation there isn’t learning; the most effective motivation is rewarding objectives
v. Learning with All Senses is Most Effective
vi. Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall (mere repetition does not guarantee retention – Rote)
vii. Mnemonics
a. Pattern of letters, ideas, visual images, or associations to assist in remembering
7. Transfer of Learning
A. Ability to apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context to new contexts
B. Primary Objective is to promote Positive Transfer
i. Positive Transfer - If the learning of skill A helps to learn skill B
a. Slow flight and short field landings
ii. Negative Transfer - If the learning of skill A hinders learning of skill B
a. Landing an airplane vs a helicopter
iii. A degree of transfer is involved in all learning since all learning is based on prior learned experience
a. People interpret new things in terms of what they already know
iv. Achieving Positive Transfer
a. Plan for transfer as a primary objective
b. Make certain the learner understands that what is learned can be applied in other situations
c. Maintain high-order learning standards
d. Avoid unnecessary rote learning
e. Provide meaningful learning experiences that build confidence in the ability to transfer learning
f. Use material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations (make relationships clear)
C. Habit Formation
i. It’s the instructor’s task to insist on correct techniques/procedures to provide proper habit patterns
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I.A. The Learning Process

ii. Training traditionally has followed a building block concept

a. New habit patterns are based on a solid foundation of experience or old learning
D. Understanding
i. Ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of understanding
ii. The deeper we think about what we have learned, the more likely we can retrieve the info later
E. Remembering during Training
i. Threat: Lack of frequent usage in the past
a. Learner needs to engage in regular practice of what was learned
b. Shorter, regularly spaced studying produces results far greater than cramming the night before
ii. Threat: Learner lacks a degree of understanding that may assist with recalling the knowledge
a. Repetition of knowledge along with efforts to increase understanding leads to best results
b. Reading with “study questions” (answering and / or creating study questions)
F. Remembering after Training
i. Continued practice of knowledge and skill is the only means to retaining what was learned
ii. Practice is as important after certification as it was before
iii. Skills that become automatic during training may not remain automatic after a period of disuse
G. Sources of Knowledge
i. Books, photographs, videos, diagrams, charts, etc.
ii. Encourage the learner to gain experience in the real-world
a. Continued flying, observation, communication, etc.
H. Summary of Instructor’s Actions
i. Discuss differences between short-term and long-term memory
ii. Explain the effect of frequent and recent usage of knowledge on remembering and forgetting
iii. Explain the effect of depth of understanding on remembering and forgetting
iv. Encourage the learner use of mnemonic devices while studying
v. Explain the benefits of studying at regularly spaced intervals, and the disadvantages of cramming

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of the learning process by
describing:
1. Learning theories.
2. Characteristics of learning.
3. Principles of learning.
4. Levels of learning.
5. Learning physical skills.
6. Memory.
7. Transfer of learning.

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I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to human behavior and
effective communication as required in the PTS.

Elements 1. Human Behavior

2. Effective Communication

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner will understand the 3 basic elements of the communicative process, recognize the
Standards various barriers to communication, and develop communication skills in order to convey the
desired information to learners.
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Years of thinking people have understood you. Unless you’ve known this stuff, they haven’t.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Basic human needs as well as defense mechanisms and effective communication.

Why
Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience. To successfully accomplish the task of helping bring
about this change, the instructor must know why people act the way they do.

How:
1. Human Behavior
A. Control of Human Behavior
i. Learners tend to submit to authority as a valid means of control
a. The instructor’s challenge is to know what controls are best for existing circumstances
b. Create an atmosphere that enables/encourages learners to help themselves toward their goals
ii. It is the instructor’s responsibility to discover how to realize the potential in each learner
a. See the motivation and human nature generalizations (pg. 2-1)
iii. How to mold a solid, healthy, productive relationship depends on the instructor’s knowledge of
learners as human beings and of the needs, drives, and desires they continually try to satisfy
B. Human Needs
i. Hierarchy of Human Needs – An organization of human needs into levels of importance
a. Until the needs are satisfied, one can’t focus fully on learning, self-expression, or any other task
• WOnce a need is satisfied, it no longer provides motivation
a Thus, the person strives to satisfy the needs of the next higher level
ii. Physiological
a. Food, rest, and protection from the elements
iii. Security
a. Protection against danger, threats,
deprivation affect learner behavior
iv. Belonging
a. Belong, to associate, and to give and receive
friendship and love
• Learners are usually out of their normal
surroundings so this need will be more
pronounced
b. Ensure new learners feel at ease and their
decision to pursue aviation is reinforced
v. Esteem
a. Needs consist of two types:

16
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

• Relating to self-esteem: confidence, independence, achievement, competence, knowledge

• Relating to reputation: status, recognition, appreciation, and respect of associates
b. This may be the main reason for the learner’s interest in aviation
vi. Cognitive & Aesthetic
a. This need was added years after the others
b. Cognitive: Need to know and understand
• Humans have a deep need to understand what is going on around them
c. Aesthetic: Emotional need of the artist
• The concept of simply liking something
• In this case, the instructor / learner relationship
vii. Self-Actualization
a. Realizing one’s own potential for continued development/Reaching personal goals & potential
viii. Help learners satisfy their own needs in a manner that will create a healthy learning environment
C. Defense Mechanisms
i. Subconscious, almost automatic, ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations
a. Used to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings of guilt, and to protect personal worth
ii. Repression
a. Person place uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind
b. Can vary from temporarily forgetting to amnesia
iii. Denial of Reality
a. Refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening
b. Form of repression through which stressful thoughts are banned from memory
c. Minimization is related to denial – accepting what happened but in a diluted form
iv. Compensation
a. Disguising the presence of a weak quality by emphasizing a more positive one
b. May accept and develop a less preferred but more attainable objective instead of a more
preferred but less attainable objective
v. Projection
a. Blame is relegated to others for their own shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions
b. Motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses are attributed to others
vi. Rationalization
a. Subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable
b. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in their excuses
vii. Reaction Formation
a. Person fakes a belief opposite the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety
b. Sometimes individuals protect themselves from dangerous desires by not only repressing them,
but actually developing conscious attitudes and behavior patterns that are just the opposite
viii. Fantasy
a. Learner daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how they are
b. Imagination is used to escape to a fictious world – a world of success or pleasure
ix. Displacement
a. Unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable,
less threatening substitute
D. The Flight Instructor as a Practical Psychologist (Learner Emotional Reactions)
i. Anxiety – “A state of mental uneasiness arising from fear…”
a. Most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction
b. Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing enjoyment of flying, and by teaching to cope with fear

17
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

c. Introduce maneuvers with care so the learner knows what to expect / what their reaction
should be
ii. Impatience
a. Seeks only the ultimate objective without considering the means to reach it
b. Present training one step at a time, with clear goals for each step. Tailor instruction to learner‘s
pace
iii. Worry or Lack of Interest
a. Those worried or emotionally upset are not ready to learn and derive little benefit from
instruction
b. Instruction should be keyed to divert attention from their worries and troubles to the tasks at
hand
c. Ensure the learner knows exactly how well they have progressed and what deficiencies are
present
iv. Physical Discomfort, Illness, Fatigue, and Dehydration
a. Discomforts slow the rate of learning, and should be mitigated to the extent possible
b. Fatigue – one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety. Impairs judgement / decision
making
• Acute Fatigue: Normal occurrence of everyday living
• Chronic Fatigue: Combination of physiological / psychological problems (financial, home,
etc.)
c. Dehydration and Heatstroke
• Dehydration: Critical loss of water to the body. Reduces alertness
• Heatstroke: Inability of the body to control its temperature
• Carry ample water on any long flight, keep the temperature cool, and wear light clothing
v. Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction
a. Provide well-planned, appropriate and accurate instruction
b. Instruction should be meaningful. Teach to the level of the learner. Be professional
c. Once the instructor loses confidence, it is difficult to regain and learning is diminished
vi. Normal Reactions to Stress
a. People respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training
• This is desired, stress should not overwhelm and cause abnormal reactions (below)
vii. Abnormal Reactions to Stress
a. Response may be random, illogical, completely absent or at least inadequate
b. Abnormal Reactions:
• Over-cooperation, extreme self-control, inappropriate laughter / singing, rapid emotion
changes
viii. Flight Instructors Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners
a. Refrain from instructing the learner and assure they don’t continue training / become
certificated
b. This is done by:
• Arrange for another instructor to conduct an evaluation flight. After the flight, the
instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or
action is justified
2. Effective Communication
A. A style of communication must be developed that can convey information (two-way process)
B. Basic Elements
i. Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another

18
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

ii. Its effectiveness is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received
a. Receiver reacts with understanding and changes their behavior accordingly
iii. 3 elements of communication: The Source, The Symbols, The Receiver
iv. The Source (the sender, speaker, transmitter, or instructor)
a. Effectiveness as a communicator is related to 3 basic factors:
• An ability to select and use language is essential for transmitting meaningful symbols
a Effectiveness of communication is dependent on understanding of the words used
• Reveals attitudes toward themselves, ideas being communicated, and learners
a Must reveal a positive attitude
• Material is accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating
a Out of date info causes the instructor to lose credibility in the learner’s eyes
v. The Symbols (words or signs, or simple oral and visual codes)
a. Determine the symbols best to start/end and those best for explaining, clarifying, emphasizing
• Then, determine which medium is best suited for transmission (hearing, seeing, touch)
b. Monitor the feedback from a learner as symbols may need to be modified for clarity
c. Learners need feedback on how they are doing (Negative feedback in private only)
vi. The Receiver (the listener, reader, or learner)
a. Effective communication: When learners react w/understanding and change their behavior
accordingly
b. To change behavior, the learner’s abilities, attitudes, and experiences need to be understood
• Learners come with a wide variety of abilities
a Those abilities must be determined to properly communicate with them
1. This is complicated by differences in age, gender, cultural background, education
• The attitudes learners exhibit may indicate resistance, willingness, or passive neutrality
a To gain and hold attention, attitudes should be in forms that promote reception of info
b A varied communicative approach will succeed best in reaching most learners
• Experience, background, and education level will determine the instructor’s approach
a Learner’s knowledge, with their abilities and attitudes will guide the instructor in comm.
C. Barriers to Effective Communication
i. Lack of Common Experience
a. Greatest single barrier to effective communication
b. A communicator’s words cannot communicate the desired meaning to another person unless he
has had some experience with the objects or concepts to which these words refer
• It is essential that instructors speak the same language as the learners
• If instructor terminology is needed, make certain the learner understands the terminology
c. For communication to be effective, the learner’s understanding of the words must match the
instructor’s
ii. Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
a. This results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent
b. Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to everyone
• Make sure associations are clear
iii. Overuse of Abstractions (Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific)
a. Abstractions do not evoke the intended items of experience in the minds of learners
• Avoid abstractions in most cases
iv. External Factors
a. Factors outside the instructor’s control that prevent an activity from being carried out properly
b. Physiological interference - physical problem inhibiting understanding (injury, hearing loss, etc.)

19
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

c. Environmental interference - caused by external physical conditions (like noise)

d. Psychological interference - product of how the learner / instructor feel
v. Interference
a. Occurs when the message gets disrupted, truncated
• Noise and other factors may distort the message; Psychological factors may interfere
b. Ensure the learner understands the message
D. Developing Communication Skills
i. Role Playing
a. Practice instructing to develop communication skills, techniques, etc.
ii. Instructional Communication
a. Know the topic well
b. Do not be afraid to use examples of past experience to illustrate particular points
c. Determine the level of understanding by use of some sort of evaluation
iii. Listening
a. One way to become better acquainted with learners is to be a good listener (Figure 3-4)
b. Learners also need to want to listen
• Teaching learners how to listen will improve information transfer
c. The pilot must be ready to listen and be responsible for listening
d. Listen to understand, rather than refute
• If certain areas arouse emotion, be aware of this and take extra measures to listen
e. Listen for the main ideas
f. Don’t daydream
g. Take notes (no one can remember everything)
iv. Questioning
a. Good questioning can determine how well a learner understands
b. Ask open ended and focused questions
• Open ended require the learner to explain more fully
• Focused all the instructor to concentrate on desired areas
c. Paraphrasing and perception checking can confirm understanding is in the same way
• Perception checking gets into feelings by stating the instructor’s perceptions of learner
behavior and the learner can clarify them as necessary
v. Instructional Enhancement
a. The deeper the knowledge about an area, the better the instructor is at conveying it

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
An awareness of the 3 basic elements indicates the beginning of the understanding required for the successful
communicator. Recognizing the various barriers to communication further enhances the flow of ideas. The
instructor must develop communication skills in order to convey desired info to learners and recognize that
communication is a two-way process. The true test of whether successful communication has taken place is to
determine if the desire results have been achieved.
PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of human behavior and
effective communication as it applies to the teaching/learning process by describing:
1. Human behavior
a. control of human behavior.
b. human needs.

20
I.B. Human Behavior and Effective Communication

c. defense mechanisms.
d. the flight instructor as a practical psychologist.
2. Effective communication
a. basic elements of communication.
b. barriers of effective communication.
c. developing communication skills.

21
I.C. The Teaching Process

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the teaching process as
required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. General
2. Preparation
3. Presentation
4. Application
5. Review and Evaluation

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the preparation of a lesson, the different presentation methods, how
Standards the learner applies the knowledge, and the importance and use of a review and evaluation.
I.C. The Teaching Process

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
This is how one should structure a lesson in order to properly ensure the necessary knowledge is retained.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The teaching process can be divided into steps; preparation, presentation, application, and review and
evaluation.

Why
Effective teaching is necessary in order to provide a proper learning experience for learners.

How:
1. General
A. Four steps: Preparation, Presentation, Application, Review/Evaluation
2. Preparation
A. A lesson must be planned – Objectives, procedures and facilities, goals to be attained, review/evaluation
B. Performance Based Objectives
i. Set measurable, reasonable standards that describe the desired performance before moving on
a. Objectives must be clear, measurable, and repeatable
ii. Begin writing a lesson with performance-based objectives (PTS or syllabus objectives can be used)
iii. 3 Parts:
a. Description of the Skill or Behavior
• Explains the desired outcome of the instruction
• Should be in concrete terms that can be measured
b. Conditions
• Specifically explain the rules under which the skill or behavior is demonstrated
• Info such as equipment, tools, reference
material, and limiting parameters are
included
c. Criteria
• A list of standards which measure the
accomplishment of the objective
• Criteria should be stated so that there is no
question whether the objective has been
met
d. Decision Based Objectives
• Facilitate a higher level of learning and
application
C. Problem Based Learning
i. Lessons involve problems encountered in real life
and ask learners to find real-world solutions
a. Starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution

23
I.C. The Teaching Process

b. Learner gains a deeper understanding of the information and improves ability to recall
information
ii. Effective Problems
a. Relates to the real world
b. Open ended, not limited to one answer; Require learners to make decisions and think critically
c. Connect to previously learned knowledge and new knowledge
d. Reflect lesson objectives
iii. Teaching HOTS (Higher Order Thinking Skills)
a. Set up the problem
b. Determine learning outcomes for the problem
c. Solve the Problem or Task
d. Reflect on Problem solving process
e. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery
f. Reevaluate solution with additional options
g. Reflect on this solution and why it is the best (Consider what best means)
iv. Scenario Based Training
a. Realistic scenarios allowing mental rehearsal / practical applications of knowledge
b. Good scenario:
• Is not a test
• Will not have one right answer, and does not offer an obvious answer
• Should not promote errors
• Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision making
v. Collaborative Problem Solving
a. Two or more working together to solve a problem
b. Instructor provides assistance only when needed
vi. Case Study Method
a. Written or oral account of a real-world situation used to educate the learner
b. Learners analyze the situation, come to conclusions, and offer possible solutions
3. Presentation
A. Lecture Method
i. Suitable for presenting new material, for summarizing ideas, and for showing relationships
ii. Most effective when combined with instructional aids and training devices
iii. Different Types of Lectures:
a. Illustrated Talk – Relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas
b. Formal Lecture – Purpose is to inform, persuade, or entertain with little learner participation
c. Teaching Lecture – Delivered in a manner that allows some learner participation
B. Guided Discussion Method
i. Goal is to draw out the knowledge of the learner
a. Encourages active participation of the learners
ii. The instructor acts as a facilitator
iii. Useful in areas where learners can use initiative and imagination in addressing problems
C. Computer Assisted Learning Method
i. Couples the computer with multimedia software to create a training device
ii. Reduces manpower, Learners can move at their own rate
iii. Not practical for an entire training program
D. Demonstration-Performance Method
i. Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice
ii. Many lessons can combine the lecture and demonstration-performance methods

24
I.C. The Teaching Process

a. Initial information is given in a lecture; information is then demonstrated / applied in the plane
iii. Five Phases: Explanation, Demonstration, Learner Performance, Instructor Supervision, Evaluation
E. Drill and Practice Method
i. Connections are strengthened with practice
ii. Learn by practicing and applying what they have been told and shown
F. Be familiar with as many methods as possible
4. Application (Where the learner uses what the instructor has presented)
A. The learner may be asked to explain the material, or perform a procedure
i. The instructor will have to watch for mistakes and provide further demonstrations if necessary
a. It is very important each learner learns the right way the first few times (Primacy)
B. Periodic review and evaluation is necessary to ensure bad habits have not been acquired
5. Review and Evaluation
A. Learners should be made aware of the progress and ensure standards are met before moving on
B. Feedback must adequately compare the performance to the completion standards of the lesson
C. If deficiencies not associated with the present lesson are noted, they should be pointed out and fixed
D. The instructor and the learner have a valid picture of where the learner is in respect to the standards

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the teaching process by describing:
1. Preparation of a lesson for a ground or flight instructional period.
2. Presentation methods.
3. Application, by the student, of the material or procedure that was presented.
4. Review and evaluation of student performance.
5. Problem-based learning.

25
I.D. Teaching Methods

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the different teaching
methods as described in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Material Organization

2. The Lecture Method
3. The Group Learning Method
4. The Guided Discussion Method
5. The Demonstration-Performance Method
6. Computer Based Training Method
7. Scenario Based Training Method

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner can organize material and select and properly utilize a teaching method
Standards appropriate to the particular lesson.
I.D. Teaching Methods

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Do you ever wonder how or why an instructor decided to teach you material in a certain way?

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Teaching methods are specific recommendations for the actual conduct of the teaching process.

Why
These methods and procedures have been tested and found to be effective. Implementation of these
methods will complement learner learning.

How:
1. Material Organization
A. Introduction (Sets the stage for everything to come)
i. Attention (Focuses the learner’s attention on the lesson)
a. Begin by telling a story, an unexpected, surprising statement, ask a question, tell a joke
• Regardless of what is used, it should relate to the subject and establish a background
ii. Motivation (Offers specific reasons why the lesson content is important)
a. Talk about a situation where the knowledge/skill was applied
b. It should engender a desire to learn the material
iii. Overview (Tells what will be covered during the lesson)
a. A clear/concise presentation of the objective/key ideas gives a road map of what will be covered
B. Development (The main part of the lesson)
i. Develop the subject matter in a manner that helps achieve the desired learning outcomes
a. The info must be logically organized to show relationships between main points
ii. Relationships are shown by developing main points in one of the following ways:
a. Past to Present
• Subject matter is arranged chronologically, from past to present or present to past
• This is most suitable when history is an important consideration (radio nav development)
b. Simple to Complex
• The learner is lead from simple facts/ideas to an understanding of involved concepts
c. Known to Unknown
• By using something the known as the point of departure, new concepts/ideas are reached
d. Most Frequently Used to Least Frequently Used
• Start with common usage before proceeding to the rarer ones
C. Conclusion (Retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective)
i. Reinforces learning and improves retention
2. The Lecture Method
A. General
i. Used for introduction of new subjects, summarizing ideas, showing relationships between theory
and practice, and reemphasizing main points
ii. Several different types of lectures:

27
I.D. Teaching Methods

a.Illustrated Talk – The speaker relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas
b.Briefing – a concise array of facts is presented without elaboration of supporting material
c.Formal Lecture – Inform, persuade, or entertain with little or no learner participation
d.Informal Lecture – Involves active learner participation
e.Teaching Lecture – Oral presentation in a manner that allows some learner participation
• Favored by aviation instructors because it allows active participation
B. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture
i. Advantages
a. Easy to instruct large groups
b. Economical - Many ideas can be presented in a short time
c. Suitable for introducing a new subject and explaining necessary background info
• Present info that can be difficult for a learner to get in other ways
• Can offer learners with varied backgrounds a common understanding of principles and facts
d. Supplements other teaching devices and methods
ii. Disadvantages
a. Can inhibit participation and the instructor does all the work
• Tend to foster passiveness and teach dependence
b. Doesn’t bring about maximum attainment of certain types of learning (motor skills for example)
c. Learner understanding cannot be easily estimated
d. Difficult to hold attention (retention drop after 10/15 min)
C. Teaching Lecture
i. Preparing
a. Establishing the Objective and Desired Outcomes (what should the learner be able to do)
b. Research the Subject
c. Organizing Material (How will the information be discussed, there should be a logical order)
d. Planning Productive Classroom Activities (Quiz, projects, games, etc.)
ii. Suitable Language
a. Simple rather than complex words should be used whenever possible
b. Specific rather than general words should be used
c. Vary the tone of voice and pace of speaking
• Vary sentence length (short and medium length sentences)
iii. Types of Delivery
a. Speaking extemporaneously from an outline
• The best delivery: it is more personalized, more flexible, and holds learner attention better
b. Reading from a manuscript
c. Reciting memorized material without a manuscript
d. Speaking impromptu without preparation
iv. Use of Notes
a. Jog the memory, dispel the fear of forgetting, and are essential for complicated info
b. Should be used sparingly and unobtrusively
3. Cooperative or Group Learning Method
A. General
i. Learners are organized into groups to work together, maximizing their own/each other’s learning
ii. Learners tend to have higher test scores, self-esteem, social skills, and comprehension of the subject
iii. Most significant characteristic: Continually requires active participation of the learner
B. Conditions and Controls (For success, certain conditions must be met/certain controls must be in place)

28
I.D. Teaching Methods

i. Small, Diverse Groups

a. Small groups of 3-6 that are mixed heterogeneously, considering academic abilities, ethnic
backgrounds, race and gender
b. The main advantages are interaction at higher levels/in ways rarely found otherwise
• Tolerance of diverse viewpoints, consider thoughts/feelings of others, seek more support
and clarification of various opinions
ii. Clear, Complete Instructions
a. What learners are to do, in what order, with what materials
b. When appropriate, what learners are to do as evidence of their mastery of the content / skills
iii. Learner Perception of Targeted Objectives as their own, Personal Objectives
a. The instructor must describe clear and specific learning objectives
b. Learners must perceive these objectives as their own
c. They must understand and believe that everyone needs to master the essential info
iv. Opportunity for Success
a. Every learner must believe they have an equal chance of learning the content / abilities
b. Must not feel penalized for being placed in a particular group
v. Access to and comprehension of required information
a. Learners need access to and be able to comprehend the specific info they must learn
vi. Sufficient Time for Learning
a. If learners do not spend sufficient time learning, the benefits will be limited
vii. Individual Accountability
a. Main reason groups are used is so to individually achieve greater success than if studying alone
b. Each learner must be held accountable for doing their own share of the work and learning
viii. Recognition and Rewards for Group Success
a. Only groups that meet the established levels for achievement receive the rewards or recognition
b. Must be something valued by the learners
ix. Time for Reflection / Debrief on Group Efforts
a. Learners should spend time to reflect on how they worked together as a team and what they
can do to be more successful
x. From prior version of Aviation Instructor’s Handbook:
a. Positive Social Interaction Behaviors and Attitudes
• Learners should be positioned face to face for direct eye contact and face to face
conversations
• Instructors need to describe the expected social interaction behaviors and attitudes of
learners
a Particular learners should be given specific roles
b. Positive Interdependence
• Learning tasks should be structured so that learners sink or swim together
a Tasks are structured so that learners must depend on one another for success
4. Guided Discussion Method
A. General
i. The instructor acts as a facilitator to encourage discussion
ii. Learners provide ideas, experiences, opinions, and information
iii. The goal is to draw out what the learners know rather than tell them
B. Use of Questions
i. Learning is achieved through the use of skillful questions
a. Effective use of questions may result in more learning than any other single technique
ii. Lead-Off Question – Opens up the area of discussion

29
I.D. Teaching Methods

a. Function – Leads off the discussion

b. Purpose – Get the discussion started
iii. Follow-Up Question
a. Reasons for this vary; the learner may need to explain something more, or the discussion needs
to be refocused
iv. Overhead Question – Directed toward the entire group to stimulate everyone
v. Rhetorical Question – Also spurs group thought, but the instructor asks and answers it
a. More commonly used in lecture than guided discussion
vi. Direct Question – Directed to an individual learner
vii. Reverse Question – Rather than answer, the instructor can redirect a question to another learner
viii. Relay Question – Redirected to the group rather than an individual
ix. In general, ask open ended questions that are thought provoking and don’t just require repetition
C. Characteristics of an Effective Question
i. Applies to the subject of instruction
ii. Brief and concise, but also clear and definite
iii. Adapted to the learner’s ability, experience, and stage of training
iv. Centers on one idea
v. Presents a challenge
D. Planning (Similar to planning a lecture)
i. Select a topic the learners can profitably discuss (learners have to have knowledge)
a. If necessary, assign study to provide the required background
ii. State the specific objective at the understanding level of learning
a. Desired learning outcomes should stem from the learning objective
iii. Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic
iv. Organize the main and subordinate points of the lesson in a logical sequence
a. 3 main parts: Intro, discussion, conclusion – just like a lecture
v. Plan at least one lead off question for each desired learning outcome (How/Why questions)
a. Purpose is to stimulate discussion, not merely get answers
E. Learner Preparation
i. Help the learners prepare – make them aware of the lesson objective as they prepare
ii. If possible, provide preliminary work to build their knowledge
F. Guiding a Discussion
i. Introduction
a. Introduced the same way as a lecture but provide a lead off question at the end of the intro
ii. Discussion
a. After asking a question, be patient, and provide the learners time to react
b. By using how and why follow-up questions, the discussion can be guided toward the objective
c. Once the learners have discussed the info, the instructor should summarize
• The interim summary is one of the most useful things available to the instructor
a It brings ideas together and helps in transition
iii. Conclusion
a. Summarize the material covered and tie together the various points discussed
b. Any material not understood should be re-clarified
G. Advantages
i. Learners listen and learn from the instructor as well as each other
ii. Open-ended questions lead to concepts of risk management and ADM
iii. Calls for higher order thinking skills exposes the learner to the decision-making process
5. Demonstration Performance

30
I.D. Teaching Methods

A. Based on the Learn by Doing principle – learners learn physical/mental skills by doing
B. Explanation Phase
i. The instructor must convey the precise actions to be performed and the end result of these efforts
a. Encourage learners to ask questions about any step of the procedure they do not understand
C. Demonstration Phase
i. Show the actions necessary to perform a skill
a. If the demonstration does not conform to the explanation, the deviation should be immediately
acknowledged and explained
D. Learner Performance and Instructor Supervision Phase
i. Learners are given an opportunity to perform the skill
ii. The instructor supervises the performance
E. Evaluation Phase
i. The instructor judges learner performance to see if the desired outcomes were met, if not try again
a. From this measurement, the instructor determines the effectiveness of instruction
6. Computer Based Training (The use of personal computers as training devices)
A. Learners can progress at a rate which is comfortable to them and at their own convenience
B. Some presentations vary based on the learner’s responses
i. Learners can learn about particular areas of interest or areas of need
C. The computer should be thought of as a very valuable tool to be used to aid the instructor
D. Limitations
i. Excessive use should be avoided (Don’t have it teach the learner and then have them demonstrate)
ii. The instructor should be actively involved with learners when using instructional aids
iii. The computer does not know when a learner is having difficulty and the instructor must monitor
progress and intervene when necessary
7. Scenario Based Training (SBT)
A. Problem Based Learning
i. Starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution
a. Learners are given a real-life problem and are asked to find a real-world solution
ii. Learner gains a deeper understanding and improved ability to recall information
a. Develops High Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
iii. Basic Approach to Teaching HOTS
a. Set up the problem
b. Determine learning outcomes
c. Solve the problem or task
d. Reflect on problem-solving process
e. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery
f. Reevaluate solution with additional options
g. Reflect on this solution and why it could be the best solution
h. Consider what “best” means (is it situational?)
B. Scenario Based Training – a type of Problem Based Learning
i. Realistic real-world situation used to address training objectives
ii. Overall objective: Learner to be more ready to exercise sound judgement and make good decisions
a. Instructor should understand in advance which outcomes are positive/negative and give the
learner freedom to make both good and poor decisions without jeopardizing safety
• Allows learner to make decisions that fit their experience level & result in positive outcomes
C. A good scenario:
i. Not a test
ii. Doesn’t have one right answer

31
I.D. Teaching Methods

iii.
Doesn’t offer an obvious answer
iv.Should not promote errors
v. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision making
vi.From a prior version of the Aviation Instructors Handbook:
a. Has a clear set of objectives
b. Is tailored to the needs of the learner
c. Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment
D. There is no list of “canned” scenarios that can be used for all learners
i. Instructors must learn to devise their own scenarios by considering what each learner needs to
practice, and exploiting features of the local environment that allow them to do it
E. Other types of Problem Based Learning
i. Collaborative – Problem is given to a group who then solves it
ii. Case Study – Real life case is used as the scenario

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
An effective instructor needs to be familiar with as many teaching methods as possible. The instructor’s success
is determined to a large degree by the ability to organize material and to select and utilize a teaching method
appropriate to a particular lesson.

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of the teaching methods by
describing:
1. Material organization.
2. The lecture method.
3. The cooperative or group learning method.
4. The guided discussion method.
5. The demonstration-performance method.
6. Computer-based training method.
7. Scenario-based training method.

32
I.E. Critique and Evaluation

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to the critique and evaluation
as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Critique
2. Evaluation
3. Collaborative Assessment
4. Performance Tests

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner has the ability to properly critique and evaluate learners using the methods and
Standards characteristics described.
I.E. Critique and Evaluation

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
The dreaded tests and awful instructor critiques, this is how you do it.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The critique refers to the instructor’s role as a critic, and the evaluation portion discusses creating and
conducting effective evaluations.

Why
The instructor must be able to appraise learner performance and convey this information back to the learner.
Also, throughout a course, and at the end of a course, a learner must be evaluated to measure and document
whether or not the course objectives have been met.

How:
1. Critique
A. Purpose
i. Should provide the learner with something constructive they can work on
ii. Provide direction and guidance to raise their level of performance
iii. Can be used for re-teaching in the case that several learners falter at the same step
B. Characteristics
i. Objective
a. Focused on learner performance, not personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases
b. To be objective, a critique must be honest, and based on the performance as it was
ii. Flexible
a. The performance must be examined in the context it was accomplished
b. Fit the tone, technique and content of the critique to the occasion as well as the learner
c. Allow for variables and be flexible to satisfy the requirements of the moment
iii. Acceptable
a. Before accepting the critique, learners must accept the instructor
• Must be confident in qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence and authority
b. Present it fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of competence
iv. Comprehensive
a. Cover strengths AND weaknesses
b. What will provide the greatest benefit?
• A few major points or more minor points
• Critique what most needs improved or only what can be reasonably expected to improve
v. Constructive
a. The critique is pointless unless the learner profits from it
b. Don’t offer a negative critique without a solution
vi. Organized
a. It needs to follow some pattern of organization otherwise it may lose its impact
• Any pattern is acceptable as long as it is logical and makes sense to learner and instructor

34
I.E. Critique and Evaluation

b. Options include:
• The sequence of the performance itself
• Work backward from where the demonstration failed (or was successful)
• Break the whole into parts or build the parts into a whole
vii. Thoughtful
a. Reflects thoughtfulness to self-esteem, recognition, and approval from others
• Ridicule, anger, or fun at a learner’s expense have no place in a critique
viii. Specific (rather than general)
a. Tell the learner why something was not good and how to improve it
b. Learners should have no doubt what was good, and what was poor, and how they can improve
C. Methods
i. Instructor/Learner
a. The instructor leads a group discussion in which learners offer criticism of a performance
• This should be controlled carefully and directed with a firm purpose (not a free-for-all)
ii. Learner-Led
a. A learner is asked to lead the critique
b. This can generate learner interest and learning, and be effective
iii. Small Group
a. Small groups are assigned a specific area to analyze and present their findings on
• Results in a comprehensive critique
iv. Individual Learner Critique by another Learner
a. Another learner is requested to present the entire critique
• The instructor must maintain firm control over the process
v. Self-Critique
a. A learner is required to critique personal performance
b. Do not leave controversial issues unresolved, or erroneous impressions uncorrected
c. Make sure the learner realizes the mistakes
vi. Written Critique
a. 3 advantages
• Instructor can devote more time and thought to it
• The learner can keep written critiques and refer to them whenever they wish
• The learner has record of suggestions, recommendations, and opinions of all other learners
b. Disadvantage is that the other members of the class do not benefit
D. Ground Rules
i. Do not extend the critique beyond its scheduled time limit and into time allotted for other activities
a. Point of diminishing returns is reached very quickly
b. No more than 10 – 15 min (Definitely not more than 30 min)
ii. Avoid trying to cover too much
a. Get the main points (4-5 things to correct at most)
iii. Avoid absolute statements (most rules have exceptions)
iv. Avoid controversies with the class and don’t take sides
v. Never allow yourself to maneuvered into defending criticism
a. Don’t let the learner argue and tell you that you are wrong
vi. If part of the critique is written, ensure it is consistent with the oral portion
vii. Allow time for a summary of the critique to reemphasize the most important things to remember

35
I.E. Critique and Evaluation

2. Evaluation
A. Purpose – To determine how a learner is progressing in the course
i. Evaluations: Oral Quiz, Written Test, Performance Test
B. Oral Questions
i. Characteristics of Effective Oral Questions:
a. Apply to the subject of instruction
b. Brief and concise, but also clear and definite
c. Adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learners
d. Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, where, when, how, or why, not a combination
e. Present a challenge to the learner
f. Demand and deserve the use of proper English
ii. Types of Questions to Avoid
a. Puzzle Questions
b. Oversize
c. Toss-up
d. Bewilderment
e. Trick Questions
f. Irrelevant Questions
g. “Do you understand?” / ”Do you have any questions?” have no place in effective quizzing
C. Responding to Learner Questions
i. The question must be clearly understood by the instructor before an answer is attempted
ii. Display interest in the learner’s question and frame an answer that’s direct and accurate
iii. Determine whether the question has been completely answered, and if the answer is satisfactory
iv. If it is unwise to introduce more complicated info explain that the Q was pertinent but an answer
would complicate the learning tasks and reintroduce the Q later in training if it’s not covered
v. If an answer is unknown, freely admit not knowing, but promise to get the answer or help look it up
D. Written Questions
i. Characteristics of a Good Written Test
a. Reliability – The degree to which test results are consistent with repeated measurements
• Does the test give consistent measurement to a particular individual or group
b. Validity – the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
• The most important consideration in test evaluation
• Items that do not pertain directly to the objectives of the course should be removed
c. Usability – Refers to the functionality of tests
• Easily read, clear and concise, clearly used and drawn graphics, easily graded
d. Objectivity – Describes singleness of scoring of a test
• Biases of the person grading are not reflected (Easily graded in a fair manner)
e. Comprehensiveness – The degree to which a test measures the overall objectives
• A test must sample an appropriate cross section of the objectives of instruction
f. Discrimination – The degree to which a test distinguishes the difference between learners
• A test must be able to measure small differences in achievement in relation to the
objectives
• When constructed this way, it has 3 features:
a A wide range of scores
b All levels of difficulty are included
c Each item distinguishes between high and low achievers of course objectives
ii. Developing Written Test Questions – Each item:

36
I.E. Critique and Evaluation

a. Should test a concept or idea that is important the learner knows/understands

b. Should be worded in a simple, direct, and unambiguous way
• Edit for brevity
• Stated so that everyone competent in the area would agree on the correct response
• Stated in language the learner will understand
c. Should include sketches, diagrams, etc. when necessary to visualize the problem/add realism
d. Should present a problem that demands knowledge of the subject or course
3. Collaborative Assessment (Learner Centered Grading)
A. Collaborative Critique
i. Open-ended questions to guide the learner through a complete self-assessment
ii. Replay
a. Learner verbally replays the flight or procedure
b. Instructor listens for areas that don’t seem accurate / discusses discrepancies with the learner
iii. Reconstruct
a. Identify the key things the learner would have, could have, or should have done differently
iv. Reflect
a. Insights come from investing perceptions and experiences with meaning, requiring reflection
• Ex: Most important thing you learned today? Or What was easiest / hardest part of session?
v. Redirect
a. Help relate lessons from this session to other experiences, and how they can help in the future
B. Collaborative Assessment uses 2 rubrics
i. Rubric: Guide for scoring performance assessments in a reliable, fair, and valid manner
ii. Maneuver or Procedure Grades
a. Describe: Can describe physical characteristics & cognitive elements of the scenario but needs
assistance to execute the procedure successfully
b. Explain: Can describe the scenario and understand concepts/principles/procedures but needs
assistance to execute the procedure successfully
c. Practice: Can plan/execute the scenario/ Coaching will correct deviations and errors
d. Perform: Can perform the activity without instructor assistance
e. Not Observed: Event not accomplished or required
iii. Assessing Risk Management Skills
a. Explain: Can verbally identify, describe, and understand the risks inherent in the scenario, but
needs to be prompted to identify risks and make decisions
b. Practice: Can identify, understand, and apply SRM principles to the actual flight situation
• Coaching quickly corrects minor deviations and errors
• Learner is an active decision maker
c. Manage-Decide: Can correctly gather the most important data, identify possible courses of
action, evaluate the risk in each one, and make the appropriate decision
• Instructor intervention is not required
C. Advantages
i. Actively involves the learner
ii. Establishes habit of healthy reflection and self-assessment critical to being a safe pilot
iii. Grades are not self-esteem related (no A+ or outstanding), but rather a level of performance
iv. Can’t flunk a lesson, instead the learner demonstrates a level of flight and SRM skills
4. Performance Tests
A. Characteristics
i. Criterion Referenced because the objective is for all applicants to meet the FAR standards

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I.E. Critique and Evaluation

a. Criterion Referenced: Performance is evaluated against a written, measurable standard

ii. The PTS’ purpose is to delineate the standards by which FAA inspectors and DPE conduct tests
iii. Parts include Areas of Operations (AO) and Tasks
a. AOs define phases of the practical test arranged in a logical sequence within each standard
b. Tasks are titles of knowledge areas/flight procedures/maneuvers appropriate to an AO
B. Uses
i. The instructor trains the applicants to PTS acceptable standards in all areas
ii. Purpose of the PTS / ACS is to delineate the standards by which examiners conduct tests
iii. The evaluation of the learner is only in relation to the standards listed in the PTS
a. Although learners should be trained to the very highest level possible

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of critique and evaluation by
describing:
1. Critique
a. purpose and characteristics of an effective critique.
b. methods and ground rules for a critique.
2. Evaluation
a. characteristics of effective oral questions and what types to avoid.
b. responses to student questions.
c. characteristics and development of effective written test.
d. characteristics and uses of performance tests, specifically, the FAA Practical Test Standards.
e. collaborative assessment (or learner-centered grading (LCG)).

38
I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to flight instructor
characteristics and responsibilities as necessary in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities

2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities
3. Professionalism

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner understands the responsibilities associated with instructing as well as the
Standards characteristics related to being a professional.
I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
These are the characteristics that will make you a great flight instructor, and the responsibilities of being one.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This discusses the scope of responsibilities for instructors and enumerates methods they can use to enhance
their professional image and conduct.

Why
It is important that aviation instructors not only know how to teach, but they also need to project a
knowledgeable and professional image.

How:
1. Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
A. Providing Adequate Instruction
i. Carefully and correctly analyze each learner’s personality, thinking, and ability
a. The same instruction cannot be equally effective for each learner
ii. Incorrectly analyzing a learner may result in the instruction not producing the desired outcome
iii. Learners experiencing slow progress due to discouragement/lack of confidence should be assigned
sub-goals which are easier to attain than the normal learning goals
a. Complex lessons can be broken down into elements, and each element can be practiced,
culminating with the entire maneuver
b. As confidence and ability are gained, difficulty should be increased until progress is normal
iv. Fast learners may assume correcting errors is unimportant since they make few mistakes
a. This overconfidence may soon result in faulty performance
b. For such learners, constantly raise the standard of performance for each lesson
v. Individuals learn when they are aware of their errors
a. But deficiencies should not be invented
B. Establishing Standards of Performance
i. Instructors fail to provide competent instruction when they permit their learners to get by with
substandard performance, or without learning thoroughly some necessary item of knowledge
ii. Accepting lower standards to please a learner does not result in a genuine improvement in the
learner-instructor relationship
a. An earnest learner does not resent reasonable standards that are fairly/consistently applied
C. Emphasizing the Positive
i. The way instructors conduct themselves, the attitudes displayed, and the manner instruction is
developed all contribute to the formation of either positive or negative impressions by their learners
ii. The success of an instructor depends, in large measure, on the ability to present instruction so that
learners develop a positive image of aviation
iii. Every reasonable effort should be made so instruction is given under the most favorable conditions
iv. Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results in positive learning

40
I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

2. Flight Instructor Responsibilities

A. Student Pilot Evaluation
i. Demonstrated Ability
a. Evaluation of ability during flight must be based on established standards of performance
b. These standards should be modified to apply to the learner’s experience
ii. Keep the Learner Informed of Progress
a. Keep learner up to date with progress
• Maintain a record
b. When explaining errors, point out elements where deficiencies are believed to have originated
• If possible, suggest appropriate corrective measures
iii. Correction of Errors
a. Often better to let learners make a mistake and get out of it on their own (safety permitting)
b. If the procedure is performed correctly but not fully understood require it to be varied
c. Or, combine it with other operations, or apply the same elements to another maneuver
B. Pilot Supervision
i. Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to solo ops
a. This is by far the most important responsibility since the instructor is the only person in a
position to make the determination that a learner is ready for solo ops
ii. Before endorsing solo flight, the learner should display consistent ability to perform the maneuvers
a. The learner should also be capable of handling ordinary problems that might occur
C. Practical Test Recommendations
i. Signing a recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the instructor
a. Learners should show a thorough demonstration of the knowledge and skill level necessary
• This demonstration should be in NO INSTANCE less than the complete procedure in the PTS
ii. If a learner is unprepared, the instructor is logically held accountable for deficient performance
iii. Examiners rely on recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification
iv. Be very protective of your record – Never sign someone off who is not ready
a. This is not good for the instructor’s record or for the learner
D. Flight Instructor Endorsements (AC 61-65)
i. Failure to ensure that a learner pilot meets the requirements of regulations prior to endorsing solo
flight is a serious deficiency in performance - the instructor is held accountable
a. This is also a breach of faith with the learner
ii. Other endorsements are also necessary
a. Flight reviews, IPCs, additional ratings, completion of prerequisites for a practical test
b. A record must be maintained of all endorsements
E. Additional Training Endorsements (AC 61-98)
i. Flight Reviews
a. This is not a test/check ride, but an instructional service designed to assess knowledge and skill
b. Must be based on specific objectives and standards
• Should include a thorough checkout appropriate to certificate/ratings held
• Before beginning agree fully on the objectives and standards
• As training progresses keep the pilot informed of progress toward achieving the goals
ii. Instrument Proficiency Checks
a. Use the Instrument PTS as the primary reference for the associated maneuvers and tolerances
iii. Aircraft Checkouts/Transitions (High performance, tailwheels, high altitude training)
a. By performing these, you are accepting a major responsibility for the safety of future passengers
b. All checkouts should be conducted to the performance standards shown in the PTS

41
I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

c. Do not attempt to checkout a pilot in an airplane you are not current in

d. Record in the pilot’s logbook the exact extent of any checkout conducted
e. If insufficient, thoroughly debrief the pilot and schedule further instruction
3. Professionalism
A. Personal Characteristics
i. Sincerity
a. Be straight forward and honest
b. Do not attempt to hide some inadequacy behind a smokescreen or unrelated instruction
• Teaching is based upon acceptance of the instructor as qualified, and an expert pilot
ii. Acceptance of the Learner
a. The instructor must accept all learners as they are, including all faults and problems
b. Under no circumstance should the instructor do something which implies degrading the learner
c. Acceptance, rather than ridicule, and support, rather than reproof, will encourage learning
iii. Personal Appearance and Habits
a. Instructors are expected to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed
• Attire worn should be to a professional status
b. Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional image
• Exercising common courtesy is perhaps the most important of these
a A rude, thoughtless, inattentive instructor cannot hold anyone’s respect
• Personal cleanliness is important as well (it can be distracting)
iv. Demeanor
a. Attitude and behavior can contribute much to a professional image
• Requires development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor
b. Instruction is best done with a calm, pleasant, thoughtful approach putting the learner at ease
c. The instructor must constantly portray competence in the subject matter and genuine interest
in the learner’s well being
B. Minimizing Learner Frustration
i. Motivate Learners
a. More can be gained from wanting to learn than being forced to learn
• When learners see the benefits or purpose of a lesson their enjoyment/efforts will increase
ii. Keep Learners Informed
a. Learners feel insecure when they don’t know what is expected/what will happen to them
• Telling learners what is expected of them and what they can expect in return
b. Keep learners informed by:
• Giving them an overview of the course, keeping them posted on progress and giving
adequate notice of exams, assignments, or other requirements
• Talk about money when necessary
iii. Approach Learners as Individuals
a. Each individual within a group has a unique personality that should be constantly considered
iv. Give Credit When Due
a. Praise/credit from the instructor usually is ample reward and provides an incentive to do better
• Praise pays dividends, but when given too freely it becomes valueless
v. Criticize Constructively
a. It is important to identify mistakes and failures
b. If the learner is briefed on the errors AND is told how to correct them, progress can be made
vi. Be Consistent
a. Learners have a keen interest in knowing what is required to please the instructor

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I.F. Flight Instructor Characteristics and Responsibilities

• The instructor’s philosophy and actions must be consistent to avoid learner confusion
vii. Admit Errors: Covering up errors tends to destroy confidence in the instructor
a. Honestly acknowledging mistakes can win the respect of learners
viii. Be Well Prepared (Over prepare) – Not in Aviation Instructor Handbook
a. Learners are spending a lot of money and deserve a well-prepared instructor

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of instructor responsibilities
and professionalism by describing:
1. Aviation instructor responsibilities in-
a. providing adequate instruction.
b. establishing standards of performance.
c. emphasizing the positive.
2. Flight instructor responsibilities in-
a. providing student pilot evaluation and supervision.
b. preparing practical test recommendations and endorsements.
c. determining requirements for conducting additional training and endorsement requirements.
3. Professionalism as an instructor by-
a. explaining important personal characteristics.
b. describing methods to minimize student frustration.

43
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity

References: Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)

Objectives The learner should develop knowledge of the elements related to planning instructional
activity as required in the CFI PTS.

Elements 1. Developing Objectives and Standards

2. Building Blocks of Learning
3. Developing a Training Syllabus
4. Lesson Plans
5. Scenario Based Training

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner has the ability to effectively and properly plan instructional activity. The learner
Standards can develop objectives and standards for a training course, he understands the use of the
building blocks of learning, and is aware of the requirements for developing a training syllabus,
as well as the purpose and characteristics of a lesson plan.
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Want to be your own boss, and have your own flight school? This is oriented to the instructor who may be
instructing independently.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The planning required by the instructor as it relates to the course of training, blocks of learning, training
syllabus, and lesson plans.

Why
Learning to plan instructional activity effectively results in high-quality training on an individual basis.

How:
1. Developing Objectives and Standards
A. Before any important instruction can begin, a determination of objectives and standards in necessary
B. Objectives (Performance Based & Decision Based)
i. Performance Based: Define exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson
a. Set measurable, reasonable standards that describe the desired performance before moving on
• Objectives must be clear, measurable, and repeatable
b. 3 Parts:
• Description of the Skill or Behavior
a Explains the desired outcome of the instruction
b Should be in concrete terms that can be measured
• Conditions
a Specifically explain the rules under which the skill or behavior is demonstrated
b Info such as equipment, tools, reference material, and limiting parameters are included
• Criteria
a A list of standards which measure the accomplishment of the objective
b Criteria should be stated so that there is no question whether the objective has been
met
• Decision Based Objectives
a Facilitate a higher level of learning and application
c. Progressing through higher levels of performance, shift focus to decision-based objectives
ii. Decision Based: Teach learners critical thinking skills, such as risk management and ADM
a. Ideally suited to scenario-based training
b. Scenarios teach the learner to gather information and make informed, safe, and timely decisions
c. Does not preclude the use of traditional maneuver-based training
• Rather, once the maneuvers are learned, they are integrated into realistic flight situations
iii. Use of Objectives
a. Help an instructor design a complete lesson plan
b. Objectives should incorporate the desired level of learning
• May apply to one or more of the domains of learning (Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor)

45
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity

• Instructor adapts training objectives to a specific performance level of knowledge or skill

c. Cleary defined objectives that the learner understands:
• Provides the learner with a better understanding of the big picture, and what is expected
• Alleviates uncertainty and frustration
C. Standards
i. Closely tied to objectives, since they include a description of the desired knowledge, behavior, or
skill stated in specific terms, along with conditions and criteria
ii. When a learner performs according to well-defined standards, evidence of learning is apparent
iii. Comprehensive examples of the desired learning outcomes, or behaviors, should be included
a. Writing standards for affective learning can be more difficult than cognitive/psychomotor
D. PTS / ACS
i. The overall objective of a training course is usually well established, and the general standards are
included in various rules and related publications
a. For ex, eligibility, knowledge, proficiency, and experience requirements are stipulated in the
regulations and standards are published in the applicable PTS / ACS
ii. Instructional objectives should extend beyond those listed in publications
a. Successful instructors teach not only how, but also why and when
2. Building Blocks of Learning
A. The blocks of learning constitute the necessary parts of the total training objectives
B. Early identification of the foundation of blocks of learning is essential
i. They should represent units of learning which can be measured and evaluated
C. By developing blocks, a learner can master the segments (blocks) individually
i. The blocks can be progressively combined with other segments until reaching the overall objective
D. When identifying the blocks of learning for each training activity, be sure that it is truly integral
i. Extraneous blocks of instruction are expensive frills, and detract from the final objective
E. Any learner problems can be divided into blocks of learning in order to help solve that problem
i. Ex. Steep turns can be broken into blocks which can be mastered or fixed to perfect the maneuver
3. Training Syllabus Development Requirements
A. Big Picture
i. Designed to provide a road map showing how to accomplish the overall objective of a course
ii. Intended to be a summary of a course of training
iii. Should be fairly brief but comprehensive enough to cover the essential information
B. Format & Content
i. The syllabus should always be in the form of an abstract or digest of the course training
a. It should include blocks of learning to be completed in the most efficient order
ii. Effective training relies on organized blocks of learning
a. Therefore, all syllabi should stress well defined objectives and standards for each lesson
• Appropriate objectives/standards should be established for:
a The overall course
b The separate flight and ground segments
c Each stage of training
• Other details may be added to explain how to use it / describe pertinent reference materials
C. Using a Training Syllabus
i. The syllabus must be flexible, and should be used primarily as a guide
a. When necessary, the order of training should be altered to suit progress / special demands
b. Departing from the syllabus, the instructor must consider the effects on the learning blocks
ii. Ground Lessons
a. Concentrate on the cognitive domain of learning

46
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity

• But many areas concern safety/ADM/judgment which are related to the affective domain
a Thus, instructors who can stress these factors along with traditional aviation subjects
can favorably influence a learner’s attitudes, beliefs, and values
iii. Flight Lessons
a. Generally, emphasize the psychomotor domain
• Affective domain is also important
a Thus, attitude toward flight safety, ADM, and judgment should be a major concern
b. Should include risk management instruction
• Throughout training include increasingly more subtle risks so the learner becomes more
skilled in identifying them
D. A syllabus should include special emphasis areas that are cause factors in accidents or incidents
i. Ex. Emphasize collision and wake turbulence avoidance
4. Purpose and Characteristics of a Lesson Plan
A. Purpose
i. Designed to assure each learner receives the best possible instruction under existing conditions
a. Help instructors keep a check on their own activity, as well as their learners
b. The instructor has in essence taught the lesson to themselves prior to teaching learners
ii. An adequate lesson plan, when properly used, should:
a. Assure a wise selection of material and the elimination of unimportant details
b. Make certain that due consideration is given to each part of the lesson
c. Aid the instructor in presenting the material in a suitable sequence for efficient learning
d. Provide an outline for the teaching procedure to be used
e. Serve as a means of relating the lesson to the objectives of the course of training
f. Give the inexperienced instructor confidence
g. Promote uniformity of instruction regardless of the instructor or date on which the less is given
B. Characteristics
i. A lesson plan should be a working document that should be revised as changes occur or are needed
ii. Unity – should be a unified segment of instruction
a. No extraneous info not important to the objective
iii. Content – Each lesson should contain new material, but it should be related to previous lessons
iv. Scope – Each lesson should be reasonable in scope
a. Keep the objectives realistic as a person can only master a few principles at a time
v. Practicality – Plan each lesson in terms of the conditions under which training is to be done
a. Lesson plans in the airplane will differ from those in the classroom
b. Also, the kinds/quantities of instructional aides available have a great influence
vi. Flexibility – A degree of flexibility should be incorporate even though there is an outline
vii. Relation to a Course of Training – Plan and teach each lesson so the relation to objectives is clear
a. EX. A lesson on short field T/O and LDGs should be related to certification and safety objectives
viii. Instructional Steps – Every lesson, when adequately developed, falls logically into the four steps of
the teaching process (Preparation, Presentation, Application, Evaluation)
5. Scenario Based Training
A. General
i. Reality is the ultimate learning situation and SBT attempts to get as close as possible to this
ii. Combines basic learning theory, adult learning concepts, and best of traditional training procedures
B. Instructor Duties
i. Orient new learners to the SBT approach
ii. Help the learner become confident planner and a critical self-evaluator or performance
iii. Help the learner understand the knowledge requirements present in real world applications

47
I.G. Planning Instructional Activity

iv.
Diagnose learning difficulties and help the individual overcome them
v.Evaluate learner progress and maintain appropriate records
vi.
Provide continuous review of learning
vii.
Flight instructor continues to demonstrate and instruct skill maneuvers but when the learner begins
to make decisions, the instructor should revert to the role of mentor and learning facilitator
C. Lesson Plan
i. Different from a traditional lesson plan
a. Scenario can take into account weather,
flight paths, airport information,
communications, etc.
b. At the end, discuss what was done, why it
was done, any consequences, other courses
of action, and how it applies to other
situations
ii. Pre-Scenario Planning
a. Flight
• Destination(s)
• Desired Learning Outcomes
• Desired Level of Learner Performance
• Possible Inflight Scenario Changes
b. Nonflight:
• Narrative of the task goal
• Desired Learning Outcomes
• Desired Level of Learner Performance
• Possible Scenario Changes

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of planning instructional
activity by describing:
1. Developing objectives and standards for a course of training.
2. Theory of building blocks of learning.
3. Requirements for developing a training syllabus.
4. Purpose and characteristics of a lesson plan.
5. How a scenario-based lesson is developed.

48
II. Technical Subject Areas
II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments & Navigation Equipment

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the operation of flight
instruments as well as the characteristics and operation of navigation equipment.

Key Elements 1. Pitot/Static Errors

2. Compass Corrections
3. VOR Navigation

Elements 1. Flight Instruments

a. Pitot Static Systems g. Attitude Indicator
b. Altimeter h. Heading Indicator
c. Vertical Speed Indicator i. Turn Indicator
d. Airspeed Indicator j. Attitude & Heading Reference System
e. Air Data Computer k. HSI & RMI
f. Gyro Systems l. Magnetic Compass
2. Navigation Equipment
a. VOR d. ADF
b. DME e. GPS
c. ILS
3. Anti-Ice/Deicing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can describe the different flight and navigation instruments and their operation,
Standards as well as potential errors associated with the instruments.

Instructors Notes:
II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An explanation of how your flight instruments and navigation instruments parts and operation, the errors
associated with them, as well as their proper use.

Why
A thorough understanding of the operation of the flight instruments is necessary in order to understand the
errors and potential problems associated with them. An understanding of the different types of navigation
equipment is important for proper use in flight.

How:
1. Flight Instruments
A. Pitot-Static System
i. System Basics
a. Used to determine the height, and speed of movement through the air
b. Three instruments operate on the pitot/static system: Altimeter, VSI, Airspeed Indicator
c. Two types of pressure are measured: Static (still air) and Pitot (ram air) pressure
• Static Pressure - measured at a flush port where air is not disturbed
a Pressure of the air that is still, measured perpendicular to the aircraft surface
b Used in the Altimeter, VSI, and Airspeed Indicator
• Pitot Pressure - measured through a tube pointed into the relative wind
a Used in the Airspeed Indicator

ii. Altimeter
a. Measures the pressure of the ambient air and displays it as feet above a selected pressure level
b. Operation
• Primary Components – Instrument case, aneroid wafer, gear/linkage, adjustable scale
• The instrument case is connected to the static port

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• Inside the instrument case is an Aneroid

a Aneroid defined: Operating by the effect of outside air pressure on a diaphragm
• The aneroid compresses or expands based on pressure from the static port
a As pressure increases, the aneroid compresses
b As pressure decreases, the aneroid’s natural springiness causes it to expand
• The change in thickness moves the gears/linkages to change the altitude displayed
• Adjustable barometric scale/Kollsman window allows you to set reference pressure
a Rotating the knob changes the barometric scale: 1” Hg = 1,000’
b Pressure altitude
is indicated when
set to 29.92” Hg
c Indicated altitude
is shown when
set to the local
altimeter setting
c. Errors
• Mechanical
a Should indicate
within 75’ of
airport elevation
when set to the local altimeter setting (> 75’ error requires maintenance/calibration)
• Nonstandard Temperature (pictured below, left)
a In warmer than standard air, air is less dense and the pressure levels spread apart
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is higher than it would be if the air were cooler
2. The pressure level for that altitude is higher than it would be at standard temp
b In colder than standard air, air is denser and pressure levels are closer together
1. At 5,000’ indicated, true altitude is lower than it would be if the air were warmer
2. The pressure level for that altitude is lower than it would be at standard temp
3. This can pose a risk in extremely cold conditions, corrections may be necessary
a. See VIII.A.10 Non-Precision or VIII.B.10 Precision Approach for more info

• Nonstandard Pressure (pictured above, right)

a Transitioning from High pressure to Low pressure during flight
1. The altimeter interprets decreasing pressure as though the airplane is climbing
a. Indicated altitude slowly increases due to decreasing pressure
b. To compensate, the pilot descends, therefore lowering true altitude

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

b The opposite occurs transitioning from Low to High pressure

• REMEMBER: From Hot to Cold, or High to Low, look out below!
iii. Vertical Speed Indicator - Indicates the rate of change in pressure
a. Primary Components – Instrument case, aneroid housed inside the case
• Both the aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system
a Case – Vented so that pressure changes are slow/delayed
b Aneroid – Pressure in the aneroid changes immediately
b. In a Climb (static pressure decreases)
• Case – pressure remains constant momentarily
• Aneroid – pressure decreases; the aneroid is compressed by higher pressure in the case
• VSI – Indicates a climb. The greater the pressure difference, the higher the indication
c. Descent (static pressure increases)
• Case – maintains current pressure momentarily
• Aneroid – pressure increases; aneroid expands due to lower pressure in the case
• VSI – indicates a descent
d. When the aircraft levels off, the pressure in the case and aneroid equalize
iv. Airspeed Indicator
a. A differential pressure gauge measuring the dynamic pressure of the air the aircraft is flying in
• Dynamic Pressure: the difference in the ambient static pressure and the ram air pressure
b. Primary Components – Instrument
case, Diaphragm inside the case
• Diaphragm receives pressure
from pitot tube
• Case is sealed and connected
to the static port(s)
c. Accelerating
• As ram air pressure increases
or static pressure decreases,
the diaphragm expands and
the gearing indicates a rise in
airspeed
d. Decelerating
• As ram air pressure decreases or static pressure increases, the diaphragm contracts and the
gearing indicates a decrease in speed
v. ADC (Air Data Computer)
a. Computer that receives and processes pitot/static pressure and temperature information
• Uses this info to calculate very precise altitude, airspeed (IAS/TAS), and temperature
b. Small, solid-state (no moving parts) systems (more accurate/reliable than older instruments)
• Replaces wafers, aneroids, gearing, etc. with a single system (digital/no moving parts)
c. Integrated glass cockpit/EFIS (electronic flight instrument system) display instrument indications
B. Gyroscopic System (Attitude Indicator, Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator)
i. Gyro Basics
a. Gyro: A small wheel with its weight concentrated around its periphery
b. Two characteristics of gyroscopes: Rigidity and Precession
• Rigidity: The gyro remains rigid in its case and the aircraft rotates about it
a Attitude and heading instruments operate on this principle

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

b When spun at a high speed, the wheel becomes rigid, resisting any tilt/turn in any
direction other than around its spin axis
• Precession (pictured, right): A force is felt 90o from
the point of application in the direction of rotation
a Rate instruments (turn indicator, turn
coordinator) operate on this principle
b Gyro precesses (rolls over) proportionate to the
rate the plane rotates about its axis
c. Power Sources
• Electrical Systems
• Pneumatic Systems
a Driven by a jet of air striking buckets in the wheel
b Vacuum pump evacuates air in the instrument, filtered air is blown onto the wheel
c Venturi Tube System – No vacuum pump, but a venturi tube is used to create suction
• Wet-Type Vacuum Systems – generally for aircraft that operate at relatively low altitudes
a Steel vane air pumps are used to evacuate air from the instrument cases
b Vanes in the pumps are lubricated with oil which is discharged with the air (hence, wet)
• Dry-Air Vacuum Pump Systems – generally for aircraft that operate at higher altitudes
a At high altitudes the air is less dense and more air is required in the instruments
b Air pumps that do not mix oil with the discharge air are used in high flying (hence, dry)
• Pressure Indicating Systems (twin engine airplane has two systems)
a A gyro pressure gauge measures any pressure drop across the instruments
b If an engine/pump fail, a check valve isolates the system and uses the other side’s air
ii. Attitude Indicator
a. Operation
• A small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis spun by a stream of air or an electric motor
• Mounted in a double gimbal - allows the aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro
a Double Gimbal: The axes of the two gimbals are at right angles to the spin axis of the
gyro, allowing free motion in two planes around the gyro (pitch and roll)
• To function properly, the gyro must remain upright while the aircraft pitches/rolls
a Gyro bearings have little friction, but even this small amount causes precession/tilt
b An erection mechanism applies a force to counter tilt and keep the gyro upright
• Older instruments have pitch/bank limits at which the gyro tumbles, becoming unreliable
a At these limits, the gyro hosing contacts the gimbals causing the gyro to tumble
b A caging mechanism can lock the gyro vertical, preventing tumble
c Newer instruments are designed to eliminate tumble all together
• A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it remains in the same plane as the gyro
a The airplane pitches and rolls around the horizon disk
• A small aircraft is displayed relative to the horizon and can be raised or lowered as needed
b. Errors
• Free from most errors, but:
a There may be a slight nose-up indication during rapid acceleration (and vice versa)
b There is the possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error after a 180o turn
c Both errors are quite small and correct within a minute or so of straight-and-level
iii. Heading Indicator
a. Operation (almost always air driven) – Senses rotation about the vertical axis
• Mounted in double gimbal axis (like the attitude indicator), but the spin axis is horizontal

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

b. Heading
• Unless slaved, heading is manually set to match the compass
a Rigidity causes it to maintain this position in space
b Heading turns with rotation about the vertical axis
• Reset heading to match the compass every 15 min
a Earth rotates approx. 15o per hour while the gyro
maintains its position relative to space
iv. Turn Indicator - operate on precession
a. Turn-and-Slip Indicator (pictured below)
• Turn Indicator Operation - Gyro is powered by air or an electric motor
a A small gyro mounted in a single gimbal
1. Spin axis is parallel to the lateral axis; gimbal axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis
b Yawing (rotating about the vertical axis) produces
a force in the horizontal plane
1. Precession causes the gyro and its gimbal to
rotate about the gimbal axis
2. Restrained in this rotation by a calibration
spring
a. Rolls over just enough to indicate
standard rate
3. Indicates when reaching a standard rate turn
• Inclinometer Operation
a A black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube
that is partially filled with a liquid
b When straight and level, there is no inertia acting
on the ball and it remains centered
c In a turn with too steep of bank angle, gravity
exceeds inertia and the ball rolls inward (slip)
d In a turn with too shallow of bank, inertia
exceeds gravity and the ball rolls outward (skid)
e Only indicates relationship between the angle of
bank and rate of yaw
b. Turn Coordinator (pictured)
• Powered by air or an electric motor
• Similar to the Turn and Slip Indicator, but the gimbal frame is angled up about 30o
a Allows it to sense both roll and yaw
b During a turn, the indicator first shows rate of banking and once stabilized, rate of turn
• The inclinometer is the same as in a turn-and-slip indicator, and called a coordination ball
a Shows the relationship between the bank angle and rate of yaw
1. Skidding when the ball rolls outside the turn
2. Slipping when the ball rolls inside the turn
v. AHRS (Attitude and Heading Reference System)
a. Traditional gyro instruments are being replaced by AHRS
b. Same pitch, roll, yaw data but new sensors and technology feeding the instruments/displays
• Small solid state (no moving parts) systems integrating a variety of technology
• Consists of inertial sensors, rate gyros, magnetometers, even satellite reception in some
c. Single system eliminates need for separate attitude, heading, turn coordinator gyros

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• Superior reliability and accuracy vs older instruments - Reduces cost and maintenance
d. Typically integrated with an EFIS (electronic flight information system)/glass cockpit
C. RMI & HSI
i. RMI (pictured below, left)
a. Bearing indicator(s) overlayed on a heading indicator (but doesn’t use a gyro)
b. A flux valve automatically adjusts heading as you turn
• Flux valve (pictured right): small segmented ring made of
soft iron that readily accepts lines of magnetic flux. As
heading changes, current in the flux valve changes,
rotating the RMI’s heading
c. Bearing indicators for tracking NDB/ADF or VOR
• ADF: Head = bearing to station, Tail = bearing from station
• VOR: Head = bearing to station, Tail = the radial currently crossing, or on
ii. Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) (pictured below, right)
a. Heading indicator + navigation signals/glideslope
• Takes the RMI to the next level
• Flux valve drives heading
b. Gives an indication of location with relationship to a selected navaid and course

D. Magnetic Compass
i. Operation
a. Two small magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid
b. A card is wrapped around the float and visible from the outside with a lubber line
• Lubber Line: The reference line used in a magnetic compass or heading indicator
c. The float/card has a steel pivot in the center riding inside a spring loaded, hard glass jewel cup
• The jewel and pivot mount allow the float to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18o
d. The magnets align with the Earth’s magnetic field and direction is read opposite the lubber line
• The pilot always sees the compass card from its backside (the card
stays stationary and the pilot turns around it)
a For this reason, headings appear backward on the compass
b When flying N, E is shown L of the lubber line vs R in actuality
• Technique: Don’t turn toward the heading as displayed on the
compass, instead move the desired heading to the lubber line
ii. Errors
a. Variation

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• Caused by the difference in the locations of the magnetic and geographic north pole
a The magnetic north pole is not collocated with the geographic north pole
b They’re approximately 1300 miles apart
• Isogonic Lines: Lines used to connect points with the same magnetic variation
• Agonic Line: The line along which the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation

b. Deviation
• Caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft
a Not affected by geographic location (like variation)
• Degrees of deviation is shown on a compass correction card
a Different on each heading; can be minimized by “swinging the compass”
• Compensator units (magnets that compensate for deviation) can also help
c. Finding the Compass Course – True Course corrected for Variation and Deviation
• True Course ± Variation = Magnetic Course; Magnetic Course ± Deviation = Compass Course
• Remember: East is Least, West is Best
a East: Subtract variation from true course; West: Add variation to true course
d. Dip Errors
• What’s Going On
a Lines of magnetic flux leave the Earth at the magnetic N pole/enter at magnetic S pole
1. At both poles the lines are perpendicular to the surface
2. Over the equator the lines are parallel to the surface
b Magnets align with these fields and near the poles they dip/tilt the float and card
• Northerly and Southerly Turning Errors (basically, the compass pulls toward the North)
a Starting a turn from a Southerly heading (turning to a Northerly direction):
1. Compass Leads – initially shows a more aggressive turn in the same direction
2. As the aircraft banks, the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the
card in the direction of the turn (toward the North)
3. Undershoot Northerly headings to compensate (30o- N; 20o- 030/330; 10o- 060/300)
b Starting a turn from a Northerly heading (turning to a Southerly direction):
1. Compass Lags – initially shows a turn in the opposite direction
2. As the aircraft banks the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the
card opposite the direction of turn (back toward the North)

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

3. Overshoot Southerly headings to compensate (30o- S; 20o- 150/210; 10o- 120/240)

c Remember: Undershoot North, Overshoot South (no compensation needed for E/W)

•Acceleration Error (only applicable on East and West headings)

a Due to the pendulous-type mounting, the aft end of the compass tilts up when
accelerating and down
when decelerating
b On an E or W heading,
acceleration appears as a
turn to the North, and
deceleration indicates a
turn toward the South
c Remember: ANDS –
Accelerate North,
Decelerate South
e. Oscillation Error
• Oscillation is a combination of all the other errors as well as the movement of the plane
a It results in the compass card swinging back and forth around the heading being flown
• Use the average indication
2. Navigation Equipment
A. VOR - Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range
i. What is it?
a. Omni means all
• An omnidirectional range is a VHF radio transmitting ground station that projects straight
line courses (or radials) from the station in all directions
a It can be visualized from the top as being similar to the spokes from the hub of a wheel
b. The radials projected are referenced to magnetic north
• A radial is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending outward from the VOR station
• The accuracy of course alignment with radials is considered to be excellent (± 1o)
c. VOR ground stations transmit within a VHF frequency band of 108.0 – 117.95 MHz
• Because the equipment is VHF, the signals are subject to line-of-sight restrictions
a Range varies in proportion to altitude

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

d. The distance the radials are projected Radius

depends on the power of the transmitter Class Altitudes
(Miles)
e. VORs are classed according to operational use T 12,000’ and Below 25
in 3 classes with varying normal useful ranges: L Below 18,000’ 40
• T (Terminal); L (Low Alt); H (High Alt)
H Below 14,500’ 40
ii. Three types of VORS
H 14,500 – 17,999’ 100
a. VOR – The VOR by itself. Provides magnetic
H 18,000’ – FL 450 130
bearing information to and from the station
H FL 450 – 60,000’ 100
b. VOR/DME –DME (Distance Measuring
Equipment) is installed with the VOR (more info below)
c. VORTAC – Military tactical air navigations (TACAN) equipment is installed with a VOR
• DME is always an integral part of a VORTAC
iii. VOR Components – Ground and Aircraft
a. Ground - The VOR station itself; transmits on an assigned frequency
b. Aircraft - Antenna, Receiver, and VOR navigation instrument
• Antenna – Picks up the VOR signal
• Receiver – Processes the signal into navigation information
• VOR Instrument – Displays the navigation information
a OBS (Omnibearing Selector, or course selector
1. Dial that is rotated to select the desired radial
and/or determine the radial on
b CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) Needle
1. Indicates the aircraft position in relation to the
selected course/radial
2. Full scale deflection = 12o or more off the selected
course (each dot = 2o)
c To/From Indicator
1. Shows whether the selected course takes the aircraft To or From the VOR
2. Does not indicate whether the aircraft is currently heading To or From the VOR
d Flags
1. OFF flag indicates an unusable/unreliable signal
c. VOR Basics
• Identify It
a Tune and listen for the station’s Morse code ID or a voice stating the name and VOR
b If the VOR is out of service, the ID is not transmitted (should not be used for navigation)
• Orientation – Radial/To or From the station
a Rotate the OBS to center the CDI needle - note the course and the To or From indication
1. The VOR only relays direction from the station and has the same indications
regardless of the aircraft’s heading
2. The To indication displays the course to fly to the VOR
3. The From indication displays the radial the aircraft is currently on
b Using a second VOR can provide an exact location at the intersection of the two radials
• Navigation
1. Track To a VOR - Rotate the OBS until TO appears, center the CDI, fly the course
a. Correct for wind to maintain course
b Track From a VOR - Center the needle with a From indication, fly the course indicated
• See more in VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigation Systems

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

iv. VOR Checks

a. FAR 91.171: No person may operate under IFR using the VOR system of radio navigation unless
the VOR equipment has been operationally checked within the preceding 30 days…
b. The best assurance of maintaining an accurate VOR receiver is periodic checks and calibrations
c. Types of Checks (checkpoints are listed in the Chart Supplement)
• FAA VOR Test Facility (VOT)
• Certified Airborne Checkpoints
• Certified Ground Checkpoints located on airport surfaces
• Dual VOR check
d. The check verifies the VOR radials received are aligned with the radials the station transmits
e. IFR tolerances required are ± 4o for ground checks and ± 6o for airborne checks
v. VOR MON (Minimum Operating Network)
a. National Airspace System is transitioning to performance-based navigation (PBN)
• Number of VORs is being reduced (going from 896 to 590 by 2030)
• Two new, larger service volumes will enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
b. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS, to revert to conventional navigation procedures
c. New Service Volumes
• Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
• High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW SERVICE VOLUMES

B. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

i. Function – provides slant range distance from a station
a. With VOR and DME, a pilot can determine bearing and distance TO or FROM a station
b. Can be used to determine position along a radial or fly a constant distance from a station
ii. How it Works
a. The aircraft DME transmits interrogating RF pulses which a DME antenna on the ground receives
b. The signal triggers ground receiver equipment to respond back to the interrogating aircraft
c. The aircraft DME measures the elapsed time between the sent signal and the reply signal
• The time measurement is converted into NMs from the station
d. Some receivers provide ground speed by monitoring the rate of change of position to the station
e. DME operates on UHF frequencies between 962 MHz and 1213 MHz
iii. Components
a. Ground Equipment - VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME
b. Airborne Equipment - Antenna and Receiver
c. Pilot Controllable Features
• Channel (frequency) Selector: To select the proper channel/frequency desired

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• On/Off/Volume: Can be used to identify the DME (Morse code plays 1x for every 3-4x VOR)
• Mode Switch: Cycles between Distance, GS and time to station
• Altitude: Some receivers correct for slant range error
iv. Errors
a. DME signals are line-of-sight
b. Slant Range Distance
• The mileage readout is the straight-line distance from the aircraft to the ground facility
• Not the same as the distance from the station to the point on the ground below the aircraft
• This error is the smallest at low altitudes and long range
a Greatest when over the DME station, when it will display altitude above the station
b Negligible if 1 mile or more away from the facility for each 1,000’ above facility elevation
C. Instrument Landing System (ILS) – Detailed picture in the Instrument Flying Handbook (Chap. 9)
i. Electronic system providing both horizontal and vertical guidance to a specific runway
a. Used to execute a precision instrument approach procedure
ii. Three Types of ILS Approaches
a. Category I: Provide for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 200’
b. Category II: Provide for approach to a height above touchdown of not less than 100’
c. Category III: Provide lower minimums for approaches without a decision height minimum
• II and III require special certification for the pilots, as well as ground/airborne equipment
iii. Ground Components
a. Localizer: Provides horizontal (left/right) guidance along the centerline of the runway
• Radiates a course to the runway and a course in the opposite direction (front/back course)
• Guidance is given from 18 nm from the antenna up to 4,500’ above antenna elevation
• Localizer Course is very narrow, normally 5o
a A full-scale deflection shows when 2.5o to either side of the centerline
b Course narrows (more sensitive) closer to the runway (see Localizer Course pic below)
• Operates on frequencies between 108.1 and 111.95 MHz (odd tenths only)

b. Glide Slope: Provides vertical guidance to the runway touchdown point, usually a 3o glide slope
• Basically, a localizer on its side
a The projection angle is normally 2.5-3.5o above the horizontal
• Normally 1.4o thick path (at 10 nm, this is 1,500’, narrowing to just a few feet at touchdown)
a Intersects the MM at about 200’ and the OM about 1,400’ above runway elevation
• Only radiates a signal in the direction of the final approach (front course)

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• Equipment is housed in a building approximately 750-1250’ down from the approach end of
the runway, and 400-600’ to one side of the centerline
c. Marker Beacons: Provide range info along the approach path
• A low powered transmitter that directs its signal upward in a small, fan shaped pattern.
Used along the flightpath when approaching an airport for landing, marker beacons
indicate, both aurally and visually, when the aircraft is directly over the facility
• 2 VHF marker beacons, Outer/Middle, are normally used in an ILS system
a A third beacon, Inner, is used where Category II ops are certified
• The Outer Marker (OM) – On localizer front course 4-7 miles from the airport
a Indicates where one should
intercept the glidepath on the
localizer (if at the proper alt)
• The Middle Marker (MM) –
Approximately 3500’ from the threshold
on the front course
a Position where the glide-slope is
about 200’ above landing threshold
• The Inner Marker (IM) – Located on the
front course between the MM and the
threshold
a Indicates the decision height on a Category II ILS approach
• Compass Locator
a Low powered NDBs which are received and indicated by the ADF receiver
b When used in conjunction with an ILS front course, the compass locator facilities are
collocated with the outer and/or MM facilities
d. Approach Lights: Assist in the transition from instrument to visual flight
• Visual stage of the instrument approach
a Landing is continued with reference to runway touchdown zone markers
• Visual identification of the ALS must be instantaneous, so it’s important to know the type
a ALSF, SSALR, MALSR, REL, MALSF, ODALS, also VASIs
iv. Airborne Components - Include receivers for the:
a. Localizer
• Functions the same way as a VOR receiver, but more sensitive
b. Glide Slope
• Glide slope is tuned automatically to the proper frequency when the localizer is tuned
• Each localizer frequency is paired with a corresponding glide slope frequency
c. Marker Beacon
• OM - Low-pitch tone, Continuous dashes at the rate of 2 per second, Purple/blue light
• MM - Intermediate tone, Alternate dots/dashes at 95 combinations per minute, Amber light
• IM - High-pitched tone, Continuous dots at the rate of 6 per second, White light
• BCM (Back Course Marker) - High pitched tone, Two dots at 72-75 per minute, White light
• Sensitivity: High/Low. Low provides best position indication and should be used on approach
d. DME
• Provides another way to identify waypoints/location on the approach
v. Other components (not specific components but may be incorporated for safety and utility)
a. Compass Locators: Provide transition from en route NAVAIDS to the ILS system
• Assist in holding procedures, tracking the localizer course, identifying marker beacon sites

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

b. DME collocated with Glide Slope Transmitter: Provides distance to touchdown information
vi. Errors
a. Reflection: Surface vehicles/aircraft below 5,000’ AGL may disturb the signal
b. False Courses: Glideslope facilities produce additional courses at higher vertical angles
• False courses can be countered by flying the altitudes shown on the approach chart
D. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) & Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
i. An NDB is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions
a. The ADF, when used with an NDB, determines the bearing from the aircraft to the station
ii. The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to determine the relative bearing
a. Relative Bearing: The number of degrees measured clockwise between the heading of the
aircraft and the direction from which the bearing is taken
iii. Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
a. Mary Had + Roast Beef= Marry Barfed
b. Magnetic Heading: The direction an aircraft is pointed with respect to magnetic North
c. Magnetic Bearing: The direction to/from a station measured relative to magnetic North
iv. NDB Components
a. The ground equipment: the NDB (transmits between 190 to 535 kHz)
b. Aircraft must be in operational range of the NDB - dependent on the strength of the station
v. ADF Components
a. The airborne equipment: 2 antennas, a receiver, and the indicator instrument
b. Two Antennas
• Sense Antenna: (Non-directional) Receives signals nearly equally from all directions
• Loop Antenna: (Bi directional) Receives signals better from two directions
• When the two are combined, the ADF can receive a radio signal well in all directions except
for one, thus resolving all directional ambiguity
c. Indicator Instrument
• 3 kinds: Fixed card, Movable Card, or the RMI (1 or 2 needles)
• Fixed Card ADF (or relative bearing indicator, RBI) (top picture)
a Always indicates 0 at the top; Needle indicates RB to the station
b Pilot must calculate MB based on MH and RB
• Movable Card ADF (middle picture)
a Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
b Head of the needle indicates the MB to the station
c The tail indicates MB from the station
d Instrument provides MB, pilot doesn’t have to calculate it
• RMI (bottom picture)
a Automatically rotates to display aircraft heading
b Can have two needles which can be used for navigation
information from either ADF or VOR receivers
c ADF needle:
1. Head indicates the MB To the station
2. Tail indicates the MB From the station
d VOR needle: Indicates location radially with respect to the station
1. Head of needle points the bearing TO the station
2. Tail points to the radial the aircraft is currently on/crossing
vi. Using the NDB
a. Orientation (Fixed Card ADF)

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• The ADF needle points TO the station, regardless of heading or position

a Therefore, the RB shown is the angular relationship between heading and the station
measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
• Visualize the ADF dial in terms of the longitudinal axis
a When the needle points to 0o, the nose points directly to the station
b With the pointer on 210o, the station is 30o to the left of the tail
• The RB must be related to aircraft heading to determine direction TO/FROM
a Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing = Magnetic Bearing
b. Movable Card/RMI
• Turn toward the head of the needle indicating the MB to the station
• Adjust for wind to maintain the desired course
E. Global Position System (GPS)
i. Satellite based navigation systems include
a. GPS (Global Positioning System), WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System), LAAS (Local…)
ii. GPS
a. The GPS system is composed of 3 major elements
• The Space Segment
a Constellation of 24 satellites approximately 11,000 NM above the earth
1. At any time, 5 are in view to any receiver (4 are necessary for operation)
2. Each satellite orbits the Earth in approximately 12 hours
3. Equipped with highly stable atomic clocks and transmit a unique code/nav message
b The satellites broadcast in the UHF range (so they are virtually unaffected by weather)
1. Subject to line-of-sight references - Must be above the horizon to be usable
• The Control Segment
a Consists of a master control station, 5 monitoring stations, and 3 ground antennas
b Distributed to allow continual monitoring/communications with satellites
1. Updates are uplinked as necessary as satellites pass over the ground antennas
• The User Segment
a Consists of all components associated with the GPS receiver
1. Range from portable hand-held receivers to permanently installed systems
b The receiver utilizes the signals from the satellites to provide:
1. Position, velocity, and precise timing to the user
b. Solving for Location
• The receiver utilizes the signals of at least 4 of the best positioned satellites to yield a 3D fix
a 3D - Latitude, longitude, and altitude
• Using distance and position info from the satellites, the receiver calculates its location
c. Navigating
• VFR navigation with GPS can be as simple as selecting a destination and tracking the course
• GPS Tracking
a Course deviation is linear, no increase in sensitivity closer to waypoints (like VOR / LOC)
• It can be very tempting to rely exclusively on GPS, but never rely on one means of navigation
d. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
• RAIM is the receiver’s ability to verify the integrity of the signals received from the satellites
a Without RAIM capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position
• RAIM requires a minimum of 5 satellites in view, or 4 and a barometric altimeter baro-aiding
to detect an integrity anomaly
a Some receivers can isolate/remove a bad signal if 6 satellites in view (5 with baro-aiding)

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

• Generally, there are 2 types of RAIM messages

a There are not enough satellites in view to provide RAIM
b A potential error that exceeds the limits required for the current phase of flight
• Aircraft using GPS navigation equipment under IFR must be equipped with an approved and
operational alternate means of navigation appropriate to the route of flight
a Monitoring of the alternate equipment is not required if the GPS receiver uses RAIM
b Active monitoring of the navigation equipment is required if the RAIM capability is lost
c Use other equipment, delay departure, or cancel if loss of RAIM capability is predicted
e. GPS Substitution (AIM 1-2-3c.)
• GPS systems, certified for IFR en route and terminal operations, may be used as a substitute
for ADF and DME receivers when conducting the following operations within the NAS:
a Determining the aircraft position over a DME fix
b Flying a DME arc
c Navigation TO/FROM an NDB/Compass Locator
d Determining the aircraft position over an NDB/compass locator
e Determining position over a fix defined by an NDB/Compass Locator bearing crossing a
VOR/LOC course
f Holding over an NDB/Compass Locator
iii. WAAS
a. Designed to improve the accuracy, integrity, and availability of GPS signals
• Integrity is improved through real-time monitoring of the satellites
a Provides timely warnings when the signal is potentially hazardous/misleading
b WAAS certification required proving there is only an extremely small probability that an
error would go undetected – equivalent of no more than 3 seconds of bad data per year
• Accuracy is improved by providing corrections to the satellites to reduce errors
a A network of ground-based stations measure small variations in satellite signals
b Measurements are routed to a master station
c Master station sends the correction messages to the satellites
• Performance improvements enable approach procedures with GPS/WAAS glidepaths
a WAAS requires a position accuracy of 25’ or less at least 95% of the time
1. Typically provides better than 1 meter laterally and 1.5 meters vertically
b Capable of Category 1 precision approach accuracy: 16 meters lateral/4 meters vertical
b. Approach Capabilities
• WAAS receivers support all basic GPS approach functions and provide additional capabilities
a Allows approach procedures to be built without ground stations at each airport
b Eliminates cold temperature effects, incorrect altimeter setting/lack of altimeter setting
c. New APV (Approach with Vertical Guidance) approaches can be flown with WAAS
• Basically, satellite-based approaches with a WAAS generated glidepath
• Like a Cat 1 ILS: Decision altitudes as low as 200’, Visibility requirements as low as ½ mile
d. Can be further enhanced with LAAS
iv. LAAS (now more commonly referred to as GBAS – Ground Based Augmentation System)
a. Similar to WAAS, but with more ground augmentation
b. All-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal
c. Local receivers located around the airport send data to a central location at the airport
• A correction message is then transmitted to users via a VHF Data Link
d. A receiver on an aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then provides a
standard ILS-style display to use while flying a precision approach

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

3. Anti-Ice/Deicing
A. General
i. Different aircraft use different systems to deice/anti-ice primary surfaces (often the wings, tail,
engines and sometimes the prop). These systems can vary greatly; examples include:
a. Weeping Wing
• The DA42, for example, uses the weeping wing system – an anti-ice mixture is stored in the
nose and when turned on, it is excreted through tiny holes/pores in the wing. The fluid runs
over the wing in flight (i.e., weeping wing). Used to prevent ice build-up in flight
b. Heated Surfaces
• Jet aircraft often use hot engine bleed air vented to the wings/tail to prevent ice build-up
c. Boots
• Boots are also often used on turbo props/jets to remove ice from critical surfaces. Bleed air
is used to inflate the leading edge “boots” in order to break up and remove ice
B. *The DA40 doesn’t contain any specific deice or anti-ice equipment, but two pieces of equipment that
can have an effect on ice build-up are the pitot-heat and windshield defrost:
i. Pitot Heat
a. Using pitot heat is absolutely necessary in the case of potential icing. Of course, make every
attempt to get out of icing or get on the ground, but pitot heat can prevent a frozen pitot/static
port and therefore unreliable instrument indications
ii. Windshield Defrost
a. Can be used to deice the windshield (if the icing is light)
b. May provide needed visibility if trying to exit icing conditions, find an airport, and safely land
C. The bottom line: Avoid icing conditions. Don’t fly. If in icing conditions, leave as soon as possible

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of aircraft:
1. Flight instrument systems and their operating characteristics to include-
a. pitot-static system.
b. attitude indicator.
c. heading indicator/horizontal situation indicator/radio magnetic indicator.
d. magnetic compass.
e. turn-and-slip indicator/turn coordinator.
f. electrical system.
g. vacuum system.
h. electronic engine instrument display.
i. primary flight display, if installed.
2. Navigation equipment and their operating characteristics to include⎯
a. VHF omnirange (VOR).
b. distance measuring equipment (DME).
c. instrument landing system (ILS)
d. marker beacon receiver/indicators.
e. automatic direction finder (ADF).
f. transponder/altitude encoding.

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II.A. Aircraft Flight Instruments and Navigation Equipment

g. electronic flight instrument display.

h. global positioning system (GPS)
i. automatic pilot.
j. flight management system (FMS).
k. multifunction display, if installed.
3. Anti-ice/deicing and weather detection equipment and their operating characteristics to include-
a. airframe.
b. propeller or rotor.
c. air intake.
d. fuel system.
e. pitot-static system.
f. radar/lightning detection system.
g. other inflight weather systems.

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

References: Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25); Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-
8083-3), AIM

Objectives The student should exhibit knowledge regarding aeromedical factors as required in the
PTS/ACS.

Key Elements 1. IM SAFE – Self Checklist

2. Trust the instruments
3. Carbon Monoxide is 200x more likely to bond with blood than oxygen
4. Drugs / Alcohol + Flying = Very Bad

Elements 1. Hypoxia
2. Hyperventilation
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
4. Spatial Disorientation
5. Vestibular / In Flight / Visual Illusions
6. Motion Sickness
7. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
8. Fatigue and Stress
9. Dehydration
10. Alcohol and Other Drugs
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
12. IM SAFE

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to explain different aeromedical factors, and their importance to
Standards flying and possible effects during flight.
II.B. Aeromedical Factors

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story
Safety in the aircraft requires knowledge of the factors that can lead to negative consequences if we were
unaware or unable to treat them. Hypoxia, for example, can result in symptoms of euphoria and the inability
to make any sort of rational decision, which is obviously not a good thing while you’re trying to fly a plane.
(There are many good hyperbaric chamber/hypoxia videos on you tube)

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Aeromedical factors involve a number of health and physiological factors that can influence a pilot and his or
her ability to fly safely. Some are minor, while others require special attention to ensure safety and survival.

Why
Many of these factors not only affect the health and well-being of the pilot, but can quickly lead to in-flight
emergencies.

How:
1. Hypoxia
A. Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen”
i. The greatest concern is with getting enough oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to
oxygen deprivation
ii. Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including:
a. An insufficient supply of oxygen
b. Inadequate transportation of oxygen
c. Inability of the body tissues to use oxygen
B. Hypoxic Hypoxia
i. A result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs
ii. A blocked airway or drowning are examples of how the lungs can be deprived of oxygen
iii. For Pilots: The reduction in partial pressure of oxygen at high altitude is a common example
a. Partial Pressure is the amount of pressure that a single gas (out of a mixture) contributes to the
total pressure
iv. Although the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is constant with changes in altitude, the
partial pressure decreases as altitude increases
a. As you ascend, the percentage of each gas remains the same, but the molecules no longer have
the pressure required to drive oxygen into the respiratory system
b. The decrease of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure leads to hypoxic hypoxia
C. Hypemic Hypoxia
i. Occurs when the blood is not able to take up and transport sufficient oxygen to the cells in the body
ii. Hypemic means “not enough blood”
iii. This type of hypoxia is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood
iv. Possible Causes:
a. Not enough blood volume

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

• Can be caused by severe bleed or blood donation

b. Certain blood diseases, such as anemia
c. Hemoglobin, the molecule that transports oxygen, is unable to bind oxygen molecules
d. Carbon monoxide poisoning
D. Stagnant Hypoxia
i. Stagnant means “not flowing;” stagnant hypoxia results when the oxygen rich blood in the lungs
isn’t moving to the tissues that need it
a. Ex. An arm or leg “falling asleep” because the blood flow has been restricted
ii. This type of hypoxia can result from:
a. Shock
b. The heart failing to pump blood effectively
c. A constricted artery
iii. During flight, stagnant hypoxia can occur when pulling excessive positive G’s
iv. Cold temperatures can also decrease the blood supplied to extremities
E. Histotoxic Hypoxia
i. The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen
a. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “Toxic” means poison
ii. In this case, oxygen is being transported to the cells, but they are unable to use it
iii. Causes:
a. Alcohol and other drugs, such as narcotics and poison
• Drinking an ounce of alcohol is equivalent to an additional 2,000’ of altitude
F. Symptoms of Hypoxia
i. The first symptoms are euphoria and a carefree feeling. With increased oxygen starvation, the
extremities become less responsive and flying becomes less coordinated.
ii. As it worsens, vision narrows, concentration and instrument interpretation become difficult
iii. Common symptoms include:
a. Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips)
b. Headache
c. Decreased reaction time
d. Impaired judgment
e. Euphoria
f. Visual Impairment
g. Drowsiness
h. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
i. Tingling in fingers or toes
j. Numbness
iv. Even with all of these symptoms, the effects of hypoxia can cause a pilot to have a false sense of
security and be deceived into believing that everything is normal (euphoria)
G. Useful Consciousness
Altitude Time of Useful Consciousness
i. Describes the maximum time the
pilot has to make rational, lifesaving 45,000 ft. MSL 9 to 15 seconds
decisions and carry them out at a 40,000 ft. MSL 15 to 20 seconds
given altitude without supplemental 35,000 ft. MSL 30 to 60 seconds
oxygen 30,000 ft. MSL 1 to 2 minutes
ii. As altitude increases above 10,000 28,000 ft. MSL 2 ½ minutes to 3 minutes
ft., the symptoms of hypoxia increase 25,000 ft. MSL 3 to 5 minutes
in severity, and the time of useful 22,000 ft. MSL 5 to 10 minutes
consciousness rapidly decreases 20,000 ft. MSL 30 minutes or more

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

H. Treatment
i. Flying at lower altitudes
a. Emergency Descent
ii. Use supplemental oxygen immediately
I. FAA Physiology Training – One day course in OK. Altitude chamber and vertigo demonstrations
i. Experiencing and witnessing the effects of hypoxia can be very helpful in recognizing its onset
2. Hyperventilation
A. Occurs when an individual is experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and
depth increase
i. The result is an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness
while the respiratory system attempts to override your actions and regain control of breathing
B. Pilots encountering a stressful situation may unconsciously increase their breathing rate
i. If flying at higher altitudes, with or without oxygen, a pilot may have a tendency to breathe more
rapidly than normal, which can lead to hyperventilation
C. Since many symptoms of hyperventilation are similar to those of hypoxia, it is important to correctly
diagnose and treat the proper condition.
D. Common Symptoms:
i. Visual Impairment
ii. Unconsciousness
iii. Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
iv. Tingling sensations
v. Hot and cold sensations
vi. Muscle spasms
E. Treatment
i. Involves restoring the proper carbon dioxide level in the body
ii. If using supplemental oxygen, check the equipment and flow rate to ensure the symptoms are not
hypoxia related
iii. Breathing normally is both the best prevention and the best cure for hyperventilation
iv. Breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps to overcome hyperventilation
v. Recovery is usually rapid once the breathing rate is returned to normal
vi. Because hyperventilation and hypoxia symptoms are so similar, if unsure, it is best to treat the
hypoxia as it the more threatening situation
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
A. Middle Ear Problems
i. Explanation
a. A difference between the pressure outside the body and inside the middle ear and nasal sinuses
• The middle ear is a small cavity in the bone of the skull
b. Eustachian tubes normally equalize pressure differences
• Tube from inside the ear to the back of the throat
• Eustachian tubes are usually closed, but open during
chewing/yawning/swallowing to equalize pressure
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain is the primary indicator
• Pain can be excessive and damage can be done to
the eardrums if the pressure differential is too great
b. Temporary reduction in hearing sensitivity
iii. Relation to flying

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

a. During a climb, if the air pressure in the Eustachian tube cannot equalize (remains at ground
level), while the pressure on the outside of the eardrum decreases (in the climb) the eardrum
will bulge outward resulting in discomfort
b. During a descent, the reverse happens: as the aircraft descends, the pressure on the outside of
the eardrum increases while the pressure in the Eustachian tube remains at altitude, resulting in
the eardrum bulging inward causing discomfort
c. Excessive pressure in either situation can result in pain and a ruptured ear drum
iv. Treatment
a. If minor, chew gum or stretch the jaw to attempt to equalize pressure
b. Valsalva Maneuver: Pinch the nostrils, close the mouth, blow slowly/gently in the mouth/nose
• This forces air into the Eustachian tube allowing the pressure to equalize
• Ear infection/cold/sore throat may make it impossible to equalize the pressure in the ears
• The Valsalva treatment is more helpful in a descent
a Be cautious in a climb, forcing air into the Eustachian tube may increase pressure and
force the eardrum farther outward resulting in increased pain
c. If experiencing minor congestion, nose drops or nasal sprays may reduce painful ear blockage
B. Sinus Problems
i. Explanation
a. Air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the pressure in the cockpit through small openings
that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages
b. An upper respiratory infection (cold or sinusitis) or a nasal allergic condition can produce
enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization
ii. Symptoms
a. Pain over the sinus area (pain can become excessive)
b. Some sinus blocks can make the upper teeth ache
c. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages
iii. Relation to flying
a. As the difference in pressure between the sinus and the cockpit increases, congestion may plug
the sinus’ openings
b. The “sinus block” occurs most frequently during descents
iv. Treatment
a. Slow descent rates can reduce the associated pain
b. Do not fly with sinus problems (avoid the situation entirely)
4. Spatial Disorientation
A. Explanation
i. Orientation is the awareness of the position of the aircraft and of oneself in relation to a specific
reference point
ii. Disorientation is the lack of orientation
iii. Spatial Disorientation refers to the lack of orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or
movement of the airplane in space
iv. The body uses three systems to ascertain orientation and movement in space
a. Visual: The eye, by far the largest source of information
b. Somatosensory: Nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with hearing, sense position
based on gravity, feeling, and sound
c. Vestibular System: A very sensitive motion sensing system located in the inner ears. It reports
head position, orientation, and movement in three-dimensional space
v. All of this info comes together in the brain, and most of the time, the three streams of information
agree, giving a clear idea of where and how the body is moving

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

B. Relation to flight
i. Flying can result in conflicting information being sent to the brain, leading to disorientation
ii. Visual System (eyes)
a. Flight in VMC
• The eyes are the major orientation system and usually prevail over false sensations from the
other systems when outside references are available
b. Flight in IMC
• When visual cues are taken away, the eyes cannot correct for the false sensations causing
the pilot to quickly become disoriented
iii. Vestibular System (ears)
a. The vestibular system in the inner ear allows the pilot to sense movement and determine
orientation in the surrounding environment
b. Two major parts: Semicircular Canals and Otolith Organs
c. Semicircular Canals
• Explanation
a Detect angular acceleration
b Three tubes at right angles to each other
1. One on each of the three axes; pitch, roll, and yaw
c Each canal is filled with a fluid, called Endolymph Fluid
d In the center of the canal is the cupola, a gelatinous structure that rests upon sensory
hairs located at the end of the vestibular nerves

• How they work: In a Turn

a Turn Detection
1. In straight and level flight, with no acceleration, the hair cells are upright, and the
brain does not sense a turn
2. Placing the aircraft into a turn puts the semicircular canal and its fluid into motion,
but the fluid within the semicircular canal lags behind the accelerated canal walls
a. This lag creates a relative movement of the fluid within the canal. The canal wall
and the cupola move in the opposite direction from the motion of the fluid
3. The brain interprets the hair’s movement as a turn in the same direction as the
canal wall
b The ear only detects turns of a short duration

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

1. After approximately 20 seconds, the motion of the fluid in the canals catches up
with the canal walls and the hairs are no longer bent
2. At the same speed, the hairs detect no relative movement and the sensation of
turning ceases (it feels like straight and level flight)
a. With the hair cells upright, the brain receives the false impression that the
turning has stopped
3. When the aircraft rolls back to straight-and-level flight, the fluid in the canal moves
briefly in the opposite direction. This sends a signal to the brain that is falsely
interpreted as a turn in the opposite direction
a. To correct the falsely perceived turn, the pilot may reenter the original turn

cThis can be demonstrated: Establish a 30o bank turn, tell the student to close their eyes
and let you know when the aircraft is flying straight. Maintain the turn, after about 20
seconds the student should feel as though the aircraft is out of the turn, have them
open their eyes. Try it again, but this time once they believe the aircraft is straight, roll
out of the bank. The student will feel like the aircraft is turning in the opposite direction
d. Otolith Organs
• Explanation
a Detect linear acceleration/gravity
b A gelatinous membrane containing chalk like
crystals covers the sensory hairs
c When you tilt your head, the weight of the crystals
causes the membrane to shift due to gravity; the
sensory hairs detect the shift
• Acceleration
a Forward acceleration gives the illusion of the head
tilting backward, and deceleration gives the illusion
of the head tilting forward
iv. Somatosensory System (nerves)
a. Nerves in the body’s skin, muscles, and joints constantly send signals to the brain, which signals
the body’s relation to gravity
• Acceleration is felt as the pilot is pushed back into the seat
b. False Sensations
• Forces created in turns can lead to false sensations of the direction of gravity, and may give
the pilot an incorrect sense of which way is down/up
a The brain has no way of differentiating between the forces of a turn (coordinated or
uncoordinated) and the force of gravity
• Turbulence can create motions that confuse the brain
• Fatigue or illness can exacerbate these sensations

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

C. Countering the sensations

i. Recognize the problem, disregard the false sensations, and rely totally on the flight instruments
ii. The pilot must have an understanding of the problem and the self-confidence to control the aircraft
using only instrument indications (do not trust the feelings, trust the instruments)
5. Vestibular / In Flight / Visual Illusions
A. More important to be aware of illusions during flight in IMC when there may not be visual references
i. Prevent spatial disorientation by referencing the flight instruments
a. Trust your instruments when disoriented!
B. The Leans
i. Reason
a. An abrupt correction of a banked attitude entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing
system in the inner ear
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude (the turn),
thinking (feeling) the airplane is straight and level
b. Or will feel compelled to lean to the perceived vertical plane until the illusion subsides
C. Coriolis Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant rate turn that has ceased to stimulate the
brain’s motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot may maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude to stop the perceived
rotation
iv. Prevention
a. Don’t make sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant
rate turns under IFR conditions
b. Develop an instrument cross-check that involves minimal head movement
c. If something is dropped, use minimal head movement and be alert for the Coriolis illusion
D. Graveyard Spin
i. Reason
a. Recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of being in a spin in the opposite direction
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin
E. Graveyard Spiral
i. Reason
a. There is an observed loss of altitude during a prolonged constant rate turn which has ceased to
stimulate the motion sensing system
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of a wings level descent
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss
of altitude

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

F. Somatogravic Illusion
i. Reason
a. A rapid acceleration
ii. Illusion
a. In the case of a rapid acceleration, it can create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude
b. In the case of a rapid deceleration, it can create the illusion of being in a nose down attitude
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose low, or dive attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a nose up, or stall attitude
G. Inversion Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt change from a climb to straight and level flight
ii. Illusion
a. Can create the illusion of tumbling backwards
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude
• This could intensify the situation
H. Elevator Illusion
i. Reason
a. An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually due to an updraft
b. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually due to a down draft
ii. Illusion
a. Upward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a climb
b. Downward vertical acceleration can create the illusion of being in a descent
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude
b. The disoriented pilot will pull the aircraft into a nose up attitude
I. False Horizon
i. Reason
a. Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars,
and certain geometric patterns of ground light
ii. Illusions
a. Can create the illusion of not being aligned correctly with the horizon
iii. Result
a. The disoriented pilot will put the aircraft in a dangerous attitude
6. Motion Sickness
A. Cause
i. Caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages about the state of the body
ii. Anxiety and stress also affect motion sickness
B. Symptoms
i. General discomfort
ii. Nausea
iii. Dizziness
iv. Paleness
v. Sweating
vi. Vomiting
C. Treatment
i. Open fresh air vents

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

ii. Focus on objects outside the airplane

iii. Avoid unnecessary head movement
iv. Take control of the aircraft and fly smooth, straight and level
a. Letting someone else fly can make the situation worse
v. Generally goes away after a few flight lessons
a. After more used to flying and stress/anxiety are reduced
7. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
A. How it Happens – In the Plane
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines
ii. Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents provide CO a passageway into the cabin if the engine exhaust
system has a leak or is damaged
B. How it Happens – In the Body
i. CO attaches itself to the hemoglobin in the blood
a. It does this about 200 times easier than oxygen
b. CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells resulting in Hypemic Hypoxia
ii. It can take up to 48 hours for the body to dispose of CO
iii. If severe enough, CO poisoning can result in death
C. Effects of CO poisoning
i. Headache
ii. Blurred vision
iii. Dizziness
iv. Drowsiness
v. Loss of muscle power
D. Detecting and Correction
i. Disposable, inexpensive CO detectors are widely available
ii. If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume CO is present
a. CO may be present in dangerous amounts even if no exhaust odor is detected
iii. If exhaust odor is noticed or symptoms are experienced immediate actions should be taken
a. Turn off the heater, and open fresh air vents and windows
b. Use supplemental oxygen, if available
c. Land
8. Fatigue and Stress
A. Fatigue
i. Effects
a. Degradation of attention and concentration
b. Impaired coordination
c. Decreased ability to communicate
ii. Causes
a. Sleep loss
b. Exercise
c. Physical work
d. Stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue
iii. Categories of Fatigue (Acute and Chronic)
a. Acute Fatigue (short term)
• Definition
a Short term, and a normal occurrence in everyday life
b Tiredness felt after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep
• Skill Fatigue – A special type of acute fatigue affecting piloting skill. Effects include:

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

a Timing Disruption
1. Appearing to perform a normal task, but the timing of each component is slightly off
2. Pattern of operation is less smooth as each component is performed as a separate
part instead of part of a single, integrated activity
b Disruption of the perceptual field
1. Concentrating attention upon movements or objects in the center of vision and
neglecting those in the periphery
2. May be accompanied by a loss of accuracy/smoothness in control movements
• Causes
a Mild hypoxia
b Physical stress
c Psychological stress
d Depletion of physical energy resulting from psychological stress
e Sustained psychological stress
• Prevention
a Proper diet
1. Prevents the body from having to consume its own tissues as an energy source
b Adequate rest and sleep
1. Maintains the body’s store of vital energy
2. The difference between flying fatigued and rested can be night and day,
b. Chronic Fatigue
• Definition
a Fatigue extending over a long period of time
b Usually has psychological roots, an underlying disease is sometimes responsible
• Causes
a Continuous high-stress levels produce chronic fatigue
• Symptoms
a Weakness
b Tiredness
c Palpitations of the heart
d Breathlessness
e Headaches
f Irritability
g Stomach or intestinal problems (rare)
h Generalized aches and pains throughout the body
i Emotional Illness (when conditions become serious enough)
• Prevention
a Usually requires treatment by a physician
iv. Prevention
a. If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground
b. Fatigue in the cockpit cannot be overcome through training or experience
c. Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue
• Avoid flying without:
a A full night’s rest
b After working excessive hours
c After an especially exhausting or stressful day
d. Suspected chronic fatigue should be treated by a physician

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

B. Stress
i. The body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it
ii. Body’s Reaction
a. Releasing chemical hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood
b. Increasing metabolism to provide more energy to the muscles
c. Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration all increase
iii. Stressors (elements that cause an individual to experience stress)
a. Physical stress (noise or vibration)
b. Physiological stress (fatigue)
c. Psychological stress (difficult work or personal situations)
iv. Categories of Stress (Acute and Chronic)
a. Acute Stress (short term)
• Involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger
• The type of stress that triggers a “fight or flight” response in an individual
• Normally, a healthy person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload
• On-going acute stress can develop into chronic stress
v. Chronic Stress (long term)
a. A level of stress that presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual to cope,
and causes individual performance to fall sharply
b. Causes
• Unrelenting psychological pressures such as loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or
work problems
c. Pilots experiencing this level of stress are not safe and should not fly. Consult a physician
9. Dehydration
A. Definition
i. Critical loss of water from the body
B. Causes
i. Hot flight decks/flight lines, wind, humidity, diuretic drinks (coffee, tea, alcohol, caffeinated soda)
C. Effects
i. First noticeable effect is fatigue
a. Top physical and mental performance is difficult, if not impossible
ii. Headache, cramps, tingling, sleepiness, and dizziness
D. How it affects flying
i. Flying for long periods of time in hot temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility of
dehydration since the dry air at altitude increases the rate of water loss from the body
ii. If the fluid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling of the hands
and feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst
iii. Attention is taken from flying and skills diminish
E. Prevention
i. Carry an ample supply of water on any flight (recommended to drink 2 quarts of water per day)
a. Carry a container to measure daily water intake
b. Stay ahead – don’t wait until you’re thirsty to drink
ii. If the airplane has a canopy or roof window, wearing light colored, porous clothing and a hat will
provide protection
iii. Keep the cockpit well ventilated
iv. Limit daily caffeine and alcohol intake
10. Alcohol and Other Drugs
A. DON’T drink and fly

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

i. Even in small amounts, alcohol can impair judgement, decrease sense of responsibility, affect
coordination, constrict visual field, diminish memory, reduce reasoning ability, lower attention span
a. Altitude multiples the effects of alcohol on the brain
b. Alcohol interferes with the brains ability to utilize oxygen (form of histotoxic hypoxia)
ii. A hangover can impair anyone attempting to fly
iii. FAR 91.17 – 8 hrs. ‘from bottle to throttle’ (8 hrs. and not feeling the effects of alcohol is better)
a. Considerable amounts of alcohol can remain in the body for over 16 hours – be cautious
B. Medications
i. FAR 61.53 (Prohibition on operations during medical deficiency) prohibits flying if you:
a. Are taking medication/receiving treatment that would prevent you from obtaining a medical
ii. FAR 91.17 prohibits the use drugs that affects the person’s faculties in any way contrary to safety
iii. Medication can absolutely affect pilot performance
a. Side effects of medicines can impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, can
cause confusion, dizziness, headaches, nausea, mood swings, anxiety, balance problems, hearing
problems, etc.
b. Drugs that cause no apparent side effects on the ground can create serious problems airborne
iv. Basically: Do not fly while taking any medication(s), unless approved by the FAA
11. Nitrogen and Scuba Diving
A. Why it’s a Danger
i. Scuba diving results in a significant increase in the amount of nitrogen dissolved in the body
a. The deeper the dive, the greater the amount of nitrogen
ii. At sea level, the nitrogen inside the body and outside the body is in equilibrium
iii. When atmospheric pressure is reduced, the equilibrium is upset and nitrogen leaves the body
iv. If the nitrogen leaves too quickly, bubbles may form causing a variety of symptoms
a. Bubbles can form in the bloodstream, spinal cord or brain as pressure decreases with altitude
b. Symptoms include impairment or severe pain, but in extreme cases this can result in death
B. Scuba Diving and Flying
i. Following scuba diving, if not enough time is allowed to eliminate the excess nitrogen, DCS can occur
as low as 5,000’ and create an in-flight emergency
a. In normal conditions, most cases of DCS occur at altitudes of 25,000’ or higher
ii. Wait at least 12 hrs. after a dive not requiring a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
a. 24 hrs. for flight above 8,000’
iii. Wait at least 24 hrs. after a dive that requires a controlled ascent before flight up to 8,000’ MSL
iv. If a decompression occurs (especially a rapid decompression), symptoms can be brought on quickly
12. IM SAFE
A. Always perform your own preflight
i. Illness
ii. Medication
iii. Stress
iv. Alcohol
v. Fatigue
vi. Emotion

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
There are many factors a pilot needs to be aware of in order to ensure a safe flight and to understand the
medical risks involved with flying.

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II.B. Aeromedical Factors

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to aeromedical
factors by describing the effects, corrective action, and safety considerations of:
1. Hypoxia.
2. Hyperventilation.
3. Middle ear and sinus problems.
4. Spatial disorientation.
5. Motion sickness.
6. Alcohol and drugs.
7. Carbon monoxide poisoning.
8. Evolved gases from scuba diving.
9. Stress and fatigue.

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

References: 14 CFR Parts 61, 71, 91, 95, and 97, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the FARs related to IFR
certification as well as IFR flight. The student also will become familiar with publications useful
to IFR flight.

Key Elements 1. Instrument Rating Requirements

2. Part 91 IFR Regs
3. Useful Publications

Elements 1. 14 CFR Part 61

2. 14 CFR Part 91
3. Instrument Flying Handbook
4. AIM
5. Practical Test Standards
6. Chart Supplement
7. En Route Charts
8. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)
9. Standard Departures/Terminal Arrivals
10. Standard Instrument Approach Procedures

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the requirements and rules for IFR flight and has a basic
Standards understanding of the publications available to assist in flight and in learning.
II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
An overview and introduction to the various FARs governing the issuance of the instrument rating as well as
the rules required for IFR flight. Furthermore, the lesson will introduce the student to a variety of
publications necessary for IFR flight and learning.

Why
This lesson introduces everything that is instrument flying; the basis of how one obtains the instrument rating
and how one must operate in the IFR world. It also is important to know what publications are available and
necessary to comfortably operate with an instrument rating.

How:
1. 14 CFR part 61 – Certification: Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors
A. Purpose/General Content
i. The requirements for issuing pilot, flight instructor, and ground instructor certificates and ratings
ii. The conditions under which those certificates and ratings are necessary
iii. Privileges and limitations of those certificates and ratings
B. Subparts
i. Aircraft Ratings and Pilot Authorization
a. FAR 61.57 - Recent Flight Experience: PIC
b. FAR 61.65 - Instrument Rating Requirements (Specifics are Below)
ii. Student Pilots
iii. Recreational Pilots
iv. Private Pilots
v. Commercial Pilots
vi. Airline Transport Pilots
vii. Flight Instructors
a. FAR 61.183(c)(2)(iv) – Eligibility Requirements
b. FAR 61.187(b)(7) – Areas of Operation
c. FAR 61.191 – Additional Flight Instructor Ratings
viii. Ground Instructors
ix. Sport Pilots

C. Part 61 and IFR Pilots

i. FAR 61.65(a) - Instrument Rating Requirements
a. A person who applies for an instrument rating must:
• Hold at least a current PPL with an airplane rating suitable to the Instrument Rating sought
• Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

• Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or accomplish a home-study
course on the aeronautical knowledge areas that apply to the instr. rating sought
• Receive a logbook or training record endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying
that the person is prepared to take the required knowledge test;
• Receive and log training on the areas of operation from an authorized instructor in an
aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training device
• Receive a logbook or training record endorsement from an authorized instructor certifying
that the person is prepared to take the required practical test
• Pass the required knowledge test on the aeronautical knowledge areas
• Pass the required practical test on the areas of operation necessary
ii. FAR 61.65(b) - Aeronautical Knowledge
iii. FAR 61.65(c) - Flight Proficiency
iv. FAR 61.65(d) - Aeronautical Experience
a. Must have logged the following:
• At least 50 hours of X-country flight time as PIC, at least 10 hours must be in airplanes
• 40 hours of actual or simulated instrument time on the areas of operation, to include:
a At least 15 hours of instrument flight training from an authorized instructor in the
aircraft category for which the instrument rating is sought
b At least 3 hours of instrument training in preparation for the practical test within 2
calendar months preceding the date of the test
• Instrument training on X-country flight procedures specific to airplanes that includes at least
one X-country flight performed under IFR, and consists of—
a A distance of at least 250 nautical miles along airways or ATC-directed routing
b An instrument approach at each airport
c Three different kinds of approaches with the use of navigation systems
v. FAR 61.65(h) - Use of Flight Simulators or FTDs
vi. FAR 61.65(i) - Use of an aviation training device
vii. FAR 61.57(c) - Recent Flight Experience: Pilot in Command
a. Within the last 6 months must have performed and logged under actual or simulated conditions:
• At least 6 instrument approaches
• Holding procedures
• Intercepting and tracking courses using navigation systems
2. Part 91 – General Operating and Flight Rules
A. Purpose/General Content
i. Describes rules governing the operation of aircraft
B. Subparts
i. A - General
ii. B - Flight Rules
a. General - FAR 91.101
• Preflight Action - FAR 91.103
• Flight Instruction; Simulated Instrument Flight… - FAR 91.109
b. Visual - FAR 91.151
c. Instrument - FAR 91.167 up to Subpart C
iii. C - Equipment, Instrument, and Certificate Requirements
a. Instrument Flight Rules - FAR 91.205(d)
iv. D - Special Flight Operations
v. E - Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, and Alterations

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

a. Inspection Requirements - FAR 91.411

vi. F - Large and Turbine Powered Multiengine Airplanes and Fractional Ownership Program Aircraft
vii. G - Additional Equipment and Operating Requirements for Large and Transport Category Aircraft
viii. H - Foreign Aircraft Operations and operations of US Registry Civil Aircraft Outside of the US; and
rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft
a. Operating Noise Limits
b. Waivers
c. Fractional Ownership Operations

C. Part 91 and IFR Pilots

i. Can the Airplane Fly IFR?
a. FAR 91.205(d) - IFR Required Instruments and Equipment
• VFR Day Instruments (TOMATOFFLAMES)
• VFR Night Instruments (FLAPS)
• IFR Instruments (GRABCARD)
a Generator/Alternator of adequate capacity
b Radio (Two way) and Nav. Equipment appropriate to the route
c Altimeter (Sensitive)
d Ball (of Turn Coordinator)
e Clock (w/second hand)
f Attitude Indicator
g Rate of Turn Indicator
h Directional Gyro (DG)
b. FAR 91.411 - Altimeter and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections
• Within the preceding 24 months:
a Each static pressure system
b Each altimeter instrument
c Each automatic pressure altitude reporting system
c. FAR 91.171 - VOR Equipment Check for IFR Operations
• The VOR must have been operationally checked within the preceding 30 days
a VOT: Maximum bearing error is ± 4°
1. VOR should read 180o TO or 360/0o FROM
b Designated as a VOR system checkpoint: Maximum bearing error is ± 4°
c Airborne checkpoint: Maximum bearing error is ± 6° degrees
d If no check signal/point available, select a VOR radial on the centerline of a VOR airway
1. Select a prominent ground point along the radial and maneuver directly over it
2. Note the VOR bearing indicated; it must be ± 6o of the published radial
e Dual system VOR: Maximum bearing error is +/- 4° of each other
1. Ground checkpoint: ± 4o
2. Airborne Checkpoint: ± 6o
ii. IFR Preflight
a. FAR 91.103 - Preflight Actions
• IFR Specific:
a Weather reports and forecasts
b Fuel requirements
c Alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed
d Any known traffic delays which the PIC has been advised by ATC

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

• For any flight… runway lengths, T/O and LDG distances, etc.
b. FAR 91. 169 - IFR Alternate Requirements
• An alternate is not required when:
a At least 1 hour before/1 hour after the ETA the ceiling is ≥ 2,000’ AND visibility is ≥ 3 SM
1. If ceiling is forecast < 2,000’ OR visibility is forecast < 3 SM an alternate is needed
• An airport cannot be an alternate unless at the ETA, the ceiling/visibility are at/above:
a For a Precision Approach: 600’ and 2 SM
b For a Non-Precision Approach: 800’ and 2 SM
c No Approach: Ceiling/visibility must allow descent from MEA, Approach, LDG under VFR
c. FAR 91.167 - Fuel Requirements
• Must carry enough fuel to:
a Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing
b Fly from that airport to the alternate airport (if required)
c Fly for an additional 45 minutes at normal cruising speed
iii. IFR Departure
a. FAR 91.173 - ATC Clearance and Flight Plan Required
• You may not operate in controlled airspace under IFR unless you have:
a Filed an IFR flight plan
b Received an appropriate ATC clearance
b. FAR 91.175 - Takeoff and Landing Under IFR
• 0/0 takeoffs are legal under part 91
a Recommended to use published T/O minimums or approach minimums (if no T/O) as a
guideline
iv. IFR En Route
a. FAR 91.177 - Minimum Altitudes for IFR Operations
• Except for T/O’s and LDGs, you may not operate below:
a The applicable minimum altitudes prescribed in parts 95 and 97
b However, if no minimum is prescribed:
1. Mountainous Area: 2,000’ above the highest obstacle w/in 4 nm of the course flown
2. Non-Mountainous: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle w/in 4 nm of the course flown
• If an MEA and MOCA are prescribed, you may operate below the MEA, but not below the
MOCA, when w/in 22 NM of the VOR concerned
• Climb to a higher minimum IFR altitude immediately after passing the point beyond which
that minimum altitude applies
a Except when ground obstructions intervene, the point shall be crossed at or above the
applicable MCA
b. FAR 91.179 - IFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level
• Controlled Airspace: Maintain the altitude of FL assigned by ATC
a If cleared for VFR on top, maintain altitude based on FAR 91.159
• Uncontrolled Airspace: Below 18,000’ MSL, and
a On a magnetic course of 0o through 179o: Any ODD Thousand-foot MSL altitude
b On a magnetic course of 180o through 359o: Any EVEN Thousand-foot MSL altitude
c. FAR 91.181 - Course to be Flown
• You must:
a Be on an ATS route, along the centerline of that airway
b On any other route, along the direct course between nav aids or fixes defining the route
1. Doesn’t prohibit maneuvering to pass well clear of other aircraft/clearing flight path

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

d. FAR 91.183 - IFR Communications

• You must report the following as soon as possible
a The time/altitude of passing each designated reporting point or those desired by ATC
1. Except while under radar control: Report those specifically requested by ATC
b Any unforecast weather conditions encountered
c Any other information relating to the safety of the flight
e. FAR 91.185 - IFR Operations: Two-Way Radio Communications Failure
• VFR Conditions: Continue the flight under VFR and land as soon as practicable
• IFR Conditions: Continue the flight according to the following rules:
a Route - AVE F (In order of importance; if one is absent move to the next)
1. Assigned - By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received
2. Vectored - By the direct route from the point of failure to where being vectored
3. Expect - By the route ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance
4. Filed - By the route filed in the flight plan
b Altitude - MEA (The highest of the following altitudes)
1. Minimum Altitude – The minimum altitude prescribed for IFR operations (MEA)
2. Expected - The altitude ATC has advised may be expected in a further clearance
3. Assigned - The altitude assigned in the last ATC clearance received
c Leaving a Clearance Limit
1. If the limit is a fix from which an approach begins:
a. Commence descent as close as possible to the expect further clearance time
i. If one has not been received, leave as close as possible to the ETA filed
2. If the limit is not a fix from which an approach begins:
a. Leave the limit at the expect further clearance time
b. If one has not been received, leave upon arrival over the clearance limit and
proceed to a fix from which an approach begins and commence descent as close
as possible to the ETA filed
f. FAR 91.187 - Operations Under IFR in Controlled Airspace: Malfunction Reports
• The PIC shall report as soon as practical to ATC any malfunctions of:
a Nav Equipment
b Approach Equipment
c Communication Equipment
• In each report, include:
a Aircraft Identification
b Equipment Affected
c Degree to which the capability of the pilot to operate IFR under ATC is impaired
d Nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC
v. IFR Approaches
a. FAR 91.175(a)(c) - Takeoff and Landing Under IFR
• When an instrument approach is necessary, must use one given in part 97 for that airport
• May not operate below the authorized MDA or continue below the DA/DH unless:
a The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the
intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers
b The flight visibility is not less than that prescribed in the approach being used
c At least one visual reference for the intended runway is distinctly visible/identifiable:
1. The approach light system

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

a. May not descend below 100’ above TD zone elevation using the approach lights
unless the red terminating bars or red side row bars are visible/identifiable
2. The Threshold
3. The Threshold Lights
4. The Runway End Identifier Lights
5. The Visual Approach Slope Indicator
6. The Touchdown Zone or TD Zone Markings
7. The TD Zone Lights
8. The Runway or Runway Markings
9. The Runway Lights
vi. FAR 91.175(k) - ILS Components
a. The following means may be used to substitute for an OM
• Compass Locator
• Precision Approach Radar or Airport Surveillance Radar
• DME, VOR, or NDB fixes authorized in the standard instrument approach procedures
• Suitable RNAV system in conjunction with a fix identified in the approach procedures
vii. FAR 91.175(d) - Landing
a. May not land if the flight visibility is less than the visibility prescribed in the approach being used
viii. FAR 91.175(e) - Missed Approach Procedures
a. Immediately execute a missed approach when either of the following conditions exist:
• When operating under paragraph (c) and the requirements aren’t met when:
a The aircraft is being operated below MDA
b Upon arrival at the missed approach point, including a DA/DH where a DA/DH is
specified and its use is required, and at any time after that until touchdown
• Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible during a circling
maneuver at or above MDA
ix. FAR 91.175(j) - Limitations on Procedure Turns
a. No pilot may make a procedure turn (unless cleared to do so) in the case of:
• A radar vector to a final approach course or a fix
• A timed approach from a holding fix
• An approach for which the procedure specifies “No PT”
D. Part 95 - IFR Altitudes
i. Prescribes altitudes governing the operation of aircraft under IFR on ATS routes, or other direct
routes for which an MEA is designated in this part
a. In addition, it designates mountainous areas and changeover points
ii. Subparts
a. General
b. Designated Mountainous Areas
c. En Route IFR Altitudes Over Particular Routes and Intersections
d. Changeover Points
E. Part 97 - Standard instrument Procedures
i. Subparts
a. General
b. Procedures
c. TERPS Procedures
3. Instrument Flying Handbook
A. Purpose

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

i. Designed for use by instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for instrument rating tests
a. The discussion and explanations reflect the most used practices and principles
ii. All the aeronautical knowledge and skills required to operate in IMC are detailed
B. General Content
i. Human/Aerodynamic Factors in Instr. Flight vi. Navigation Systems
ii. The Flight Instruments vii. The National Airspace System (NAS)
iii. Attitude Instrument Flying for Airplanes viii. The Air Traffic Control (ATC) system
iv. Basic Flight Maneuvers used in IMC ix. IFR Flight Procedures
v. Attitude Instrument Flying for Helicopters x. IFR Emergencies
C. Revised occasionally by the FAA to update the latest practices
4. Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
A. Provides pilots with a vast amount of basic flight info and ATC procedures in the US
i. Comprehensive and useful index to help find topics of interest
ii. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 have the most IFR oeprations information
B. IFR Specific Information
i. Chapter 1: Air Navigation
a. Navigation Aids
b. PBN & RNAV
ii. Chapter 3: Airspace
iii. Chapter 4: Air Traffic Control
a. Pilot Services
b. Radio Communication Phraseology & Techniques
c. Airport Operations
d. ATC Clearances & Aircraft Separation
iv. Chapter 5: Air Traffic Procedures
a. Preflight
b. Departure
c. Enroute
d. Arrival
e. Pilot/Controller Responsibilities
v. Chapter 6: Emergency Procedures
a. Two-way Radio Communications Failure
vi. Chapter 7: Safety of Flight
a. Meteorology
b. Barometric Altimeter Errors & Setting Procedures
c. Cold Temperature Altimeter Errors
d. Wake Turbulence
vii. Chapter 9: Aeronautical Charts & Related Publications
a. Types of Charts Available
5. Practical Test Standards / Airman Certification Standards
A. FARS specify areas in which knowledge/skill must be shown before the issuance of a certificate
i. FARS permit the FAA to publish PTS/ACS containing the tasks a pilot must show skill in
B. Current PTS (Digital PTS)
i. Sport, Recreational, Flight Instructor
C. Current ACS (Digital ACS)
i. Slowly replacing the PTS
ii. Published for the Private Pilot, Instrument, Commercial, and ATP and Type Rating
6. Chart Supplement (Digital Chart Supplements)

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II.C. Regulations and Publications Related to IFR Operations

A. A Civil Flight Information Publication published/distributed every 8 weeks by NACO

i. NACO – National Aeronautical Charting Office, a division of the FAA
B. Directory of all airports, seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public; communication data; nav
facilities; and certain special notices and procedures
C. A directory is published for each of seven geographical districts (NW, SW, NC, SC, EC, NE, SE)
D. The Chart Supplement is a vital publication for cross country planning
i. All pertinent info regarding airports, FSS contact info, etc. is contained in the Chart Supplement
7. En Route Charts (Low Altitude)
A. Aeronautical charts for en route IFR navigation in the low stratum (below 18,000’ MSL)
B. Purpose
i. The equivalent of the VFR sectional chart
ii. Allows one to effectively depart and navigate en route under instrument conditions
C. General Content
i. Airport Information
ii. Charted IFR Altitudes
a. MEA – Minimum En Route Altitude d. MCA – Minimum Crossing Altitude
b. MOCA – Minimum Obstacle Clearance e. MAA – Maximum Authorized Altitude
Altitude
c. MRA – Minimum Reception Altitude
iii. Navigation Features
a. NAVAIDS d. Weather Information and Communication Features
b. Airways and Intersections e. RCO
c. Other Route Information
D. Revised every 56 days
E. FAA Aeronautical Chart User’s Guides
8. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP)
A. Published by NACO
B. Includes approach procedures, arrival and DPs, and airport diagrams by region
9. Standard Departures/Terminal Arrivals
A. Departure Procedures
i. Preplanned IFR ATC departure/obstacle avoidance procedures - text and graphic format
ii. Textual DPs are listed by airport in the IFR T/O Mins and Departure Procedures section (C) of the TPP
iii. Graphic DPs are included after the respective airport’s IAP
iv. Purpose
a. Provide obstacle clearance protection, while reducing communications and departure delays
b. They provide a way to safely depart the airport and transition to the enroute phase
v. General Content
a. Both textual and graphical
b. Provide clearance provided the aircraft clears the end of the runway at least 35’ AGL, climbs to
400’ above airport elevation before turning, and climbs at least 200’ per NM
• Unless a higher climb gradient is specified
vi. Revisions every 56 days
B. Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs)
i. Preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures, published for use in textual and graphic format
ii. STARs are shown by airport in the Standard Terminal Arrival Charts section (P) of the TPP
iii. Purpose
a. Transition from the en route structure to a terminal area fix, where an approach can be made
iv. General Content

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a. Graphical with textual description

v. Revisions every 56 days
10. Standard Instrument Approach Procedure Charts
A. Purpose
i. Provide the method to descend and land safely in low visibility conditions
B. General Content
i. Maneuvers, including alt changes, course corrections, other limitations are prescribed in the IAPs
ii. Main Sections
a. Margin Identification
• Top and bottom areas on an IAP that depict info about the procedure including airport
location and procedure identification
b. Plan View
• Overhead view of approach procedure on IAP chart
c. Profile View
• Side view of an approach procedure on an IAP chart illustrating the vertical approach path
altitudes, headings, distances, and fixes
d. Landing Minimums (and notes)
• Displays the lowest altitude and visibility requirements for the approach
e. Airport Diagram
• Shows a detailed diagram of the airport; includes surface features/airport configuration info
C. Revisions every 56 days

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to regulations and
publications, (related to instrument flight and instrument flight instruction) their purpose, general content,
availability, and method of revision by describing:
1. 14 CFR parts 61, 71, 91, 95, and 97.
2. FAA-H-8083-15, Instrument Flying Handbook.
3. Aeronautical Information Manual.
4. Practical Test Standards.
5. Airport Facility Directory.
6. Standard Instrument Departures/Terminal Arrivals.
7. En Route Charts.
8. Standard Instrument Approach Procedure Charts.

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II.D. Logbook Entries Related to Instrument Instruction

References: 14 CFR part 61, Certification: Pilots and Flight and Ground Instructors (AC 61-65), Currency
Requirements and Guidance for the Flight Review and Instrument Proficiency Check (AC 61-98)

Objectives This lesson applies to the instructor. The instructor should understand how to log flight
instruction as well as the endorsements required for IFR operations.

Key Elements 1. Logging Time

2. Endorsements

Elements 1. Logbook Entries

2. Practical test Recommendation
3. IPC Endorsement
4. Flight Instructor Records

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The instructor is competent logging time and endorsing a student as necessary.
Standards
II.D. Logbook Entries Related to Instrument Instruction

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Logging time and signing off students for checkrides and instrument proficiency checks while maintaining the
proper documentation.

Why
It’s your job.

How:
1. Logbook Entries
A. FAR 61.51 (g): Logging Instrument Flight Time
i. May log instrument time only for that flight time when the person operates the aircraft solely by
reference to instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions
ii. An instructor may log instrument time when instructing in actual IFR conditions
B. A flight sim/FTD may be used for instrument time, provided an instructor is present
i. FAR 61.51(g): A person may use time in a full flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation
training device for acquiring instrument aeronautical experience for a pilot certificate or rating
provided an authorized instructor is present to observe that time and signs the person's logbook or
training record to verify the time and the content of the training session.
ii. **Effective July 27, 2018, an instructor does not need to be present to accomplish required recency
experience in a flight simulator or aviation training device. FAR 61.51(g)(5):
a. A person may use time in a full flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device
for satisfying instrument recency experience requirements provided a logbook or training record
is maintained to specify the training device, time, and the content (no instructor required)
iii. **Effective November 26, 2018, recency requirements accomplished in an ATD will expire every 6
months (rather than 2 months), and any combination of aircraft and ATD will be able to satisfy the
recency requirements
C. The following must be recorded in the logbook to meet the recent experience requirements (FAR
61.57(c)):
i. The location and type of instrument approach accomplished
ii. The name of the safety pilot, if required
iii. FAR 61.51(b) – Logbook Entries; Also enter
a. Date
b. Total Flight Time or Lesson Time
c. Location of Departure and Arrival
• For sim, where the lesson occurred
d. Type and ID of aircraft, sim, FTD
e. Type of experience or training
f. Conditions of flight

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II.D. Logbook Entries Related to Instrument Instruction

D. Ground Instruction
i. Must have received and logged ground training from an instructor on FAR 61.65(b)
a. FAR 61.51(h) – Logging Training Time
• Training time must be logged in a logbook and must:
a Be endorsed in a legible manner by the authorized instructor
b And Include:
1. Description of the training given
2. Length of the training lesson
3. Instructor’s signature, certificate number, and expiration date
2. Practical Test Recommendation (AC 61-65)
A. Hold at least a Private Pilot Certificate
B. Read, speak, write, understand English
C. Receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor or accomplish a home study course of
training the aeronautical knowledge areas of paragraph FAR 61.65(b)
D. Receive an endorsement certifying the person is prepared for the knowledge test and pass it
E. Receive and log training in the areas of operation of paragraph FAR 61.65(c)
F. Receive an endorsement certifying the person is prepared for the practical test
i. I certify that (____) has received the required training of section 61.65(c) and (d). I have determined
he/she is prepared for the instrument airplane practical test.
ii. I certify that within the last 2 calendar months I have given Mr./Ms. [ Name ] the flight instruction
required by FAR 61.65(c)(1) through (8) and ground instruction required by FAR 61.65(b)(1) through
(10) including a review of those areas found deficient on the instrument pilot knowledge test and
find him/her competent to perform each pilot operation safely as an Instrument Pilot in and
Airplane
3. IPC Endorsement
A. I certify that (name), (pilot cert), (cert #), has satisfactorily completed the instrument proficiency check
of section 61.57(d) in a (make and model aircraft) on (date)
4. FAR 61.189 – Flight Instructor Records
A. A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person the instructor has given flight or ground training
B. Must maintain a record of the name of each person endorsed for a knowledge or practical test
i. Also record the kind of test, the date, and the results
a. Maintain the records for at least 3 years

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of logbook entries related to instrument
instruction by describing:
1. Logbook entries or training records for instrument flight/instrument flight instruction or ground
instruction given.
2. Preparation of a recommendation for an instrument rating practical test, including appropriate logbook
entry.
3. Required endorsement of a pilot logbook for satisfactory completion of an instrument proficiency check.
4. Required flight instructor records.

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III. Preflight Preparation
III.A. Weather Information

References: Aviation Weather (AC 00-6), Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45), Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to weather information with
the ability to interpret several sources and make a well-educated Go/No Go decision.

Key Elements 1. Information Sources

2. Reading Weather Reports
3. Go/No Go Decision

Elements 1. Importance of a Thorough WX Briefing 9. Freezing Level Chart

2. Weather Information Sources 10. Stability Chart
3. METAR, TAF, GFA 11. Convective Outlook Chart
4. Model Output Statistics (MOS) 12. SIGMETs, AIRMETs, and PIREPs
5. Surface Analysis Chart 13. ATIS, AWOS, ASOS Reports
6. Radar Summary Chart 14. Recognizing Weather Hazards
7. Significant Weather Prognostic Chart 15. Go/No Go Decision
8. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart 16. Alternate Requirements

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives 3. Ask and Answer Questions

2. Present Lecture 4. Assign Homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can effectively interpret weather information and has the ability to make a
Standards competent Go/No Go decision.
III.A. Weather Information

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Instead of getting ourselves stuck, in the air, in a thunderstorm, or some sort of extreme weather we should
have a good understanding of weather information in order to rationally decide whether or not to fly.

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Through a complex system of weather services, government agencies, and independent weather observers,
pilots are given vast information regarding weather patterns, trends, and characteristics in the form of up-to-
date weather reports and forecasts

Why
These reports and forecasts enable pilots to make informed decisions regarding weather and flight safety.

How:
1. Importance of a Thorough Weather Briefing
A. 1st step in determining if the flight can be conducted safely and where and when problems may occur
B. FAR 91.103 – As PIC, you are required to become familiar with the weather reports and forecasts
C. Weather can be dangerous, if you know what to expect, unforecast conditions will alert you to hazards
2. Weather Information Sources
A. General Awareness of the Overall Weather
i. Internet, Weather Apps, TV, etc.
B. Detailed Briefing (Specific to the flight)
i. FSS (1-800-WX BRIEF or 1800wxbrief.com)
a. Primary source for preflight weather
b. Provides NOTAM, weather, and filing of flight plans
ii. NWS – National Weather Service
a. Aviationweather.gov
b. Provides weather only (vs FSS with NOTAM, and filing of flight plans)
iii. ForeFlight
a. Briefings are timestamped and stored to comply with FAR 91.103
iv. AIM 7-1-2-C
a. Pilots can receive a regulatory compliant briefing without contacting flight service
v. Encouraged to use automated resources and review AC 91-92 – Pilot’s Guide to a Preflight Briefing
a. Provides a roadmap for self-briefings and guidance for FAR 91.103 required preflight actions
b. Briefing types and sources, sample preflight checklists, Do’s and Don’ts, and more
C. Inflight Weather Sources
i. FSS Frequencies
a. Provides information/services before, during, and after flights,
b. Unlike ATC, FSS is not responsible for giving instructions, clearances or providing separation
c. Frequency is as published, or 122.2
ii. ForeFlight, or other apps (with data connection)
iii. Satellite Weather
a. Current weather available to appropriately equipped aircraft

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III.A. Weather Information

• i.e., G1000 with XM WX satellite capability and subscription

iv. FIS-B
a. Flight Information Service Broadcast – Part of the ADS-B system
b. Available to aircraft who can receive 978 MHz (UAT) flying within ADS-B coverage
• Automatically transmits a wide range of weather products to all aircraft equipped to receive
the data, and flying within ADS-B coverage
• Includes AIRMET, Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, METAR, SPECI, National NEXRAD, Regional
NEXRAD, D-NOTAM, FDC-NOTAM, PIREP, SUA Status, TAF, AMEND, Winds and
Temperatures Aloft, TIS-B Service Status, Lighting, Turbulence, Icing, Cloud Tops, Graphical
AIRMET, Center Weather Advisory
c. Capability and availability will vary based on individual ADS-B avionics
3. METAR, TAF, GFA
A. METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report)
i. Observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format
ii. Contains the following information:
a. Type of Report – 2 types:
• Routine METAR report, transmitted hourly
• Aviation selected special weather report (SPECI)
a Published when necessary to update a METAR for changing weather, mishaps, etc.
b. Station Identifier – Four letter code (ex. KAHN). K is the country ID and AHN is the airport ID
• Alaska begins with “PA” and Hawaii begins with “PH”
c. Date and Time of Report – (161753Z) Six-digits: First 2 digits are date; last 4 are time (UTC)
d. Modifier – Denote that the METAR came from an automated source or was corrected
• “AUTO” indicates the report came from an automated source
• “AO1” and “AO2” indicate the type of precipitation sensors at the station
• “COR” identifies a corrected report.
e. Wind – (14021G26)
• Reported with 5 digits unless speed is > 99 knots, then it is 6
a The first 3 digits indicate wind direction in tens of degrees
b The last 2 digits indicate the speed of the wind in knots
1. Gusting winds (G) show with the peak gust after the “G”
c If wind varies more than 60 degrees and the speed > 6 knots, a separate group of
numbers, separated by a “V” (variable) will indicate the extremes of the directions
f. Visibility – (3/4SM)
• Reported in statute miles
• RVR is sometimes reported following the visibility
a RVR is the distance a pilot can see down the runway in a moving aircraft.
b Shown with an “R” then the runway number, a slant, and the visual range in feet
g. Weather – (-RA BR) Two different categories: Qualifiers and Weather Phenomenon
• Qualifiers show intensity or proximity as well as descriptor codes
a Ex: -, +, VC, SH, TS, FZ, etc.
• Phenomena describe the different precipitation, obscuration, and other phenomena
a Ex: DZ, RA, HZ, SS, DS, SN, etc.
h. Sky Condition – (BKN008 OVC012)
• Always reported in the sequence of amount, height, and type
a Heights are depicted with three digits in hundreds of feet above ground
1. Clouds above 12,000 ft. are not detected

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III.A. Weather Information

b TCU and CB clouds are reported with their height

c The amount of sky coverage is reported in eighths of the sky from horizon to horizon
< 1/8 1/8 – 2/8 3/8 – 4/8 5/8 – 7/8 8/8
Sky Cover
Clear Few Scattered Broken Overcast
Contraction SKC/CLR/FEW FEW SCT BKN OVC
i.
Temperature and Dewpoint – (18/17)
• In degrees Celsius (Temp below 0 degrees Celsius are preceded by the letter “M”)
j. Altimeter Setting – (A2970)
• Preceded by the letter “A” and reported as inches of mercury in a four-digit number
• “PRESRR” or “PRESFR” represent rising or falling pressure
k. Remarks – RMK
• May include wind data, variable visibility, begin/end times of phenomenon, pressure info,
and various other necessary info
EXAMPLE:
METAR BTR 161753Z 14021G26 ¾SM –RA BR BKN008 OVC012 18/17 A2970 RMK PRESFR

EXPLANATION:
Type of Report: Routine METAR
Location: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Date: 16th day of the month
Time: 1753 Zulu
Modifier: None shown
Wind Information: Winds 140 at 21 knots gusting to 26 knots
Visibility: ¾ SM
Weather: Light rain and mist
Sky Conditions: Skies broken 800 ft., Overcast 1,200 ft.
Temperature: Temp 18 degrees C, Dewpoint 17 degrees C
Altimeter: 29.70 in. Hg.
Remarks: Barometric pressure is falling

B. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)

i. A terminal aerodrome forecast is a report established for the 5 s.m. radius around an airport
ii. Valid for a 24-hour or 30-hour period, updated four times a day: 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, 1800Z
iii. The TAF utilizes the same descriptors and abbreviations as the METAR.
iv. Includes the following information in sequential order:
a. Type of Report – Can either be a routine forecast (TAF) or an amended forecast (TAF AMD)
b. ICAO Station Identifiers – (KAHN) Same as METAR
c. Date and Time of Origin – Six number code. First 2 are the date; last four are the time (UTC)
d. Valid Period Date and Time – Six-digit number group. First 2 are the date, the next 2 are the
beginning time for the valid period and the last 2 are the end time
e. Forecast Wind – Wind direction and speed forecasts are given in a five-digit number group
f. Forecast Visibility – Given in statute miles (Greater than 6 SM is shows as “P6SM”)
g. Forecast Significant Weather – Same as a METAR (No sig weather forecast “NSW” shown)
h. Forecast Sky Condition – Given same as the METAR. Only “CB” clouds are forecast
i. Forecast Change Group – For any significant weather change forecast to occur, the expected
conditions and time period are included, this information can be shown as:
• FM - From - A rapid/significant change, usually within an hour, is expected
• BECMG - Becoming - A gradual change is expected over no more than 2 hours

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III.A. Weather Information

• TEMPO - Temporary - Temporary fluctuations expected to last less than an hour

j. Probability Forecast – Probability (%) of thunderstorms/precipitation in the coming hours
EXAMPLE:
TAF
KPIR 111130Z 111212 15012KT P6SM BKN090
TEMPO 1214 5SM BR
FM1500 16015G25KT P6SM BKN080 OVC150 PROB40 0004 3SM TSRA BKN030CB
FM0400 1408KT P6SM SCT040 OVC080 TEMPO 0408 3SM TSRA OVC030CB
BECMG 0810 32007KT=

EXPLANATION
Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota. On the 11th day of the month, at 11:30Z. Valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on
the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th. Wind from 150 at 12 knots. Greater than 6 SM visibility. Broken clouds at 9,000 ft.
Temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist.
From 1500Z winds from 160 at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots. Visibility greater than 6SM, and clouds broken at
8,000ft, overcast at 15,000 ft. Between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is a 40 percent probability of visibility 3 statute
miles, thunderstorm with moderate rain showers, clouds broken at 3,000 ft. with cumulonimbus clouds.
From 0400Z winds are from 140 at 08 kts, visibility greater than 6 SM. Clouds at 4,000 ft. scattered and overcast
at 8,000. Temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z, visibility 3 SM, thunderstorms with moderate rain. Clouds
overcast at 3,000 ft. with cumulonimbus clouds.
Becoming between 0800Z and 1000Z, wind from 320 at 7 knots. End of report =

C. Graphical Forecasts for Aviation (GFA) – replaced the Area Forecast (FA)
i. GFA Tool – Aviationweather.gov/gfa
ii. Tools
a. GFA User’s Guide - Weather.gov
b. GFA Tutorial Video – Youtube.com
c. Product Description Doc – National Weather Service
iii. Scope
a. Describes conditions produced by weather systems such as high- and low-pressure areas, air
masses, and fronts. Typically predicts conditions that may affect flight over relatively large areas
iv. Purpose
a. Provides a forecast for the en route phase of flight and for locations without a TAF
b. Provide the ability to obtain forecast data previously available from the area forecast
v. Description
a. Web-based displays providing observations/forecasts of safety critical weather phenomena
b. Covers continental US, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, portions of the Atlantic (shown below)

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III.A. Weather Information

c. Includes observational data, forecasts, and warnings

d. Includes observational data, forecasts, and warnings
• Can be viewed from 14 hours in the past to 15 hours in the future
e. Hourly models and forecasts, including information on clouds, flight category, precipitation,
icing, turbulence, wind, and graphical output are available
• Wind, icing and turbulence forecasts are available in 3,000 ft. increments from the surface
up to 30,000’ MSL, and 6,000’ increments from 30,000 MSL to FL 480
• Turbulence forecasts are broken into LO (below 18,000 MSL) and HI (FL180 and above)
• A maximum icing graphic and maximum wind velocity graphic are also available
vi. Advantages
a. Displays for non-meteorologist users
b. A single source for multiple products
c. Temporal resolution 1 hour
d. Available continuously
e. Updated continuously
f. Display scalable and customizable
vii. Limitations
a. Not intended to cover every phenomena
b. No amendments
c. Primarily low altitude products (below FL180)
d. Automated; may not be as accurate as forecast with human involvement
e. Displays may suffer from clutter
f. Users may disable certain overlays, eliminating areas of hazardous weather
4. Model Output Statistics (MOS)
**Note: Not required by the PTS/ACS, but becoming popular, especially on ForeFlight. If used/presented during
the checkride, the examiner may ask questions about it
A. What is it?
i. Takes a weather model (big picture forecast) and applies statistical methods and historical
observations to produce a specific point forecast (airport, town, etc.)
ii. Completely automated
a. Removes systematic model biases
b. Quantifies uncertainty – displays probability forecasts
c. Updated hourly

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III.A. Weather Information

iii. Detailed prediction of temp, chance and type of precipitation/thunderstorms, cloud cover and
height, wind speed and direction at specific points across the country
iv. Displayed and commonly used in ForeFlight
B. Uses
i. Forecasters use it to:
a. Create more accurate local forecasts
b. Construct and amend TAFs
ii. Better weather picture for aviation planning purposes
a. More detailed than a GFA
b. More or less provides a TAF for airports that don’t have TAF information
• According to ForeFlight, TAFs cover 666 airports, MOS covers over 2100
C. Limitations
i. Not a legal weather source
a. Great for planning, but should not be used for legal requirements (i.e., alternate requirements,
required weather briefing, etc.)
b. Used for guidance
ii. Cannot forecast
a. Multiple cloud layers
b. Forecast showers or fog in the vicinity
c. Precipitation intensity
d. Non-convective LLWS
e. No significant weather
f. Variable winds
iii. Can’t discriminate between
a. Rain and drizzle
b. Mixed precipitation
iv. Currently only in the US
D. Where to find it
i. ForeFlight – Airport weather tab
ii. NWS MOS Text Bulletins
iii. Raw MOS data breakdown: JetStream Max: MOS
a. NWS resource if you’re not using ForeFlight, or want to pull up and read raw MOS data
5. Surface Analysis Chart
A. Depicts an analysis of the current surface weather
B. Computer prepared report transmitted every 3 hours covering contiguous 48 states/adjacent areas
C. Shows high/low pressure, fronts, temps/dewpoints, wind direction/speed, weather, visual obstructions
D. Surface weather observations for reporting points across the US are also depicted on this chart. Each of
these reporting points is illustrated by a station model. A station model will include:
i. Type of Observation – Round indicates official weather observer, square is automated station
ii. Sky Cover – Shown as clear, scattered, broken, overcast, or obscured/partially obscured
iii. Clouds – Represented by specific symbols. Low cloud symbols are placed beneath the station model,
middle and high cloud symbols are placed directly above the station model. Typically, only one type
of cloud will be depicted with the station model.
iv. Sea Level Pressure (SLP) – Given in 3 digits to the nearest tenth of a millibar. For 1000 mbs or
greater, prefix a 10 to the 3 digits; for less than 1000 mbs, prefix a 9 to the 3 digits
v. Pressure Change/Tendency – In tenths of mbs over the past 3 hours, shown directly below SLP
vi. Precipitation – Precip that has fallen over the last 6 hours to the nearest hundredth of an inch
vii. Dewpoint – In degrees Fahrenheit

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III.A. Weather Information

viii. Present Weather – Many different weather symbols are used to describe the current weather
ix. Temperature – Given in degrees Fahrenheit
x. Wind – True direction of wind is given by the wind pointer line, indicating the direction from which
the wind is coming (Short barb is 5 knots, long barb is 10 knots, a pennant is 50 knots)
6. Radar Summary Chart
A. A graphically depicted collection of radar weather reports (SDs) displaying areas of precipitation as well
as information regarding the characteristics of precipitation
B. Published hourly at 35 min past the hour
C. Includes:
i. No information – If info isn’t reported it will say “NA.” if no echoes are detected, it will say “NE”
ii. Precipitation Intensity Contours – Described as one of 6 levels and shown by 3 contour intervals
iii. Height of Tops – The heights of the echo tops are given in hundreds of feet MSL
iv. Movement of Cells –Indicated by an arrow pointing in the direction of movement, speed in knots is
at the top of the arrow heard (“LM” indicates little movement)
v. Type of Precipitation - Marked using specific symbols (not those used on the METAR)
vi. Echo Configuration – Echoes are shown as being areas, cells, or lines
vii. Weather Watches – Depicted by boxes outlined with heavy dashed lines
D. Limitations
i. Only depicts areas of precipitation
ii. Will not show areas of clouds and fog with no appreciable precipitation,
iii. Will not show the heights of the tops and bases of the clouds
E. Depiction of current precipitation, should be used with current METAR and weather forecasts
7. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts
A. General - Portray forecasts of selected weather conditions over large areas at specified valid times
i. Each chart depicts a “snapshot” of the weather elements expected at the chart’s valid time
B. Surface Chart
i. Used to obtain an overview of the progression of surface weather features over the next 2 ½ days
a. Five forecast periods: 12, 18, 24, 48, and 60 hours
ii. Depicts: Pressure systems, fronts, precipitation, and squall lines
iii. Issued: 2x a day, based on the product

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III.A. Weather Information

C. Low Level Chart (FL240 and below)

i. Overview of certain aviation weather hazards up to FL240 at 12 and 24 hours into the future
a. Two charts: 12 hour and a 24 hour prog
b. Big picture overview, more detailed and timely products should be used for flight planning
ii. Depicts (legend shown on the right):
a. Flying categories: IFR, MVFR, VFR
b. Turbulence intensities and affected altitudes
c. Freezing level in hundreds of feet MSL (if multiple exist, lines are drawn to the highest level)
iii. Sometimes combined with surface prognostic charts for a four panel display
a. Left side: 12 hour Low Level and Surface; Right Side: 24 hour Low Level and Surface
iv. Issued 4x per day

D. Mid/Medium Level Chart (10,000’ MSL to FL450) (depicted below,

left)
i. Used to determine an overview of flight weather conditions between 10,000’ and FL450
a. Single 24 hour chart
b. Used by airline dispatchers for flight planning /
weather briefings and flight crew during flight
ii. Depicts: Thunderstorms / cumulonimbus clouds,
moderate or severe turbulence and icing, jet streams,
tropopause heights, tropical cyclones, volcanic
eruptions, sandstorms / duststorms, and non-convective clouds with moderate or severe icing and /
or moderate or severe turbulence

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III.A. Weather Information

iii. Issued: 4x per day

E. High Level Chart (FL250 to FL630) (depicted above, right)

i. Provided for enroute portion of international flights
a. Used by airline dispatchers and flight crew
ii. Depicts: Same as mid, minus non-convective clouds with
moderate or severe icing / turbulence
iii. Issued: 4x a day
F. Alaska Charts
i. Graphical overview of forecast weather primarily for lower flight altitudes
ii. Depict: Surface pressure systems and fronts, IFR / MVFR weather conditions, freezing levels, low-
level turbulence, and thunderstorms
iii. Issued: 2x a day - 0530 / 1330Z (Alaska Standard Time), and 0430 / 1230Z (Alaska Daylight Time)
a. Four forecasts (24, 36, 48, and 60 hour) valid at specific times
8. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Chart (FD)
A. Provide wind and temperature forecasts for specific locations
B. The forecasts are made twice a day based at 0000Z and 1200Z
C. Through 12,000 ft. are true altitudes and above 18,000 ft. are pressure altitudes
D. Wind
i. Direction is always in reference to true north and wind speed is always given in knots
ii. No winds are forecast when a given level is within 1,500 ft. of station elevation
iii. Wind direction and speed are listed together in a four-digit code
a. The first two numbers indicate the direction the wind is blowing from in tens of degrees
b. The second two numbers indicate the speed of the wind
iv. If wind is forecast to be 100-199 knots, 50 is added to direction and 100 is subtracted from speed
a. To decode, the reverse must be accomplished
• EX: For 7319 - Subtract 50 from the direction, add 100 to the speed to get 230o at 119 knots
v. If the wind speed is forecast to be 200 knots or greater, the wind group is coded as 99 knots
a. EX: For 7799 - Subtract 50 from direction, add 100 to 99 to get 270 at 199 knots or greater

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III.A. Weather Information

vi. Light and Variable wind is coded “9900”

E. Temperature
i. Temperature is always given in Celsius
ii. No temperatures are forecast for any
station within 2,500’ of station elevation
iii. Temps above 24,000’ MSL are negative

EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLE:
The heading indicates that this FD was transmitted on the 15th of the month at 1640Z and is based on the 1200 Zulu
radiosonde. The valid time is 1800 Zulu on the same day and should be used for the period between 1700Z and 2100Z.
The heading also indicates that the temperatures above 24,000 feet MSL are negative. Since the temperatures above
24,000 feet are negative, the minus sign is omitted. A 4-digit data group shows the wind direction in reference to true
north, and the wind speed in knots. The elevation at Amarillo, TX (AMA) is 3,605 feet, so the lowest reportable altitude
is 6,000 feet for the forecast winds. In this case, “2714” means the wind is forecast to be from 270° at a speed of 14
knots. A 6-digit group includes the forecast temperature aloft. The elevation at Denver (DEN) is 5,431 feet, so the lowest
reportable altitude is 9,000 feet for the winds and temperature forecast. In this case, “2321-04” indicates the wind is
forecast to be from 230° at a speed of 21 knots with a temperature of –4°C.
9. Freezing Level Charts (shown below, on the left)
A. Used to assess the lowest freezing level heights in order to avoid clear, rime and mixed ice
i. Color levels represent the height of the lowest freezing level

10. Stability Charts (Shown above, on the right)

A. LI (Lifted Index)
i. Measure of atmospheric stability
a. Positive LI = Stable
b. Negative LI = Unstable
ii. LI is displayed above station circle
B. K Index
i. Measures thunderstorm potential
a. Higher = greater likelihood of storms
ii. KI is shown below the station circle
11. Convective Outlook Chart
A. Overview

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III.A. Weather Information

i. Depicts areas forecast to have severe and non-severe (general) convection over the following 8 days
a. Severe: Tornado, wind gusts 50 knots or greater, or hail 1 inch diameter or greater
ii. Covers 8 days with 4 charts
a. Day 1 Chart, Day 2 Chart, Day 3
Chart, Days 4-8 Chart
iii. 5 levels of risk + general
thunderstorm depict coverage and
intensity of severe weather
iv. Aviation Weather Convective
Outlook Chart
B. Levels of Risk (Day 1-3 Charts)
i. Thunderstorm area (TSTM)
a. Areas of general thunderstorms
b. ≥ 10% probability of storms
ii. Marginal (MRGL) – Dark Green
a. Severe storms of limited
organization / longevity or low
coverage and marginal intensity
iii. Slight (SLGT) – Yellow
a. Organized severe storms expected, but usually in low coverage with varying intensity
iv. Enhanced (ENH) – Orange
a. Greater concentration of organized severe thunderstorms with varying levels of intensity
v. Moderate (MDT) – Red
a. Potential for widespread severe weather with several tornadoes and/or numerous thunder
vi. High (HIGH) – Magenta
a. Severe weather outbreak is expected from numerous and long-track tornadoes or a long-lived
derecho system with hurricane force winds producing widespread damage
• Derecho: Widespread, long-lived, straight-line wind storm associated with a fast-moving
group of severe thunderstorms
vii. Day 4-8 Chart Depictions
a. Two probabilistic thresholds of 15% and 30% can be forecast
• Highlighted areas are equivalent to slight, or enhanced on the Day 1-3 charts
b. If no 15% areas forecast, you’ll see:
• Predictability too low, or
a Severe storms may be possible, but the location is in doubt
• Potential too low
a 15% or greater severe probabilities appear highly unlikely
C. Additional Information
i. Days 1 & 2: Contain individual severe probabilities for tornadoes, wind, and hail
ii. Day 3: Combined probability of all three types of severe weather
iii. Probabilities are within 25 miles of any point
iv. Probability requirements vary based on the day
a. Graphic Probability Requirements

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D. Issuance Schedule

E. Using the chart

i. A flight planning tool used to determine forecast areas of thunderstorms
12. SIGMETs and AIRMETs
A. Forecasts that detail potentially hazardous weather
B. AIRMET (WA)
i. Issued every 6 hours with intermediate updates issued as needed for a particular region
ii. Info is of interest to all, but the weather section concerns phenomena dangerous to light aircraft
iii. 3 Types
a. SIERRA denotes IFR and Mountain Obscurement
b. TANGO denotes Turbulence, Strong Surface Winds, and Low-Level Wind Shear
c. ZULU denotes Icing and Freezing Levels
C. SIGMET (WS)
i. In flight advisory concerning non-convective weather that is potentially hazardous to all aircraft
ii. Sever icing/extreme turbulence/CAT not associated with T-storms; dust/sand storms lowering
visibility to less than 3 miles and volcanic ash
iii. Unscheduled forecasts valid for 4 hours (hurricane SIGMET is valid for 6 hours)
D. Convective SIGMENT (WST)
i. Weather advisory issued for hazardous convective weather that affects the safety of every flight
ii. Issued for:
a. Severe T-storms with
• Surface winds greater than 50 knots
• Hail at the surface >/= ¾ inch in diameter
• Tornadoes
b. Embedded thunderstorms
c. A line of thunderstorms
d. T-storms with heavy or greater precipitation affecting at least 40% of a 3,000 mi2 or greater area
E. PIREPS
i. A pilot generated report concerning meteorological phenomena encountered in flight
a. Aircraft in flight are the only way to observe cloud tops, icing and turbulence
ii. Help to fill the gaps between reporting stations
13. ASOS, AWOS, and ATIS

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A. ASOS (Automated Surface Observing System)

i. Continuous min-by-min observations to generate a METAR and can provide other information
ii. ASOS software transmits a SPECI report whenever it determines a significant change in conditions
iii. Types of Observations
a. Every ASOS contains:
• Cloud height indicator
• Visibility Sensor
• Precipitation identification sensor
• Freezing rain sensor (at select sites)
• Pressure sensors
• Ambient temperature and dew point temp sensors
• Anemometer (wind direction & speed)
• Rainfall accumulation sensor
b. Some include precipitation discriminator which differentiates liquid/frozen precipitation
• If it has this capability, it’s designated as A02 in the remarks section (otherwise A01)
c. Lightning detection equipment is installed at select ASOS installations
iv. Limitations
a. ASOS cannot distinguish between stratus and cumulonimbus clouds
b. It is limited in its ability to identify restrictions to visibility
• No prevailing, sector, tower visibility (Input from a human observer is integral)
v. Levels of service
a. LEVEL A – The highest – typically available at major airports like those in or near Class B
b. LEVEL B – Has human observers available 24 hours a day
c. LEVEL C – At airports with part-time towers (Human augmentation ends when tower closes)
d. LEVEL D – At smaller, nontowered airports meeting the FAA or NWS criteria for the ASOS
• Unattended, and always contain the AUTO designation when in a METAR
B. AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System)
i. First widely installed automated weather data gathering system at US airports
ii. AWOS is available in lesser configurations without all the types of observations listed above
iii. Levels of service:
a. AWOS-A: Only reports the altimeter setting
b. AWOS-1: Also measures/reports wind speed, direction, gusts, temperature, and dew point
c. AWOS-2: Adds visibility information
d. AWOS-3: Most capable – also includes cloud/ceiling data (essentially equivalent to ASOS)
• Like ASOS, AWOS-3 can include precipitation discrimination sensors indicated by A02
• Lightning detection is also an enhancement for selected AWOS-3 sites
iv. Difference between ASOS/AWOS is ability to identify/report significant changes in surface weather
a. AWOS transmits 3 reports per hour at fixed intervals and cannot issue a special report as needed
C. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
i. A continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in busier terminal areas
ii. Contains essential info - weather, active runways/approaches, other required info (NOTAMs)
a. Data may be entered by hand, come from a METAR, or be taken directly from sensors
iii. In its simplest form, ATIS is a continuously played recording of a person reading the information
iv. Updated when there is a significant change in the information; given a letter designation
v. Re-recorded at every update (often several times per hour)
vi. Modern systems are automated and only require a controller for failures/unusual activities
vii. Some airports have separate ATIS for arriving/departing aircraft, each on its own frequency
14. Recognizing Weather Hazards (not part of CFII PTS, but required by Instrument ACS)

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A. Recognizing Hazards
i. Hazards can be recognized through proper interpretation of aviation weather charts, reports, etc.
a. GFA, WST, WS, WA, Significant Weather Prognostic charts
ii. Also, utilizing weather information resources will allow hazards to be recognized
a. LLWAS, PIREPS, Convective Outlook, METARs, etc.
b. Keep up to date as much as possible during flight
iii. Be alert to changes or deviations from expected weather conditions
B. Wind Shear
i. What is it?
a. A sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over a very small area
b. While wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is especially hazardous due to
the proximity to the ground
• Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with passing frontal systems, thunderstorms,
temperature inversions, and strong upper-level winds (greater than 25 knots)
ii. Why is it dangerous?
a. Wind shear can subject an aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt changes
to the horizontal movement of the aircraft
b. It can rapidly change the performance of the aircraft and disrupt the normal flight attitude, for
example:
• A tailwind can quickly change to a headwind causing an increase in airspeed and
performance
• A headwind can quickly change to a tailwind causing a decrease in airspeed and
performance
c. Microbursts
• The most severe type of wind shear
a Associated with convective precipitation into dry air at cloud base
• Typical Microburst
a Horizontal diameter of 1-2 miles
b Depth of 1,000’
c Lifespan of 5-15 minutes
d Downdrafts of up to 6,000 feet per minute
e Headwind losses of 30-90 knots (seriously degraded performance)
f Strong turbulence and hazardous wind direction changes
• Flying through a Microburst
a During an inadvertent takeoff into a microburst, the plane may first experience a
performance-increasing headwind (1)
b Followed by performance-decreasing downdrafts (2)
c Followed by a rapidly increasing tailwind (3)
1. This can result in terrain impact or flight dangerously close to the ground (4)
d An encounter during approach involves the same sequence of wind changes and could
force the plane to the ground short of the runway

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• Indications
a Visual
1. Intense rain shaft at the surface, but virga at cloud base
2. Ring of blowing dust
b Alerting Systems
1. The FAA has invested in substantial microburst accident prevention
2. LLWAS-NE, TDWR, and ASR-9 WSP systems installed at major airports
a. Very few false alerts, and detect microbursts well above 90% detection rate
requirement established by congress
3. Many airports, especially smaller airports, have no wind shear systems
a. AC 00-54 – FAA Pilot Wind Shear Guide
i. Includes information on how to recognize the risk of a microburst
encounter, how to avoid an encounter, and the best strategy for escape
ii. Tailored to jet aircraft, but still very useful information
iii. Handling Wind Shear
a. If possible, avoid it
• Never conduct traffic pattern operations close to an active thunderstorm
a Be alert for visual cues and any alerting systems
b Do not takeoff if wind shear is in the area
• LLWAS (Low Level Wind Shear Alerting System)
a If available can warn of impending wind shear
• PIREPS
a Can be very informational/helpful if a pilot has reported wind shear in the area
15. Go/No Go Decision
A. Weather factors must be considered in relation to the route of flight, aircraft and equipment to be used,
as well as the pilot
i. Can the plane and equipment handle the flight as planned?
ii. Is the route safe?
B. Set limits and don’t bend them
i. For example, numerous weather conditions may be an automatic no go (thunderstorms/squall lines,
icing, moderate or greater turbulence, fog, etc.)
ii. Personal limitations will vary based on the pilot and the aircraft

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a. These must always meet or exceed any FARs or aircraft limitations

b. Ex: have personal crosswind limitations, visibility requirements, rest requirements, etc.
C. Physical/Mental condition
i. Sick, tired, upset, depressed – These factors can greatly affect the ability to handle any problem
ii. IMSAFE checklist
D. Recent Flight Experience
i. Don’t go beyond your abilities or the aircraft’s abilities
ii. Ex: Are you comfortable in MVFR if you haven’t flown in a while
E. Flying is a continual process of decision making throughout the entire flight
i. Discontinue the flight or divert, if necessary
16. Alternate Requirements (FAR 91.169)
A. An alternate is not required when:
i. At least 1 hour before/1 hour after the ETA the ceiling is ≥ 2,000’ AND visibility is ≥ 3 SM
a. If ceiling is forecast < 2,000’ OR visibility is forecast < 3 SM an alternate is needed
B. An airport cannot be an alternate unless at the ETA, the ceiling/visibility are at/above:
i. For a Precision Approach: 600’ and 2 SM
ii. For a Non-Precision Approach: 800’ and 2 SM
iii. No Approach: The ceiling/visibility must allow descent from MEA, Approach, and landing under VFR

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
It is very important to be able to interpret and make a Go/No Go decision based on the weather information
attained. A safe flight begins with a thorough weather briefing to ensure the pilot understands the
meteorological factors that may affect the flight. A pilot must also use this information to decide whether an
alternate is necessary and to choose a suitable alternate based on the weather as well as fuel and performance
requirements.

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge related to IFR weather information:
1. Sources of weather-
A. AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports.
B. PATWAS and TIBS.
C. TWEB.
2. Weather reports and charts-
A. METAR, TAF, and radar reports.
B. inflight weather advisories.
C. surface analysis, weather depiction, and radar summary charts.
D. significant weather prognostic charts.
E. winds and temperatures aloft charts.
F. pilot weather reports (PIREPS).
G. freezing level charts.
H. stability charts.
I. severe weather outlook charts.
J. SIGMETS and AIRMETS.

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III.A. Weather Theory (Additional Info to III.A. Weather Information)

References: 14 CFR Part 91, Aviation Weather (AC 00-6), Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45), Pilot’s Handbook
of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), AIM

Objectives To develop knowledge of weather theory.

Elements 1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability

2. Wind
3. Temperature
4. Moisture & Precipitation
5. Weather System Formation
6. Clouds
7. Turbulence
8. Thunderstorms & Microbursts
9. Frost & Icing
10. Fog

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References
3. Current weather reports

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The lesson is complete when the student can decipher and use the weather reports, charts,
Standards and sources to make a competent “go/no-go” decision.
III.A. Weather Theory

Instructor Notes:

1. Atmospheric Composition and Stability

A. Atmospheric Composition
i. Composition
a. 4 gases make up 99.998% of the atmosphere - Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon and Carbon Dioxide
ii. Vertical Structure
a. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into 5 concentric layers based on the vertical profile of
average air temperature changes, chemical composition, movement and density
• Troposphere
a Begins at the Earth’s surface and extends up to about 36,000’ high. As the gases
decrease with height, the air becomes thinner, and temperature also decreases with
height. Almost all weather occurs in this region
b The vertical height of the troposphere varies due to temperature variations. The
transition layer between the troposphere and they layer above is called the tropopause
• Stratosphere
a Extends from the tropopause up to 31 miles above the Earth’s surface. This layer holds
19% of the atmosphere’s gases, but very little water. Temperature increases with height
due to the absorption of UV radiation
b Commercial aircraft often cruise in the lower stratosphere to avoid atmospheric
turbulence and convection in the tropopause
1. Disadvantages of flying in this layer include increased fuel consumption due to
warmer temperatures, increased radiation, and increased ozone concentrations
• Mesosphere
a Extends from the Stratopause to about 53 miles above the Earth. Gases continue to thin
so warming becomes less pronounced leading to a decrease in temperature with height
• Thermosphere
a Extends from the Mesopause to 430 miles above the Earth. This layer is known as the
upper atmosphere. The gases become increasingly thin compared to the mesosphere
and only high energy UV and X-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed - temperature
increases with height and can 2,000 degrees Celsius near the top of the layer
1. Surprisingly, this layer would still feel very cold to us due to the extremely thin air
• Exosphere
a The outermost layer of the atmosphere - extends from the thermopause to 6,200 miles.
In this layer, atoms and molecules escape into space, and satellites orbit the Earth
iii. Standard Atmosphere (59oF/15oC, 29.92” Hg)
a. Continuous fluctuations of atmospheric properties create problems for engineers and
meteorologists who require a fixed standard for reference. To solve this problem, they defined a
standard atmosphere, which represents an average of conditions throughout the atmosphere
for all latitudes, seasons, and altitudes. Standard atmosphere is a hypothetical vertical
distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure, and density that, by international
agreement, is taken to be representative of the atmosphere
2. Wind
A. Air in motion relative to the surface. Wind causes the formation/dissipation/redistribution of weather
B. Forces that Affect the Wind – Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, Friction
i. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
a. Wind flows from areas of high to low pressure. These different pressures create the PGF

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b. Whenever a pressure difference develops over an area, the PGF makes the wind blow in an
attempt to equalize the differences
• This force is identified by height contour gradients on constant pressure charts and by isobar
gradient on surface charts
c. PGF is directed from higher pressure to lower pressure and is perpendicular to contours/isobars
d. Wind speed is proportional to PGF which is proportional to the contour/isobar gradient
• Closely spaced contours/isobars indicate strong winds; widely spaced indicates light winds
e. Wind would simply flow from high to low pressure if the PGF was the only force acting on it, but
because of the Earth’s rotation, the Coriolis force affects the direction of wind flow as well
ii. Coriolis Force
a. A moving mass travels in a straight line until acted on by some outside force. However, if one
views the moving mass from a rotating platform, the path of the moving mass relative to his
platform appears to be deflected or curved.
• To illustrate, consider a turntable. If one used a pencil and a ruler to draw a straight line
from the center to the outer edge of the turntable, the pencil will have traveled in a straight
line. However, stopping the turntable, it is evident that the line spirals outward from the
center. To a viewer on the turntable, some apparent force deflected the pencil to the right.
b. The force deflects air to the right in the Northern Hemisphere/left in the Southern Hemisphere

iii. Friction
a. Friction between the wind and the terrain surface slows the wind. The rougher the terrain, the
greater the frictional effect, and the stronger the wind speed, the greater the friction
b. The frictional drag of the ground normally decreases with height and becomes insignificant
above the lowest few thousand feet or so
c. Above the friction layer, only the PGF and Coriolis force affect the horizontal motion of the air
3. Temperature
A. Temperature
i. Temperature represents the average kinetic energy of the molecules in matter. Higher indicates a
higher average kinetic energy and vice versa - temp is an indicator of the internal energy of air
ii. Heat Transfer
a. Heat transfer is energy transfer as a consequence of temperature difference
• When an object/fluid is at a different temperature than its surroundings heat transfer
occurs such that the object/fluid and the surroundings reach thermal equilibrium (balance)
b. The heat source for the planet is the sun. Energy from the sun is transferred to the Earth’s
surface. There are 3 ways heat is transferred into and through our atmosphere:
• Radiation
a Ex. Being near a fireplace - the side of your body nearest the fire warms
b The sun radiates heat to the Earth
• Conduction
a Transfer of energy by molecular activity from one substance to another in contact, or
through, a substance

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III.A. Weather Theory

1. Heat always flows from the warmer substance to the colder substance
2. Warmer substance cools/loses heat while the cooler substance warms/gains energy
• Convection
a The transport of heat within a fluid, such as air or water, via motions of the fluid itself
1. Water boiling in a pot is an example of convection
b Because air is a poor thermal conductor, convection plays a vital role in the Earth’s
atmospheric heat transfer process
B. Heat and the Earth
i. Water is much more resistant to temperature changes than land. It warms and cools more slowly
than land and helps moderate nearby air temperature
a. This is why coastal cities experience smaller seasonal temperature variations than inland
ii. Temperature’s generally decrease at an average rate of 2 degrees Celsius per 1,000’
a. But, in the troposphere, temperature can remain constant or increase with altitude changes
• Isothermal Layer: An atmospheric layer where temperature remains constant with height
• Temperature Inversion: A layer in which the temperature increases with altitude
a If the base is at the surface, it is a surface-based inversion
1. Typically occurs over land on clear nights with light wind. The ground radiates/cools
much faster than the overlying air. Air in contact with the ground cools, while air a
few hundred feet up changes very little. Thus, temperature increases with height.
b If it is not at the surface, it is an inversion aloft
1. Ex: a current of warm air aloft overrunning cold air near the surface
c Principle characteristic of an inversion layer is its marked stability – very little turbulence
4. Moisture & Precipitation
A. Necessary Ingredients
i. Water Vapor
ii. Sufficient Lifting - condenses the water vapor into clouds
iii. Growth Process - allows cold droplets to grow large and heavy enough to fall as precipitation
a. All clouds contain water, but only some produce precipitation. This is because cloud droplets
and/or ice crystals are too small and light to fall to the ground as precipitation.
b. Two growth processes allow cloud droplets to grow large enough to fall as precipitation
• Collision-Coalescence (warm rain process)
a Collisions occur between cloud droplets of varying size and different fall speeds, sticking
together or coalescing to form larger drops. The drops become too large to be
suspended in the air, and they fall to the ground as rain
b Primary growth process in warm, tropical air masses with a very high freezing level
• Ice Crystal Process
a Occurs in colder clouds when both ice crystals and water droplets are present. In this
situation, it is easier for water vapor to deposit directly onto the ice crystals. The crystals
eventually become heavy enough to fall. If it is cold near the surface it may snow,
otherwise, the snowflakes may melt to rain
b This is thought to be the primary growth process in mid and high latitudes
B. Precipitation Types
i. The vertical distribution of temperature often determines the precipitation at the surface
ii. Snow
a. Occurs when the temperature is below freezing throughout the entire depth of the atmosphere
iii. Ice Pellets
a. Require a shallow, above freezing layer aloft, and a deep, below freezing layer at the surface

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• As snow falls into the shallow, warm layer, the snowflakes partially melt. As the
precipitation enters the below freezing surface air it freezes into ice pellets
iv. Freezing Rain
a. Occurs with a deep, above freezing layer aloft and a shallow, below freezing layer at the surface
• It can begin as rain or snow, but all becomes rain in the warm layer. The rain falls into the
below freezing air, but since the depth is shallow it doesn’t have time to freeze into ice
pellets. The drops freeze on contact with the ground or exposed objects
v. Rain
a. Occurs when there is a deep layer of above freezing air based at the surface
5. Weather System Formation (including Air Masses and Fronts)
A. Air Masses
i. A large body of air with generally uniform temperature and humidity. The area from which an air
mass originates is called a source region
a. Source Regions range from extensive snow-covered polar areas to deserts to tropical oceans.
The longer an air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire its properties
ii. Air masses are classified according to temperature and moisture properties of the source region
a. Temperature Properties
• Arctic – Extremely deep cold air mass; develops mostly in winter over arctic ice/snow
• Polar – A relatively shallow cool to cold air mass which develops over high latitudes
• Tropical – A warm to hot air mass which develops over low latitudes
b. Moisture Properties
• Continental – A dry air mass which develops over land
• Maritime – A moist air mass which develops over water
c. Types of Air Masses (Temperature + Moisture Properties)
• Continental Arctic – Cold, dry
• Continental Polar – Cold, dry
• Continental Tropical – Hot, dry
• Maritime Polar – Cool, moist
• Maritime Tropical – Warm, moist
• Maritime Arctic seldom, if ever, forms
iii. Air Mass Modification
a. As an air mass moves around the Earth, it can acquire different attributes
• Ex: In the winter, an arctic air mass (cold and dry) can move over the ocean, picking up
warmth and moisture from the warmer ocean and become a maritime polar air mass
B. Fronts
i. Air masses can control weather for a relatively long-time period ranging from days to months. Most
weather occurs along the periphery of these air masses at boundaries called fronts. A front is a
boundary or transition zone between two air masses
a. Fronts are classified by which type of air mass (cold or warm) is replacing the other
ii. Fronts are usually detectable at the surface in a number of ways:
a. Significant temperature gradients
b. Winds usually converge
c. Pressure typically decreases as a front approaches and increases after it passes
iii. Fronts do not only exist at the surface, but also have a vertical structure described here:

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Cold Front Warm Front

Cold fronts have a steep slope, and the warm air is Warm fronts have a gentle slope, so the warm air
forced up abruptly. rising along the frontal surface is gradual.

If the warm rising air is unstable, this often leads to a This favors the development of widespread layered
narrow band of showers and thunderstorms along, or or stratiform cloudiness and precipitation along, and
just ahead of, the front. ahead of, the front is the warm rising air is stable.

Stationary Front Occluded Front

Stationary frontal slopes can vary, but clouds and Cold fronts typically move faster than warm fronts, so
precipitation would still form in the warm rising air in time they catch up to warm fronts. As the two
along the front. fronts merge, an occluded front forms.

The cold air undercuts the retreating cooler air mass

associated with the warm front, further lifting the
already rising warm air

Clouds and precipitation can occur in the areas of

frontal lift along, ahead of, and behind the surface
position of an occluded front

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6. Clouds
A. Cloud Levels
i. The part of the atmosphere in which clouds are usually present has been divided into three levels:
High, Middle, and Low
B. Cloud Types
i. In each level, the clouds may be divided by type
ii. High Clouds
Cirrus Cirrocumulus Cirrostratus

Detached cirriform elements in the A cirriform type appearing as a Appears as a whiteish veil, usually
form of white, delicate filaments thin, white patch, sheet, or layer of fibrous but sometimes smooth,
of white patches, or narrow bands. could without shading, and is that may totally cover the sky, and
composed of very small elements that often produces halo
Many of the ice crystal particles in the form of grains, ripples, etc. phenomena.
are sufficiently large to acquire
appreciable speed of fall; May be composed of highly super May be so thin and transparent as
therefore, the clouds often trail cooled water droplets, as well as to render it nearly indiscernible –
downward in well-defined wisps small ice crystals, or a mix of both. the existence of a halo around the
called mares’ tails. sun or moon may be the only
Pilots can expect some turbulence revealing feature.
Cirrus clouds in themselves have and icing
little effect on aircraft and contain Composed primarily of ice crystals
no significant icing or turbulence. and contain little, if any icing and
no turbulence.
 iii. Middle Clouds
Altocumulus Altocumulus Lenticularis Altostratus

White and/or grey in color, that Commonly known as Altocumulus A cloud type in the form of a gray
occurs as a layer or patch with a Standing Lenticular, they are an or bluish sheet or layer of striated,
wave aspect, the elements of orographic cloud. fibrous, or uniform appearance.
which appear as laminae, rounded
masses, rolls, etc. They often form in patches in the It very often totally covers the sky.
shape of almonds or wave clouds. Portions of the layer are thin and it
Small liquid water droplets These formations are caused by can have irregularly shaped and
compose the major part of the wave motions in the atmosphere, spaced gaps and rifts.
composition of altocumulus. This and are frequently seen in
results in sharp outline and small mountainous or hilly areas. The Layers in the cloud:
internal visibility. At very low cloud as a whole is usually • Upper - mostly ice crystals
temperatures ice crystals may stationary or slow moving. • Middle - mixed ice crystals
form. and/or snowflakes and super
The clouds do not necessarily give cooled water droplets
Pilots can expect some turbulence an indication of the intensity of • Lower- mostly super cooled
and small amounts of icing turbulence or strength of updrafts or ordinary water droplets
and downdrafts.
Pilots can expect little to no
turbulence, but light to moderate
icing in the super cooled water.

Nimbostratus
A gray cloud layer, often dark, rendered diffuse by more or less
continuously falling rain, snow, ice pellets, etc. which in most cases
reaches the ground. Not accompanied by lightning, thunder, or hail.

Composed of suspended water droplets, sometimes super cooled, and

failing raindrops/snow crystals or snowflakes. Nimbostratus has no well-
defined base. A false base may occur where snow melts into rain.

It produces very little turbulence, but can pose a serious icing problem if
temperatures are near or below freezing.
III.A. Weather Theory

iv. Low Clouds

Cumulus and Towering Cumulus Stratocumulus Stratus

Individual, detached elements that Predominantly stratiform, in the A cloud type in the form of a gray
are generally dense. They develop form of a gray/whiteish layer or layer with a fairly uniform base.
vertically, appearing as rising patch, which nearly always has The composition is quite uniform,
mounds, the upper parts of which dark parts and is non-fibrous. usually of fairly widely dispersed
often resemble cauliflower. Sunlit Rounded/roll-shaped, and usually water droplets, and at lower
parts are white, while their bases are arranged in orderly groups. temperatures, ice crystals (rare).
are darker and nearly horizontal.
The first stage of a thunderstorm. Composed of small water droplets, Doesn’t often create precipitation,
and sometimes larger droplets, but when it does, it is in the form
If rain occurs, it is usually showery. soft hail, even snowflakes. The of minute particles, such as drizzle,
highest liquid content is in the tops ice crystals, or snow grains.
For cumulus with little vertical (icing potential). Virga may form
development, pilots can expect under the cloud. Precipitation Stratus produces little or no
some turbulence and no rarely occurs. turbulence, but temperatures near
significant icing. For towering or below freezing can create
cumulus, expect very strong Pilots can expect some turbulence hazardous icing conditions.
turbulence and clear icing above and possible icing. Ceiling and
the freezing level. visibility are usually better with
low stratus.

Nimbostratus
Exceptionally dense and vertically developed cloud, occurring either as
isolated clouds or as a line or wall of clouds. The upper part often is in
the form of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base (often dark) there
frequently exists virga, precipitation, and low, ragged clouds.

Composed of water droplets/ice crystals. Also contains large water

drops, snowflakes, snow pellets, even hail. The water may be super
cooled. Precipitation is often heavy/showery. Lightning is common.

Cumulonimbus contains nearly the entire spectrum of flying hazards,

including extreme turbulence.

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7. Turbulence
A. Causes
i. Turbulence is caused by convective currents, obstructions in the wind flow, and wind shear
a. Convective Turbulence
• Turbulent vertical motions that result from convective currents and the subsequent rising
and sinking of air. For every rising current, there is a compensating downward current
• Billowy cumuliform clouds, usually seen overland during sunny afternoons, are signposts in
the sky indicating convective turbulence
• A pilot can expect turbulence beneath or in the clouds
a When air is too dry for cumuliform clouds, convective currents can still be active. A pilot
has little or no indication of their presence.
b. Mechanical Turbulence
• Caused by obstructions to the wind flow, such as trees, buildings, mountains, and so on.
Obstructions to the wind flow disrupt smooth wind into a complex snarl of eddies
• Mountain Waves: When stable air flow passes over a mountain or ridge, developing waves
above and downwind of mountains. These can extend 600 miles or more downwind and
(incredibly) vertically up to 200,000’ and higher
• Mountain waves often produce violent down drafts on the immediate leeward side of the
mountain barrier and if the air is moist enough, cap clouds, cirrocumulus standing lenticular,
altocumulus standing lenticular and rotor clouds are a clear sign of mountain waves.
c. Wind Shear Turbulence
• Wind shear is the rate of change in wind direction and/or speed per unit distance and may
be associated with either a wind shift or a wind speed gradient at any level in the
atmosphere
• Temperature Inversion
a A layer of the atmosphere in which temperature increases with altitude. Strong wind
shears often occur across temperature inversion layers, which can generate turbulence
• Clear Air Turbulence
a A higher altitude turbulence phenomenon occurring in cloud-free regions associated
with wind shear, particularly between the core of a jet stream and the surrounding air
8. Thunderstorms and Microbursts
A. Ingredients
i. Sufficient Water Vapor
a. Commonly measured using dew point, must be present to produce unstable air
ii. Unstable Air
a. Virtually all showers and thunderstorms form in an air mass that is classified as conditionally
unstable
iii. Lifting Mechanism
a. A conditionally unstable air mass requires a lifting mechanism strong enough to release the
instability. These include:
• Converging winds around surface lows and troughs, fronts, upslope flow, drylines, outflow
boundaries generated by prior storms, and local winds, such as sea breeze, lake breeze, land
breeze, and valley breeze circulations
B. Life Cycle
i. Towering Cumulus
a. A strong convective updraft. The updraft is a bubble of warm, rising air concentrated near the
top of the cloud which leaves a cloudy trail in its wake

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ii. Mature
a. The cell transitions to the mature stage when precipitation reaches the surface. Precipitation
descends through the cloud and drags adjacent air downward, creating a strong downdraft
alongside the updraft. The downdraft spreads out along the surface as a mass of cool, gusty air
iii. Dissipating
a. The dissipating stage is marked by a strong downdraft embedded within the area of
precipitation. Subsiding air replaces the updraft throughout the cloud, effectively cutting off the
supply of moisture provided by the updraft. Precipitation tapers off and ends. The convective
cloud gradually vaporizes from below
C. Types of Thunderstorms
i. Single Cell
a. Consists of only one cell. Easily circumnavigated, except at night or when embedded in other
clouds. Single cell thunderstorms are rare; almost all are multicell
ii. Multicell
a. Consists of a cluster of cells at various stages of their life cycle. As the first cell matures, it is
carried downwind, and a new cell forms upwind to take its place. New cells will continue to form
as long as the ingredients exist.
b. More difficult to circumnavigate due to its size
c. A line of thunderstorms can extend laterally for hundreds of miles. New cells continually reform
at the leading edge and the line can persist for many hours as long as the necessary ingredients
exist. These are often too high to fly over, too long to fly around and too dangerous to fly under
(the storms in the line can also be supercells)
iii. Supercell
a. A dangerous convective storm that consists of primarily a single, quasi-steady rotating updraft
that persists for an extended period of time. It has a very organized internal structure that
enables it to produce especially dangerous weather for pilots who encounter them (updrafts
may reach 9,000 fpm). A supercell may persist for hours; new cells will continue to form as long
as the necessary ingredients exist
D. Hazards
i. Lightning, adverse wind, downburst, turbulence, icing, hail, rapid altimeter changes, static
electricity, tornado
9. Frost & Icing
A. Frost
i. On cool, clear nights, the temperature of the ground and objects on the surface can cause
temperatures of the surrounding air to drop below the dew point. When this occurs, the moisture in
the air condenses and deposits itself on the ground, buildings, and other objects like aircraft
a. The moisture is dew. If the temperature is below freezing, the moisture is deposited in the form
of frost
b. While dew poses no threat to aircraft, frost poses a definite flight safety hazard
• Frost disrupts the smooth airflow over the wing and can drastically reduce the production of
lift. It also increases drag, which when combined with lowered lift production, can adversely
affect the ability to takeoff
ii. An aircraft must be thoroughly cleaned and free of frost prior to beginning a flight
B. Types of Icing
i. Structural Icing
a. Rime Icing
• Rough, milky, and opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small, super cooled
water droplets after they strike the aircraft

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• Rime icing formation favors colder temperatures, lower liquid water content and small
droplets. It grows when droplets rapidly freeze upon striking an aircraft. The rapid freezing
traps air and forms a porous, brittle, opaque, and milky colored ice.
b. Clear Icing
• A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by relatively slow freezing of large, super cooled
water droplets
• Clear icing conditions exist more often in an environment with warmer temperatures, higher
liquid water contents, and larger droplets
• Clear ice forms when only a small portion of the drop freezes immediately while the
remaining unfrozen portion flows or smears over the aircraft surface and gradually freezes
• Clear ice is more hazardous than rime ice
a It tends to disrupt airflow considerably more than rime icing
b It is clear and more difficult to see and therefore can be difficult to recognize
c It is difficult to remove since it can spread beyond the deicing/anti-icing equipment’s
capabilities
c. Mixed Icing
• A mixture of clear and rime ice
• Poses a similar hazard to an aircraft as clear ice
C. Hazards of Icing
i. Structural icing degrades engine performance
ii. It destroys the smooth flow of air over the wing, increasing drag while decreasing the ability to
create lift
a. As power is added to compensate for the additional drag, and the nose is lifted to maintain
altitude, the angle of attack is increased allowing the underside of the wings and fuselage to
accumulate additional ice
b. Wind tunnel and flight tests have shown that ice accumulations no thicker than a piece of coarse
sandpaper can reduce lift by 30% and increase drag by 40%. Larger accretions can reduce lift
even more and increase drag by 80% or more.
c. The aircraft may stall at much higher speeds and lower angles of attack than normal
iii. The actual weight of ice on an aircraft is insignificant when compared to the airflow disruption it
causes
D. Freezing Level
i. Pilots should be alert for icing anytime the temperature approaches 0 degrees Celsius and visible
moisture is present
ii. When carried above the freezing level, water becomes supercooled
a. Supercooled water freezes on impact with an aircraft
• When the temperature cools to about -15 degrees C, much of the remaining water vapor
sublimates as ice crystals. Above this level, the amount of supercooled water decreases
b. Clear icing can occur at any level above the freezing level, but at high levels, icing from smaller
droplets may be rime or mixed rime and clear ice
c. The abundance of large, supercooled water droplets makes clear icing very rapid between 0 and
-15 degrees C
10. Fog
A. A visible aggregate of minute water droplets that are based at the surface and reduce visibility to less
than 5/8 stature mile. Fog differs from cloud only in that it’s base must be at the surface, while clouds
are above the surface
B. Types of Fog

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i. Radiation Fog
a. Produced over a land area when radiational cooling reduces the air temperature below its dew
point. Radiation fog is generally a nighttime occurrence and often does not dissipate until after
sunrise
• Terrestrial radiation cools the ground, the ground cools the air and when the air reaches its
dew point, fog forms
b. Factors favoring formation: Shallow surface layer of relatively moist air beneath a dry layer,
Clear skies, and Light surface winds
• Radiation fog is restricted to land because water surfaces cool little from nighttime
radiation. It is shallow when wind is calm. Winds up to about 5 knots mix the air slightly and
tend to deepen the fog by spreading the cooling through a deeper layer. Stronger winds
disperse the fog or mix the air through a still deeper layer with stratus clouds forming at the
top of the mixing layer.
c. Ground fog usually burns off rapidly after sunrise. Other radiation fog generally clears before
noon (unless clouds move in over the fog)
ii. Advection Fog
a. Forms when moist air moves over a colder surface, and the subsequent cooling of that air to
below its dew point. Most common along coastal areas, but often moves deep in continental
areas. Advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to 15 knots; winds much stronger than
15 knots lifts the fog into a layer of low stratus or stratocumulus clouds.
• West coast of the US is quite vulnerable to advection fog which frequently forms offshore as
a result of cold water and then is carried inland by the wind. It can remain for weeks,
advancing over the land during the night and retreating back over the water the next
morning
b. A pilot will notice little difference flying over advection and radiation fog
iii. Upslope Fog
a. Forms as a result of moist, stable air being adiabatically cooled to or below its dewpoint as it
moves up sloping terrain
b. Wind speeds of 5-15 knots are most favorable; stronger winds tend to lift the fog into a low
layer of stratus clouds
c. Common along the eastern slopes of the Rockies, and somewhat less frequent east of the
Appalachians. It is often quite dense and extends to high altitudes.
iv. Frontal Fog
a. When warm, moist air is lifted over a front, clouds, and precipitation may form. If the cold air
below is near its dewpoint, evaporation may saturate the cold air and form fog. The result is
more or less a continuous zone of condensed water droplets reaching from the ground up
through the clouds
b. Most commonly associated with warm fronts, but can occur with others as well. Can be quite
dense and continue for an extended period of time.
v. Steam Fog
a. When very cold air moves across relatively warm water, enough moisture may evaporate from
the water surface to produce saturation. As the rising water vapor meets the cold air, it
immediately recondenses and rises with the air being warmed from below. Because the air is
destabilized, fog appears as rising streamers that resemble steam
b. Steam fog is often very shallow; as the steam rises, it reevaporates in the unsaturated air above
c. Expect convective turbulence flying through it

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References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to developing a cross country
IFR flight plan.

Key Elements 1. Applicable IFR Regulations

2. Choosing course/altitude
3. Filing a Flight Plan

Elements 1. IFR Regulatory Requirements

2. Estimated Time En Route and Fuel Requirements
3. En Route Charts, DPs, STARs & Instrument Approach Charts
4. NOTAM Information
5. IFR Flight Plan
6. Control Sequence
7. GPS & RAIM
8. VOR Minimum Operating Network (MON)
9. Airframe Icing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can competently develop and file an IFR flight plan based on current weather and
Standards NOTAM information obtained.
III.B. Cross-Country Flight Planning

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The information and regulations necessary for an IFR flight plan, a process somewhat simpler than creating a
VFR flight plan.

Why
You can’t take an IFR flight without it.

How:
1. IFR Regulatory Requirements
A. IFR Preflight
i. FAR 91.103 - Preflight Actions
a. IFR Specific:
• Weather reports and forecasts
• Fuel requirements
• Alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed
• Any known traffic delays which the PIC has been advised by ATC
b. For any flight: Runway lengths, T/O and LDG distances, etc.
ii. FAR 91.167 - Fuel Requirements
a. Must carry enough fuel to:
• Complete the flight to the first airport of intended landing
• Fly from that airport to the alternate airport (if required)
• Fly for an additional 45 minutes at normal cruising speed
iii. FAR 91.169 - IFR Flight Plan & Alternate Requirements
a. IFR flight plan must include:
• Information required in FAR 91.153 - VFR Flight Plan: Information Required
• Alternate airport (unless not required)
b. An alternate is not required when:
• At least 1 hour before/1 hour after the ETA the ceiling is ≥ 2,000’ AND visibility is ≥ 3 SM
a If ceiling is forecast < 2,000’ OR visibility is forecast < 3 SM an alternate is needed
c. An airport cannot be an alternate unless at the ETA, the ceiling/visibility are at/above:
• For a Precision Approach: 600’ and 2 SM
• For a Non-Precision Approach: 800’ and 2 SM
• No Approach: Ceiling and visibility must allow descent from MEA, approach and landing
under VFR
B. IFR Departure
i. FAR 91.173 - ATC Clearance and Flight Plan Required
a. You may not operate in controlled airspace under IFR unless you have:
• Filed an IFR flight plan

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• Received an appropriate ATC clearance

ii. FAR 91.175 - Takeoff and Landing Under IFR
a. 0/0 takeoffs are legal under part 91
• Recommended to use published T/O mins or approach mins (if no T/O) as a guideline
C. IFR En Route
i. FAR 91.135 - Operations in Class A airspace
a. Must be conducted under IFR with ATC clearance
ii. AIM 3-2-3(b)(5)- Class B Airspace
a. For IFR operations, an operable VOR or TACAN receiver is required
iii. FAR 91.177 - Minimum Altitudes for IFR Operations
a. Except for takeoffs and landings, you may not operate below:
• The applicable minimum altitudes prescribed in Part 95 and Part 97
a 95: IFR altitudes on ATS routes (MEA, MOCA), mountainous areas/changeover points
b 97: Approach procedures, as well as takeoff/ODP and landing weather minimums
• However, if no minimum is prescribed:
a Mountainous Area: 2,000’ above the highest obstacle w/in 4 nm of the course flown
b Non-Mountainous: 1,000’ above the highest obstacle w/in 4 nm of the course flown
b. If an MEA and MOCA are prescribed, you may operate below the MEA, but not below the
MOCA, when w/in 22 NM of the VOR concerned
c. Climb to a higher minimum IFR altitude immediately after passing the point beyond which that
minimum altitude applies
• Except when ground obstructions intervene, the point shall be crossed at or above the
applicable MCA
iv. FAR 91.179 - IFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level
a. Controlled Airspace: Maintain the altitude of FL assigned by ATC
• If cleared for VFR on top, maintain altitude based on VFR cruising altitudes FAR 91.159
b. Uncontrolled Airspace: Below 18,000’ MSL, and
• On a magnetic course of 0o through 179o: Any ODD Thousand-foot MSL altitude
• On a magnetic course of 180o through 359o: Any EVEN Thousand-foot MSL altitude
v. FAR 91.181 - Course to be Flown
a. You must:
• Be on an ATS route, along the centerline of that airway
• On any other route, along the direct course between nav aids or fixes defining the route
a Doesn’t prohibit maneuvering to pass well clear of other aircraft/clearing flight path
vi. FAR 91.183 - IFR Communications
a. You must report the following as soon as possible
• The time / altitude passing each designated reporting point, or any points specified by ATC
a Except while under radar control: Report only those points specifically requested by ATC
• Any unforecast weather conditions encountered
• Any other information relating to the safety of the flight
vii. Restricted Area
a. If not active, ATC will allow IFR traffic to operate without issuing a specific clearance to do so
b. If active, and has not been released, ATC will issue a clearance which will avoid the airspace
• Unless ATC has permission to allow aircraft to enter the restricted area
viii. MOA
a. May be cleared through if IFR separation can be provided
2. Time En Route and Fuel Requirements

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A. Choose and record your route on an IFR nav log

i. Departure Procedure
ii. En route fixes
a. Consider preferred IFR, tower en route control (TEC), airway, and direct (RNAV, GPS) routes
iii. STARs, IAPs and IAFs
iv. List defining navigation fixes/waypoints for each leg
v. Record magnetic courses and distances (each leg and total)
B. Choose operating altitude or flight level based on:
i. Minimum IFR altitude (FAR 91.177)
ii. Airplane performance and equipment (POH/FM)
iii. Weather factors - Winds aloft; temperature, freezing level, icing, cloud tops; turbulence
iv. Duration of flight
v. Oxygen availability
C. Choose power setting (MP, RPM) at cruise altitude and estimate TAS and fuel flow (POH Section 5)
D. Use TAS/wind data to determine GS, ETE (each leg and total) and fuel requirement (record on nav log)
i. Start with time, fuel, and distance to climb to cruise altitude using POH Section 5
a. Include fuel for start, taxi, and takeoff
ii. Add time and fuel for flight from reaching the cruise altitude to first point of intended landing
iii. This ETE added to the takeoff time determines ETA at the first point of intended landing
a. This is the time to start the approach in case of radio failure, if no EFC was received (FAR 91.185)
iv. If an alternate is required (FAR 91.169), estimate time/fuel for flight from first point of intended
landing to alternate airport
v. Add fuel for 45 minutes at normal cruise speed to determine minimum fuel required by FAR 91.167
3. En Route Charts, DP's, STAR's, and Instrument Approach Charts
A. Confirm correct and current en route charts and TPPs (includes DPs, STARs and IAPs)
i. Confirm effective dates on charts and booklets/ the application being used (Jepp, Foreflight, etc.)
ii. Check for changes between effective dates
a. NOTAMs
b. Safety Alerts and Charting Notices
c. Aeronautical Chart Bulletin or in a current Chart Supplement
• Chart Bulletins have been removed from the Chart Supplement as of Feb 2021
• Reference: FAA Charting Notice
B. FAA Aeronautical Chart User's Guide for interpretation of chart symbols
i. Technique: Having VFR charts on hand may also prove helpful
4. NOTAM (Notice to Air Mission) information (AIM 5-1-3)
A. Time-critical aeronautical information of a temporary nature, or not known in time to be published on
charts or other publications, receives immediate dissemination via the NOTAM system
i. NOTAM information could affect a pilot's go/no-go decision
B. Types of NOTAMs
i. NOTAM (D)
a. Disseminated for all nav facilities and all public use aerodromes in the Chart Supplement
b. Given distant dissemination beyond just the area of responsibility of the Flight Service Station
c. Types
• Aerodrome activity and conditions (taxiway closures, personnel and equipment, etc.)
• Airspace
• Visual and radio navigational aids
• Communications and services

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• Pointer NOTAMs – Point to additional aeronautical information

d. Also includes (U) and (O) NOTAMs
• (U) NOTAM: Unverified NOTAM received from a source other than airport management and
have yet to be confirmed by management personnel
• (O) NOTAM: Other aeronautical information which does not meet NOTAM criteria but may
be beneficial to aircraft operations
ii. FDC NOTAMs
a. Regulatory information
b. Chart and IAP changes, Laser activity, TFRs, WAAS / GPS, ADS-B availability, Special Notices
c. Center Area NOTAM
• FDC NOTAM issued for a condition not limited to one airport
• Filed under the ARTCC that controls the airspace
• Very important when looking for NOTAMs on your own
a Ex: Must retrieve ZAN FDC NOTAMs for flights in Alaska because ZAN is the code for
Anchorage ARTCC which is the controlling center for all of Alaska
d. Security NOTAM
• FDC NOTAM informing pilots of security activities or requirements
• Found on the federal NOTAM system under the location designator KZZZ
iii. International NOTAMs
a. Published in ICAO format and distributed to multiple countries
b. Not included in a weather briefing unless specifically requested
iv. Military NOTAMs
a. AF, Army, Marine, Navy NOTAMs pertaining to military or joint use airports / navaids / airspace
C. Domestic and International Notices
i. NTAP (Notices to Airmen Publication) was discontinued as of June 2020
ii. Information for the international and domestic notices have been transferred to new websites:
a. Domestic Notices
• Contains notices pertaining to almost every aspect of domestic aviation, such as military
training, large scale sporting events, air shows, and airport-specific information
• Includes:
a General Information
b General Notices
c Airport and Facility
d Special Military Operations
e Major Sporting and Entertainment Events
f Airshows
b. International Notices
• Features significant international information and data which may affect a pilot's decision to
enter or use areas of foreign or international airspace
• Includes:
a Flight Prohibitions Notices
b International Oceanic Airspace Notices
D. GPS NOTAMs available from the FAA NOTAM page
5. IFR Flight Plan
A. Before entering controlled airspace, file an IFR flight plan and receive ATC clearance - FAR 91.173
i. AIM 5-1-6: IFR flight plan information
a. FSS transitioned to only ICAO Flight Plans for domestic/international flights in August 2019

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ii. AIM Appendix 4. International Flight Plan

a. Breaks down ICAO flight plan information requirements
B. ICAO Flight Plans
i. Much of the information is identical to the FAA Domestic flight plan. The biggest changes are to
Flight Rules, Type of Flight, Wake Turbulence Category, and Aircraft Equipment Categories
a. Flight Rules - Always required, and should indicate:
• I for IFR; V for VFR
• For a composite flight, (IFR to VFR or VFR to IFR), submit separate plans for the IFR/VFR
portions. The IFR plan will be routed to ATC, the VFR flight plan will be routed to an FSS
a Y (YFR) for flights beginning under IFR with one or more changes in flight rules
b Z (ZFR) for flights beginning under VFR with one or more changes in flight rules
c For both Y and Z, the point where the flight rules change will need to be noted in the
route of flight. This point determines when the flight plan will be sent to ATC
b. Type of Flight
• Optional for flights wholly within US Domestic Airspace
• In the case that you do need to include the type of flight, indicate it as follows:
a G - General Aviation; S - Scheduled Air Service; N - Non-Scheduled Air Transport
Operation, M – Military; D – DVFR; X - other than any of the defined categories above
c. Wake Turbulence Category
• H – HEAVY: Maximum certificated take-off mass of 300,000 lbs. or more
• M – MEDIUM: Maximum certificated take-off below 300,000 lbs. but above 15,500 lbs.
• L – LIGHT: Maximum certificated take-off mass of 15,500 lbs. or less
d. Aircraft Equipment
• Whereas the Domestic flight plan used single letter designations to represent entire avionics
packages, ICAO has the pilot choose the specific capabilities of their aircraft
• Equipment and capabilities that requires indication include:
a Navigation
b Transponder
c ADS-B
d Additional information may be required in the Remarks section for:
1. PBN, RVSM, and Data Communications - More on this below
• There are two parts to the Equipment box: Aircraft equipment & Transponder capability
a Aircraft Equipment
1. Standard Capability (S)
a. In order to simplify filing, “S” indicates Standard: VHF radio, VOR, and ILS
b. The use of S removes the need to list these 3 capabilities separately
2. No Capability (N) – If no nav/comms/approach capability then file only the letter N
3. See AIM Appendix 4. International Flight Plan for all equipment and designators
b Transponder Capability
1. See AIM Appendix 4. International Flight Plan for all transponder designators
• Example
a If your aircraft had:
1. A VHF Radio, VOR and ILS S
2. An IFR approved GPS G
3. PBN Capable R
a. If you can accept PBN routes/procedures (RNAV or RNP for any phase of flight)
4. Mode C Transponder C

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bThe final entry into Box 10 would be SGR/C

cWe mentioned earlier that Remarks may be required for PBN aircraft. By listing PBN (or
R), you only notified ATC that your equipment is PBN approved. Since PBN describes
many different types of equipment, you must specify your equipment in the Remarks.
1. The majority of general aviation piston aircraft will enter: PBN/B2C2D2
a. B2= RNAV 5 capability; C2 = RNAV 2 capability; D2 = RNAV 1 capability
b. By listing this code, you’re telling ATC you’re capable of handling RNAV based
procedures for the en route structure and terminal procedures
ii. For more information: A great, short ICAO flight plan instructional video from AOPA
C. Filing and Cancelling an IFR Flight Plan
i. Filing
a. General
• Filing should be done at least 30 minutes prior to departure
• Your ATC clearance can be picked up 30 minutes prior to two hours after departure time
a Can coordinate with FSS or ATC to change departure time/keep it in the system longer
b. Filing on the Ground - Submit the flight plan to the nearest FSS or ATCT
• In person, by phone (1800 WX-Brief), radio, computer, app (such as ForeFlight)
c. Filing in the Air - File with the nearest FSS or directly with ARTCC
• FSS will relay the information to ARTCC
• ARTCC saturation can prevent them from accepting your flight plan by radio
• Do not enter IFR conditions until clearance is received
ii. Cancelling (AIM 5-1-15)
a. IFR flight plan may be cancelled any time a pilot is operating in VFR conditions outside of Class A
• ATC separation/information services are stopped, but VFR flight following can be requested
b. Landing at a Towered Airport – Flight plan is cancelled automatically on landing
c. Landing at a Non-Towered Airport – Pilot is responsible for cancelling (radio ATC, or call FSS)
• Cancel expeditiously to allow other IFR aircraft to use the airspace
6. Control Sequence (IFR Cross Country with Towers) – See V.X. ATC System for more information
A. FSS - Obtain a weather briefing for departure/destination/alternate and file flight plan
B. ATIS - Preflight complete, obtain present conditions and approach/runways in use
C. Clearance Delivery (if available) - Obtain departure clearance
D. Ground Control - Noting that you are IFR, receive clearance and/or taxi instructions
E. Tower – Pre-takeoff checks complete, receive takeoff clearance
F. Departure Control - Contact departure to establish radar contract
G. ARTCC - Once out of the departure controller’s area, center will coordinate flight en route
H. ATIS - Obtain weather information at your destination airport
I. Approach Control - Center will hand off to approach who will provide clearances to your destination
J. Tower - Approach passes to Tower who will clear you to land and close your flight plan
7. GPS & RAIM (be familiar with your aircraft’s GPS capabilities)
A. RAIM is the receiver’s ability to verify the integrity of the signals received from the satellites
i. Without RAIM capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position
B. Requires minimum of 5 satellites or 4 + a barometric altimeter input (baro-aiding) to operate properly
i. Some receivers can isolate and remove a bad signal if 6 satellites in view (or 5 with baro-aiding)
C. Generally, there are 2 types of RAIM messages
i. There are not enough satellites in view to provide RAIM
ii. RAIM has detected a potential error that exceeds the limit required for the current phase of flight

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D. Aircraft using GPS navigation equipment under IFR must be equipped with an approved and operational
alternate means of navigation appropriate to the route of flight
i. Monitoring of the alternate equipment is not required if the GPS receiver uses RAIM
ii. Active monitoring of the navigation equipment is required if the RAIM capability is lost
iii. Use other equipment, delay, or cancel the flight if the loss of RAIM capability is predicted to occur
8. VOR Minimum Operating Network (VOR MON)
A. National Airspace System is transitioning to performance-based navigation (PBN)
i. Number of VORs is being reduced (going from 896 to 590 by 2030)
ii. Two new, larger service volumes will still enable near continuous navigation above 5,000’ AGL
a. Coverage will exist lower, but may not be guaranteed
B. Designed to enable aircraft, having lost GPS (or without GPS), to use conventional navigation procedures
i. Pilots can use VOR station to station nav to reach a MON airport and fly a conventional approach
a. ILS, LOC, VOR, etc.
b. MON airport assured within 100 nm
C. New VOR Service Volumes
i. Low: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 18,000’
ii. High: 70 nm from 5,000’ to 14,500’

LEGACY SERVICE VOLUMES NEW MON SERVICE VOLUMES

D. New DME Service Volumes

9. Airframe Icing
A. Recognizing
i. Early detection is critical – be alert in visible moisture and temps near freezing (-10o to +2o C)
a. Monitor the windscreen for signs of ice accumulation
b. Monitor the wings (use a flashlight at night)
B. Adverse Effects
i. Effects are cumulative – reduced thrust and lift, increased drag and weight

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ii. Increased stall speed and reduce performance

iii. ½ inch of ice can reduce wing’s lifting power by 50% and increase frictional drag by 50%
C. Procedures
i. Using any deicing/anti-icing equipment per the manufacturer’s guidelines
ii. Leave the area of precipitation and/or get to an altitude that’s above freezing (not necessarily lower)
iii. If unable to get out, land at the nearest suitable airport

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of cross-country flight planning by describing
the:
1. Regulatory requirements for instrument flight within various types of airspace.
2. Computation of estimated time en route and total fuel requirement for an IFR cross-country flight.
3. Selection and correct interpretation of the current and applicable en route charts, RNAV, DPs, STARs,
and standard instrument approach procedure charts (IAP).
4. Procurement and interpretation of the applicable NOTAM information.
5. Completes and files an IFR flight plan that accurately reflects the conditions of the proposed flight. (Does
not have to be filed with ATC.)
6. Demonstrates adequate knowledge of GPS and RAIM capability, when aircraft is so equipped.
7. Demonstrates the ability to recognize wing contamination due to airframe icing.
8. Demonstrates adequate knowledge of the adverse effects of airframe icing during landing phases of
flight and corrective actions: pretakeoff, takeoff, and cruise.
9. Demonstrates familiarity with any icing procedures and/or information published by the manufacturer
that is specific to the aircraft used on the practical test.

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III.C. Instrument Cockpit Check

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to checking the instruments
prior to flight.

Key Elements 1. Develop a pattern

2. Stick to the pattern

Elements 1. Communications Equipment

2. Navigation Equipment
3. Magnetic Compass
4. Heading Indicator/HSI/RMI
5. Attitude Indicator
6. Altimeter
7. Turn-and-Slip Indicator/Turn Coordinator
8. VSI
9. Airspeed Indicator
10. Outside Air Temperature
11. Clock
12. Pitot Heat
13. Electronic Flight Instrument Display
14. Traffic & Terrain Awareness
15. FMS & Auto Pilot

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has developed an effective preflight check for the instruments.
Standards
III.C. Instrument Cockpit Check

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This will explain how to check the communication, navigation, and other equipment prior to flight.

Why
This is important because, you don’t want to discover a problem with your instruments in the clouds where
you are entirely reliant on your instruments.

How:
1. Communications Equipment
A. Loss of communications under IFR may be considered an emergency (FAR 91.185)
i. Confirm position, stability of radio antennas
ii. Use all radios prior to flight. Request "radio check" if necessary
iii. Transponder on standby, reply light ON during warm-up (or per manufacturer’s instructions)
2. Navigation Equipment
A. VORs
i. Confirm position, stability of nav antennas
ii. FAR 91.171 - VOR accuracy check within 30 days prior to IFR flight
a. Record date, place, bearing error(s) and sign - every 30 days
B. DME - Note/verify distance from VOR/DME if available
C. ILS - If LOC on field, then tune, identify, note correct indication
D. GPS - Confirm IFR approved, certified, and current; follow appropriate start-up and self-test procedures
i. Check RAIM availability
3. Magnetic Compass
A. Fluid filled, moves freely, correctly indicates known headings (taxiways, runways)
4. Heading Indicator (HI)/Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)/Remote Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
A. Note correct indications on known headings during taxi
5. Attitude Indicator (AI)
A. Allow 5 minutes for gyro spin up (or as applicable), note/adjust horizon bar alignment
B. Unreliable if more than 5° of pitch or bank during taxi
6. Altimeter (ALT)
A. Check maintenance logbook for static system and altimeter check within 24 months (FAR 91.411)
B. Check static ports open, clear
C. Set to current altimeter setting, and check for error
i. Record any ALT error – difference between ALT and field elevation (> 75’ requires maintenance)
ii. Conservative/safe practice: add any ALT error to the approach MDA or DH
7. Turn-and-Slip Indicator/Turn Coordinator (TC)
A. During taxi, ball should move freely to outside of turns; Miniature airplane level
8. Vertical-Speed Indicator (VSI)
A. Check maintenance logbook for static system (and altimeter) check within 24 months (FAR 91.411)

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III.C. Instrument Cockpit Check

B. Note/set level indication

9. Airspeed Indicator
A. Check maintenance logbook for static system (and altimeter) check within 24 months (FAR 91.411)
B. Note airspeed alive and appropriately increasing during initial takeoff roll
10. Outside Air Temperature
A. Note correct indication
11. Clock
A. Confirm operating and set correct time
12. Pitot Heat
A. Turn on the pitot heat and check to ensure it is operating per the manufacturer’s instructions
13. Electronic Flight Instrument Display
A. On power up ensure instruments are displayed properly and any cautions/warnings are normal
B. Most displays are very clear when an instrument has failed (Ex. Red X across the instrument)
C. Follow the specific manufacturer’s instructions to verify proper operation
14. Traffic & Terrain Awareness
A. Ensure proper operation on power up based on the manufacturer’s required procedures
15. FMS & Auto Pilot
A. FMS
i. Check for proper operation of the FMS as required by the manufacturer
ii. Ensure proper satellite coverage (check RAIM if necessary), be alert for insufficient satellite signal
B. Auto Pilot
i. Check based on the manufacturer’s procedures and requirements
ii. Often includes ensuring that the auto pilot can be disconnected in order to avoid a runway

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of an instrument cockpit check by describing
the reasons for the check and the detection of defects that could affect safe instrument flight. The check shall
include:
1. Communications equipment.
2. Navigation equipment.
3. Magnetic compass.
4. Heading indicator/horizontal situation indicator/remote magnetic indicator.
5. Attitude indicator.
6. Altimeter.
7. Turn-and-slip indicator/turn coordinator.
8. Vertical-speed indicator.
9. Airspeed indicator.
10. Outside air temperature.
11. Clock.
12. Pitot Heat.
13. Electronic flight instrument display.
14. Traffic awareness/warning/avoidance system.
15. Terrain awareness/warning/alert system.
16. Flight management system (FMS).
17. Automatic pilot.

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IV. Preflight Lesson on a maneuver to be Performed In Flight
IV.A. Maneuver Lesson

The examiner shall select at least one maneuver from AREAS OF OPERATION VI through IX and ask the applicant
to present a preflight lesson on the selected maneuver as the lesson would be taught to a student. Previously
developed lesson plans from the applicant’s library may be used.

All lessons necessary for this lesson are found in sections VI through IX

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the selected maneuver by:
1. Using a lesson plan that includes all essential items to make an effective and organized presentation.
2. Stating the objective.
3. Giving an accurate, comprehensive description of the maneuver, including the elements and associated
common errors.
4. Using instructional aids, as appropriate.
5. Describing the recognition, analysis, and correction of common errors.
V. Air Traffic Control Clearances and Procedures
V.X. ATC System (Additional info not required in the PTS/ACS)

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student gains a big picture understanding of the ATC system.

Elements 1. Communication Facilities

2. Control Sequence

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the basics of the ATC system.

Standards
V.X. ATC System

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements

What
This lesson provides a big picture overview of the different components of the IFR ATC system.
NOTE: This topic is not specifically described in the ACS / PTS, but helps build a foundation for lessons V.A.
ATC Clearances, and V.B. Compliance with Departure, Enroute, and Arrival Procedures.

Why
Understanding how the system operates will allow the pilot to better function in the system.

How:

1. Communication Facilities
A. Flight Service Station (FSS)
i. Services
a. Pilot briefings
b. Receive and process flight plans
c. Relay ATC clearances
d. Originate NOTAMS
e. Broadcast aviation weather
ii. Contacting the FSS
a. 1-800-WX BRIEF
b. Radio
• Direct transmission
• Remote Communication Outlets (RCO)
• Ground Communication Outlets (GCO)
• Transmitting through certain NAVAIDs
• Check the chart supplement or the legend panel on sectional charts for specific instructions
B. ATC Towers
i. Several controllers in the tower are involved in handling an instrument flight
ii. Clearance Delivery
a. Busier airports requiring a dedicated frequency for to “deliver clearances”
b. Frequency is on the airport diagram and in the chart supplement
iii. Ground
a. If no clearance delivery, ground handles IFR clearances as well as taxi instructions
iv. Tower
a. Responsible for operations in their airspace and on the active runways
b. Coordinates flights in the local area with radar controllers
c. Tower will not issue a takeoff clearance until the departure controller issues a release
d. At towers designated IFR towers, the controller has vectoring authority

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V.X. ATC System

e. At towers designated VFR towers, the controller accepts inbound IFR flights but cannot provide
vectors
C. Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON)
i. What is it
a. Considered terminal facilities
b. Provide the link between the departure airport and the enroute structure
c. “Departure” or “Approach”
ii. Where do they operate
a. Terminal airspace varies, but normally extends 30 nm from the facility up to 10,000’
b. Airspace is divided into sectors
• Each sector has one or more controllers and a discrete radio frequency
c. What can they do
• Release pilots into the departure flow
a When a pilot reports ready for takeoff, the tower contacts the TRACON for release
b An aircraft is not cleared for takeoff until the departure controller can fit the flight into
the departure flow (may result in holding for release)
• Control the aircraft in the terminal area (departing and arriving, as well as transiting)
• Assign altitudes lower than published procedural alts - Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVAs)
iii. Contacting the TRACON
a. Establish contact when instructed to do so by the tower
• Departure frequency was part of your IFR clearance
b. Terminal facility picks up your transponder and starts tracking as soon as it detects the code
• Aircraft appears on the radar display as a target with an associated data block
a Data block: Aircraft identification, type, altitude, and airspeed
b Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) detects primary targets, and Automated Radar
Terminal Systems (ARTS) receives transponder signals
1. Two are combined on the controller’s scope
iv. Tower Enroute Control
a. At many locations, instrument flights can be conducted entirely in terminal airspace
• Generally, for aircraft operating below 10,000’
• Flight beneath the enroute structure
b. Found in the Chart Supplement
• Shows participating airports and the TEC route between the airports
• Not limited to the major airports at the city pairs listed in the Chart Supplement
D. Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC)
i. What do they do
a. Maintain separation between IFR flights in the enroute structure
b. Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR) acquires, and tracks transponder returns
ii. Where do they operate
a. Above 10,000’
b. Area of responsibility covers several states (shown below)
• Airspace is divided into sectors
a Additionally, most Center airspace is divided into high and low sectors

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V.X. ATC System

b Each sector has a dedicated team of controllers and a selection of radio frequencies

2. Towered Airport Control Sequence

A. FSS
i. Weather briefing
ii. File flight plan
B. ATIS
i. Weather conditions, runways in use
C. Clearance Delivery
i. Obtain departure clearance
D. Ground
i. Obtain departure clearance if no Clearance Delivery frequency
ii. Taxi instructions
E. Tower
i. Takeoff clearance (after coordinating with departure control)
ii. Transfers you to departure once transponder “tags up”
F. Departure Control
i. Establishes radar contact
ii. Transfers to ARTCC
G. ARTCC (Center)
i. Coordinates the flight while enroute
ii. Multiple ARTCC frequencies depending on the length of the flight
H. ATIS
i. Obtain ATIS for the landing airport
ii. If only one radio, coordinate with ATC to leave momentarily

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V.X. ATC System

I.Approach Control
i. Center passes you to approach
ii. Routing, vectors, etc. to sequence you for the approach at the destination
iii. Approach clearance
J. Tower
i. Once cleared for the approach, you are transferred to tower
ii. Landing clearance
iii. After landing the tower closes the IFR flight plan
3. Non-Towered Airport Control Sequence
A. FSS
i. Weather briefing
ii. File flight plan
B. FSS, ARTCC, etc.
i. Pick up the clearance and obtain clearance void time
ii. More detailed info on this in V.A. Air Traffic Clearances
C. ARTCC
i. After takeoff, establish contact with Center
a. Frequency is provided in your IFR clearance
ii. Coordinates the flight while enroute
iii. Multiple ARTCC frequencies depending on the length of the flight
D. Approach Control
i. Center hands off to approach
ii. Routing, vectors, etc. to sequence you for the approach at the destination
iii. Approach clearance
iv. If landing under VMC, the pilot can cancel their IFR flight plan while airborne
a. If IMC, cancel on the ground (FSS, Approach, ARTCC, etc.)

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V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), Instrument Procedures Handbook
(FAA-H-8083-16)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to communications with ATC
as well as copying and read back of an IFR clearance.

Key Elements 1. Pilot/Controller Responsibilities

2. C-R-A-F-T
3. Always clarify instructions if confused
Elements
1. Air Traffic Clearance
2. Obtaining an IFR Clearance
3. Pilot & Controller Responsibilities
4. Tower Enroute Control
5. Setting Com and Nav Frequencies

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the ATC communication system, the format behind an IFR clearance,
Standards as well as how to obtain a clearance when necessary.
V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson will examine the responsibilities of the controller and pilot regarding communicating in the IFR
world. You will also learn to the format of an IFR clearance, which is required for every IFR flight, and finally
how to efficiently set up communication equipment for flight.

Why
Communication is a huge part of IFR flight. Due to restricted visibility, communication with ATC becomes
essential for safety. The understanding of that communication is therefore imperative.

How:

1. Air Traffic Clearance

A. What is a Clearance
i. An authorization by ATC, for the purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft, for an
aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions within controlled airspace
ii. Prior to any IFR flight, the pilot must obtain an IFR clearance
a. FAR 91.173: No person may operate in controlled airspace under IFR unless they have:
• Filed a flight plan
• Received an ATC clearance
B. Obtaining a Clearance (big picture overview – more detailed info below)
i. File a Flight Plan
a. FSS, ForeFlight, etc.
b. Flight plan gets sent to a computer at ARTCC (Center)
• After processing the flight plan, the computer sends flight strips to the tower, the radar
facility handling the departure route, and the Center controller whose sector the flight first
enters

ii. Pick up the Clearance from ATC

a. Contact ATC for the clearance
• Different procedures for towered vs non-towered – will be discussed in the next section

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V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances

b. “(Who you’re calling), (Callsign), Ready to copy IFR to (destination)”

iii. Standard IFR Clearance
a. Clearance Contents (CRAFT)
• Clearance Limit: Usually the destination airport
a Occasionally a short-range clearance to a fix within or just outside the terminal area and
provides frequency on which the long-range clearance will be received
• Route: Departure procedure, en route fixes, arrival procedure
a Often "as filed," but may be changed for established flow patterns or preferred routes
b Pilot’s responsibility to notify ATC if unable to comply with clearance
1. For example, radio equipment unable to receive necessary signals, or no RNAV
• Altitude: Initial altitude to maintain
a “Cruise” altitude (rare) assigns a block from min IFR altitude to the cruise altitude
1. Within this block climb, descent, and level-off are at pilot's discretion
2. Once the pilot begins descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude, he/she may
not climb back to that altitude without further clearance
• Frequency: Departure control
• Transponder Code: Squawk
• Often you will know most of this information before copying
a Have the CRAFT information pre-filled. Line out/update any information as required
C. Clearance Read Back
i. Promptly read back the clearance in the CRAFT order
ii. Inform ATC of any items you missed; correct any errors and read back those items again to confirm
iii. Note "read back correct" from the controller
iv. Ensure appropriate phraseology is used
a. AIM Pilot Controller Glossary
D. Interpretation, Clarification, Change of an ATC clearance
i. Interpretation
a. Know what to expect from the controller
• CRAFT
• Pilot Controller Glossary
• En route locations of nav facilities, waypoints, etc., Departure Procedures
ii. Clarification and Change
a. Once the clearance is accepted, you are required to comply with ATC instructions
• You may request a clearance that is different from what was received
b. Always request clarification/amendment anytime a clearance is not fully understood or is unsafe
2. Obtaining an IFR Clearance
A. Towered Airport
i. Clearance is received from Clearance Delivery, if available, otherwise Ground
ii. “(Clearance Delivery / Ground), (Callsign), Ready to copy IFR to (destination)”
B. Non-Towered Airport
i. Determine how to obtain a clearance from the airport (Chart Supplement), options include:
a. Contact the FSS on the ground by phone, and they will request the clearance from ATC
b. Contact ATC by radio or by phone (if published in the Chart Supplement) while on the ground
c. Depart VFR and pickup your IFR clearance from ATC while airborne
d. Use a Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) to contact an FSS
e. UNICOM may be able to contact ATC
ii. Clearance Void Time

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V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances

a. Typically, when a clearance is given to a pilot on the ground at an uncontrolled field, a clearance
void time, or a time by which the pilot must depart, is issued
• Clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff is not made prior to the specified time
• This departure time “reserves” your space within the IFR system
b. If the void time has passed without departing, you must contact ATC and advise your intentions
• Obtain a new clearance or cancel the IFR flight plan
• Failure to contact ATC within 30 min after the void time will result in search and rescue
• Other IFR traffic for the airport is suspended until contacting ATC or 30 min after void time
• Pilots departing at/after their void time are not afforded IFR separation and may be in
violation of FAR 91.173 requiring an appropriate clearance
C. Clearances are available 30 minutes prior to the filed departure time
i. Held in the system for two hours after filed departure time
ii. If delayed, you can request ATC to hold it longer
3. Pilot & Controller Responsibilities (AIM 5-5-2, Chapter 1 of Instrument Procedures Handbook)
A. Pilot
i. FAR 91.173 – To operate under IFR in controlled airspace, a pilot must:
a. File an IFR flight plan and obtain an ATC clearance
ii. Acknowledge receipt and understanding of the ATC clearance
iii. Request clarification or amendment, as appropriate, any time clearance is not fully understood
a. Or considered unacceptable from a safety standpoint
b. Required to contact ATC if unable to meet required climb gradients/rates
• If unable to maintain departure procedure climb gradient, you must depart under VMC
iv. Promptly comply with the ATC clearance except as necessary to cope with an emergency
a. Advise ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance if deviation is necessary
v. Pilot is always responsible to see and avoid traffic when operating in VMC
vi. PIC is directly responsible for and the final authority as to the operation of the aircraft (FAR 91.3)
a. In emergencies, PIC may deviate to the extent necessary to maintain safety
B. Controller
i. Issuing appropriate clearances for the operation to be conducted
ii. Assigning altitudes above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled airspace
iii. Ensuring pilot acknowledgement/read back of clearances
a. If incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, makes corrections as appropriate
iv. Departure Procedures
a. Including departure procedures as part of the ATC clearance when necessary
• Specifying direction of takeoff, obtaining pilot concurrence that the procedure complies
with local traffic patterns, terrain, and obstruction clearance
4. Tower Enroute Control (TEC)
A. Control of IFR en route traffic in delegated airspace between two or more adjacent approach facilities
i. An ATC program that uses overlapping approach control radar services to provide IFR clearances
ii. You are routed by airport control towers, and departure/approach controllers
iii. Allows flight beneath the en route structure
iv. Usually for aircraft operating below 10,000’ and flights less than 2 hours
B. Advantages
i. Designed to expedite traffic and reduce control and pilot communication requirements
ii. Abbreviated filing procedures, fewer delays, and reduced traffic separation requirements
C. There are many locations where instrument flight can be conducted entirely in terminal airspace
D. TEC routes can be found in the Chart Supplement

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V.A. Air Traffic Control Clearances

5. *Setting Com and Nav Frequencies

A. Setup of all com/nav info according to the clearance received creates a much smoother flight
i. Com Setup:
a. Com 1: Departure Frequencies (Tower in the active frequency and Departure in standby)
b. Com 2: Arrival Frequencies
B. Set Heading Indicator bug on initial assigned departure heading
C. Bug the initial altitude
D. Enter/check assigned route in the GPS and activate flight plan
E. Using primary navigation system (GPS): Enter and check the frequency and ID of first station
i. Set OBS to initial course
F. Set secondary NAV radio to the frequency of the approach facility (e.g., ILS) that would be used in case
of emergency return to the departure airport in IMC
G. Check transponder set to assigned code and on standby until ready for T/O, then switch to ALT mode

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of air traffic control clearances by describing:
1. Pilot and controller responsibilities to include tower, en route control, and clearance void times.
2. Correct and timely copying of an ATC clearance.
3. Ability to comply with the clearance.
4. Correct and timely read-back of an ATC clearance, using standard phraseology.
5. Correct interpretation of an ATC clearance and, when necessary, request for clarification, verification, or
change.
6. Setting of communication and navigation frequencies in compliance with an ATC clearance.

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), Instrument Procedures Handbook
(FAA-H-8083-16), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to operating enroute, on DPs,
STARs, etc.

Key Elements 1. Write down ATC instructions

2. Pre-Approach Brief!
3. Current Charts

Elements 1. Departure Procedures

2. Enroute Procedures
3. STAR Procedures
4. NAVAIDs (DP, Enroute & STAR)
5. Pilot Reports
6. MFD Situational Awareness
7. ADS-B Basics

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to operate in departure, en route, and arrival areas.
Standards
V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson provides an overview of the departure, en route and arrival procedures, including pilot
responsibilities.

Why
Departures, STARs, and en route IFR procedures differ considerably from VFR procedures. It is vital you
understand how to operate in these environments.

How:

1. Departure Procedures
A. What is a Departure Procedure?
i. Preplanned IFR procedures providing transition from the terminal area to the en route structure.
There are two types, ODPs and SIDs:
a. ODPs (Obstacle Departure Procedures)
• Departure procedures designed simply to provide obstacle clearance
a ODPs only exist at airports with published instrument approach procedures
b Only one per runway
• Do not include ATC related climb requirements
b. SIDs (Standard Instrument Departure)
• Departure route designed to increase capacity of terminal airspace, control traffic with
minimal communication, reduce environmental impact, and provide obstacle clearance
• Generally used at large, busy airport and other airports in the vicinity (high traffic areas)
ii. Pilot Responsibilities when Planning a Departure Procedure
a. Consider the type of terrain and other obstructions
b. Determine if an ODP or suitable SID is available for the departure airport
• Are there restrictions that would prevent one or the other
a Climb requirements, altitudes, airspeeds, navigation capabilities, direction of flight, etc.
b Consider the effect of an engine failure and the actions to take
c. Determine if obstacle clearance can be maintained visually or if a DP is needed
d. If no DPs, determine what actions allow for a safe departure
iii. NOTE: Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle clearance for all departures is based on:
a. At least 35’ above the departure end of the runway, climbing to 400’ before making the initial
turn, maintaining at least a 200 feet per nm climb to the minimum IFR altitude
B. ODPs
i. Located in Section L of the TPP – IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures
a. Separate from airport’s SIDs, airport diagram, approaches in Terminal Charts section (pg. 1)
b. Generally described in text

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

c. Graphic ODPs have (OBSTACLE) printed in the procedure title

• For example, GEYSR THREE DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE)
ii. Text ODP Example:

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

iii. Graphic ODP Example:

iv. Pilot Responsibilities

a. Determine if an ODP exists and whether to fly it
• Account for climb requirements, obstacles, weather, runways, routing, etc.
b. ODPs are only assigned by ATC if absolutely necessary to achieve aircraft separation

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

• If not assigned, compliance with an ODP is the pilot’s choice

a Complying with the ODP is almost always safer
c. Account for the ODP route in your flight plan
• May require higher climb rates, longer distance, increased fuel burn, etc.
d. Take into account low, close-in obstacles described in the same section
e. May be filed in your flight plan
• Graphic ODP can be filed with the computer coded name
• Textual ODP technique: Enter “will depart (airport) (runway) via textual ODP” in remarks
f. If not included in your clearance, inform ATC of intent to fly the ODP
g. Responsibilities for Any Procedure
• Acknowledgement and understanding of the ATC clearance
• Request clarification of clearance, if needed
• Request an amendment to a clearance if it is unacceptable from a safety perspective
• Promptly comply with ATC requests (advise immediately if unable)
• Inform ATC if unable to comply with climb gradients/rates
v. ATC Departure Procedure Responsibilities
a. Specifying the direction of takeoff or initial heading when necessary
b. Obtaining pilot concurrence that the procedure complies with local traffic patterns, terrain, and
obstruction clearance
c. Including the DP as part of the ATC clearance when necessary for separation
vi. Flying an ODP
a. Fly the ODP described procedures
b. Ensure required aircraft performance
c. Contact ATC as specified
C. SIDs
i. Located in the Terminal Charts section of the TPP (after the approaches and airport diagram)
a. Described in text and graphic
ii. SIDs based on Aircraft Equipment
a. Non-RNAV
• Established for aircraft equipped with conventional avionics using ground-based navaids
b. RNAV
• Established for aircraft equipped with RNAV avionics (GPS, VOR/DME, DME/DME)
c. Radar
• Established when ATC has a need to vector aircraft to a particular route, navaid, or fix
iii. Transition Routes
a. Some SIDs contain initial departure instructions followed by one or more transition routes
b. Transition routes allow for the STAR to continue in various directions (more convenient)
c. When filing for a specific transition, include the transition in the flight plan
d. ATC clearance must contain the departure and the associated transition
iv. Example SIDs:

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v. Understanding the Charts

a. Legend
• Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP): Pg G2
• Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide: Pg 125
• Same legend in both documents
vi. Pilot Responsibilities
a. Determine if a SID is applicable
• Direction of flight (SIDs tend to service specific departure directions from the airport)
• Required speeds and altitudes
• Aircraft capabilities (performance, navigation, etc.)
b. A SID can only be flown with ATC clearance
• If assigned and accepted by the pilot, it must be flown
c. Accept or reject the clearance based on:
• Ability to comply with the required performance
• Ability to navigate to the accuracy required for the procedure
a RNAV SIDs must be retrievable from the database, current, and match the SID
• Possession of the charted SID procedure
• Personal understanding of the SID in its entirety
d. Fly the procedure as charted and remain vigilant scanning for traffic
• Includes route, airspeeds, altitudes, climb gradients, and any other requirements
e. Notify ATC if the clearance would endanger your safety or the safety of others
f. Put “NO SIDs” in the remarks if you cannot comply with/do not have/do not wish to fly SIDs
g. Immediately comply with radar vectors, and notify ATC if unable to meet their instructions
h. Responsibilities for Any Procedure
• Acknowledgement and understanding of the ATC clearance
• Request clarification of clearance, if needed
• Request an amendment to a clearance if it is unacceptable from a safety perspective
• Promptly comply with ATC requests (advise immediately if unable)
• Inform ATC if unable to comply with climb gradients/rates
vii. ATC Departure Procedure Responsibilities
a. Specifying the direction of takeoff or initial heading when necessary
b. Obtaining pilot concurrence that the procedure complies with local traffic patterns, terrain, and
obstruction clearance
c. Including the DP as part of the ATC clearance when necessary for separation
d. Traffic separation
viii. Flying a SID
a. Maintain the SID course and altitudes per the graphic/text and ATC instructions
b. ATC Clearances
• “Maintain (altitude)”
a A clearance which does not contain published crossing restrictions, and/or is a SID with
a Radar Vector segment, will be issued using the phraseology “Maintain (altitude)”
b Climb to and maintain this altitude
• “Climb Via”
a An abbreviated clearance that requires compliance with the lateral path, associated
speed and altitude restrictions along the departure procedure
b Authorizes the pilot:
1. Join the procedure after departure

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2. Navigate laterally and meet all published or assigned altitude and speed restrictions
3. Or climb from an assigned altitude to the altitude shown at the next waypoint
4. Numerous examples in AIM 5-2-9h
• “Climb Via” followed by “Maintain (altitude)”
a Example: Often a clearance will be to “Climb-via” the SID, but once airborne ATC will
clear the pilot to “maintain X,000’”
1. Once cleared to Maintain an altitude, all intermediary altitude restrictions are
removed. The pilot can climb directly to the specified altitude
b If unsure of a clearance, query the controller for clarification
D. Communications
i. Communication Overview
a. Clearance Delivery
• Provides the ATC clearance dictating the departure procedure
• If Clearance Delivery is not available, use Ground
• Located on the airport diagram and in the Chart Supplement
b. Tower
• Initial controller after takeoff
• May provide instructions (altitudes, headings, etc.) prior to transferring you to departure
• Located on the airport diagram and in the Chart Supplement
c. Departure or ARTCC (“Center”)
• Generally, tower will tell you to contact departure after takeoff
a Some areas will send you direct to Center
b Depends on coverage and airspace congestion
• Departure manages the traffic between the airport and higher enroute altitudes
• Part of your IFR clearance – the F in CRAFT
• Also located on the departure procedure and in the Chart Supplement
a Multiple departure frequencies can be associated with a single airport
1. If unsure, query tower or ground for the proper frequency
d. Transitioning through airspace ATC will provide new frequencies to maintain contact
• Copy the new frequency, acknowledge it and contact the next controller
a Contact with your call sign and current altitude (i.e., “Cessna 514GS, 5,000 feet”)
ii. Lost Communications
a. See IX.A. Loss of Communications
b. Radar SID charts often include non-standard lost communication procedures
• These procedures take precedence over standard procedures
E. Departure Procedure Checklist Items
i. Accomplish all checklists items per the POH
ii. Generally, before takeoff, after takeoff / climb checklist, cruise checklist, etc.
F. Selecting DP Charts
i. It’s important to have the necessary, current publications for your flight
ii. Out of date publications may have missing, changed, and/or incomplete information
a. Verify digital pubs are downloaded and current
b. Verify the currency dates on paper products
iii. Ensure you have the procedures necessary for your route of flight, alternate(s) included
a. What you file or expect to fly may not be what you are cleared to fly
• Ensure you have all procedures for each intended airport
b. Mark the specific procedures that may be necessary to the flight (digital or paper)

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c. Keep the charts organized and, in a place, where they can be easily reached
iv. Ensure currency and check the FDC NOTAMS for any updates to TPPs
G. DP Safety & Efficiency
i. Safety
a. Personal Minimums
• Set personal minimums based on comfort level and experience
a Wind, ceiling, visibility, weather phenomena, airspace, complexity, etc.
• Do not bend or break these minimums
• Just because it’s legal does not mean it’s safe
b. Obstacles & Terrain: Verify obstacles and terrain are not a factor
c. Departure Requirements
• Climb Gradients: Ensure aircraft climb capabilities/performance meets DP requirements
• Altitudes & Airspeeds: Verify the aircraft can meet the required altitudes and airspeeds
d. Situational Awareness
• Stay ahead of the aircraft
a Review the procedures prior to flight
b Know where you are and what’s coming next
• Ask for help, if necessary
e. NOTAMs & Currency: Ensure current pubs and check NOTAMs to check for changes
ii. Efficiency
a. Standard Operating Procedures
• Have and follow standard procedures (checklists, climb procedures, airspeeds, etc.)
b. File ODPs and SIDs, or enter NO SIDs
• File the desired flight plan, adjust based on ATC changes
c. Review DPs and ATC procedures
• The more familiar with the procedures, the more SA and efficient flying
d. Succinct Communications
• Know what you’re going to say before you key the mic
• Pilot/Controller Glossary
2. Enroute Procedures
A. What are Enroute Charts?
i. Roadmaps for the IFR world
ii. Dictate navaids, course, altitudes (obstacles, reception, etc.), and more
iii. Generally used for a route to connect the end of a DP with the beginning of a STAR
B. Charts
i. Low Altitude Charts
a. Provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000’ MSL
• Airways, RNAV routes, limits of controlled airspace, VHF navaids, airports with an
instrument approach procedure or a minimum 3,000’ hard surface runway, OROCA,
reporting points, special use areas, military training routes
ii. High Altitude Charts
a. Provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR conditions above 18,000’ MSL
• Jet routes, RNAV Q-routes, VHF navaids, selected airports, reporting points, navigation
reference system (NRS) waypoints
iii. Reading the Charts
a. Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide: Pgs. 59-89
• Explanation of IFR Enroute Terms: 59-69

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• IFR Enroute Low/High Altitude Symbols 69-89

C. Pilot Responsibilities
i. IFR Flight Plan
a. Plan and file a route based on direction of flight, required altitudes, aircraft performance, etc.
ii. Charts
a. Ensure the chart(s) in use is current
b. When navigating on depicted airways, maintain the MEAs, MCAs, MAAs, reporting points, etc.
iii. Vectors (AIM 5-5-6)
a. Promptly turn to the new heading and maintain it until issued additional instructions
b. Question any assigned heading/altitude believed to be incorrect
c. If VFR and a vector/altitude would cause CFR violation, advise ATC/obtain a revised clearance
iv. Altitude
a. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, the following rules apply:
• In controlled airspace: Maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC
• VFR On Top: Follow the rules prescribed in FAR 91.159
• In uncontrolled airspace:
a When operating below 18,000 MSL, and
1. On a magnetic course of 0o through 179o, any ODD THOUSAND FOOT MSL altitude
2. On a magnetic course of 180o to 359o, any EVEN THOUSAND FOOR MSL altitude
v. Airspeed (AIM 4-4-12, FAR 91.117)
a. When given an airspeed to maintain, you are expected to maintain that airspeed ± 10 knots
• If your aircraft cannot maintain the speed assigned, advise ATC
• Comply with ATC speed adjustments, unless it interferes with the aircraft’s min/max speed
b. Report a change in average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 5% or 10 knots
(which is greater) from that filed in the flight plan
c. The maximum speeds in FAR 91.117 apply
• PIC’s responsibility to advise ATC if an assigned speed would cause you to exceed these
limits
• It is normal for faster aircraft to level off at 10,000’ MSL while slowing to the 250 KIAS limit
a Controllers anticipate this and plan accordingly
vi. Climbs (AIM 4-4-10, Instrument Procedures Handbook – Chapter 2)
a. Pilots are expected to execute a clearance or instruction upon receipt
b. ATC may ask you to climb and maintain a specific altitude
• Generally, this is for traffic separation, and you need to respond to it promptly
a Climb at the optimum rate until 1,000’ below assigned altitude, then 500 to 1,500 fpm
b If at any time you cannot climb at a rate of 500 fpm, advise ATC
c. “Immediately” is used to impress urgency to avoid an imminent situation, and expeditious
compliance is expected and necessary for safety
d. “Climb at pilot’s discretion” means you have the option to:
• Start a climb when you wish
• Climb at any rate
• Temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude as desired
a Once you vacate an altitude, you may not return to that altitude
e. When the term “at pilot’s discretion” is not used, and no climb restrictions are imposed, you
should:
• Climb at an optimum rate consistent within the operating characteristics of your aircraft to
1,000’ below the assigned altitude, and then climb between 500 and 1500 fpm

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a Reducing the climb rate for the last 1,000’ reduces the likelihood of a TCAS RA
• If at any time you are unable to climb at a rate of at least 500 fpm, advise ATC
• If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate altitude, advise ATC
f. “Expedite climb” normally indicates you should use best rate of climb without causing an
exceptional change in aircraft handling characteristics
• Normally the controller will inform you of the reason to expedite
• Safety first – If unable, advise the controller
g. The term “cruise” may be used instead of “maintain” to assign a block of airspace (AIM 4-4-3)
• Block extends from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude in the
clearance
• You may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace
• You are allowed to climb/descend within the block at you own discretion, however:
a Once you start descent and verbally report leaving an altitude to ATC, you may not
return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance
vii. Descents (AIM 4-4-10)
a. ATC may ask you to descend and maintain a specific altitude
• Generally, this is for en route traffic separation purposes, and you need to respond promptly
a Descend at the optimum rate for your aircraft until 1,000’ above the assigned altitude,
then descend at a rate between 500 and 1,500 fpm
b If at any time you cannot descend at a rate of 500 fpm, advise ATC
b. “Immediately” is used to impress urgency to avoid an imminent situation, and expeditious
compliance is expected and necessary for safety
c. “At pilot’s discretion”
• Begin the descent whenever you choose and at any rate you choose
• You may also level off, temporarily, at any intermediate altitude during the descent
a However, once you leave an altitude, you may not return to it
d. “Expedite descent” normally indicates you should use best rate of descent without causing an
exceptional change in aircraft handling characteristics
• Normally the controller will inform you of the reason to expedite
• Safety first – If unable, advise the controller. Can often give you a heading or other
instructions
viii. Airspace Restrictions
a. Stay within protected airspace – this depends on:
• Accurate flying (Stay as close as possible to the centerline of the intended course)
• Accurate navigation equipment, and navigations signals from ground/space transmitters
• Accurate direction by ATC
• Accurate charts and publications
ix. Courses, Radials and Bearings
a. FAR 91.181 – The pilot must operate on an ATS route, along the centerline of the airway
• AIM 5-3-5 – Pilots are required to adhere to airways or routes being flown
a Federal airways are generally 4 nautical miles each side of the centerline (8 nm total)
1. RNAV navigational requirements vary based on the phase of flight and required
navigation guidance (i.e., en route vs approach)
b Special attention must be given to this requirement during course changes
1. This primarily applies to faster aircraft (jets), but can be a good teaching point now
(learn it right the first time)
2. Consider turn radius, wind effect, airspeed, degree of turn, instrumentation

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a. Lead the turn if necessary to prevent exceeding the route boundaries

b. AIM 5-5-2 – The pilot is expected to promptly comply with an air traffic clearance assigned by
the controller except as necessary for an emergency (more below)
• AIM 4-4-10 – When a heading is assigned or a turn requested, promptly initiate the turn,
complete the turn, and maintain the heading unless issued additional instructions
• AIM 5-5-6 – Radar Vectors: Promptly comply with headings and altitudes assigned
• FAR 91.123 – When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot may deviate from that
clearance unless an amended clearance is obtained, an emergency exists, or the deviation is
in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance resolution advisory
• Question any headings/directions/clearances believed to be incorrect - Safety first!
• If compliance would cause a violation of any CFR, advise ATC and obtain a revised clearance
c. Always acknowledge receipt and understanding of an ATC clearance
• Request clarification or amendment if not fully understood or unacceptable due to safety
d. It is the responsibility of the pilot to notify ATC immediately if their equipment/aircraft is not
capable to comply with the clearance
• i.e., do not accept RNAV routing if the aircraft is not equipped with RNAV
x. Emergencies
a. FAR 91.3 – In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot in command may
deviate from any rule of this part to the extent required to meet that emergency
• Any deviation should be reported to ATC and a new clearance obtained as soon as possible
D. ATC Responsibilities
i. Issue appropriate clearances for operations conducted, in accordance with established criteria
ii. Assign altitudes at or above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled airspace
a. ATC may vector you below the MEA as they have Minimum Vectoring Altitudes
• Pilots do not have access to these
• If any instruction appears to be dangerous contact ATC for an amended clearance
iii. Vectors
a. Vectors aircraft in controlled airspace
• For separation
• For noise abatement
• To obtain an operational advantage for the pilot/controller
b. Vectors aircraft in controlled airspace when requested by the pilot
c. Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum vectoring altitudes
d. May vector VFR aircraft, not at an ATC assigned altitude, at any altitude
• In these cases, terrain separation is the pilot’s responsibility
iv. Ensure acknowledgement by the pilot for issued information, clearances, or instructions
v. Ensure pilot readback is correct, and makes corrections as appropriate
vi. En route traffic separation, Traffic advisories
E. Communications
i. Communication Overview
a. Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC / “Center”)
• Frequencies are provided by the current controller as you transition out of their airspace
b. Flights planned at lower altitudes may remain with Departure/Approach
• Same as above, frequencies are provided as you transition out of the controller’s airspace
ii. Transitioning through airspace ATC will provide new frequencies to maintain contact
a. Copy the new frequency, acknowledge it and contact the next controller
• Contact with your call sign and current altitude (i.e., “Cessna 514GS, 5,000 feet”)

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iii. Lost Communications

a. See IX.A. Loss of Communications
F. Enroute Checklist Items
i. Accomplish all checklists items per the POH
ii. Generally, cruise checklist and decent checklist (depending on when it’s accomplished)
G. Chart Selection
i. It’s important to have the necessary, current publications for your flight
a. Out of date publications may have missing, changed, and/or incomplete information
ii. Necessary for en route navigation (victor airways, jet routes, navaids, waypoints, etc.)
iii. Select the chart(s) covering the entire planned route of flight, including the alternate(s)
a. Confirm the required Low and High charts, as necessary
b. Outline your route of flight and fold the map in a way that it can be easily used
c. Keep all charts organized and, in a place, where they can be easily accessed
d. Digital Pubs: Overlay the flight plan on the charts
iv. Ensure the charts are current and check the Chart Supplement and NOTAMs for any changes
H. Enroute Safety & Efficiency
i. Safety
a. Fuel State Awareness
• Pilots are required to monitor the time and fuel remaining on an IFR flight
a TOC, selected waypoints (based on the length of the flight), TOD, etc.
b Compare actual vs planned fuel burn
c Compare fuel tanks (swap as necessary)
b. Diversion Procedures
• Know the possible diversion airports along your route
a The more familiar with these airports, the easier the diversion
• Be familiar with general weather enroute to assist with choosing a diversion airport
c. Performance & Altitudes: Ensure capabilities meet minimum required altitudes, climb reqs, etc.
d. Currency & NOTAMs: Verify current charts and check NOTAMs for any changes
e. Weather
• Icing
a Weather brief–Don’t fly if icing is expected & the plane isn’t certified for icing conditions
b If in icing, exit as quickly as possible (know general weather conditions, talk to ATC, etc.)
• Storms: Weather brief–Avoid storms and the hazards they present
• Low IFR
a Refer to diversion procedures
b Have personal minimums and stick to them
ii. Efficiency
a. Standard Operating Procedures
• Have and follow standard procedures (checklists, power settings, airspeeds, etc.)
b. Review the Flight
• Be familiar with the route, diversion airports, flight plan fuel and time
• The more familiar with the flight plan and procedures, the more SA and efficient flying
c. Succinct Communications
• Know what you’re going to say before you key the mic
• Pilot/Controller Glossary
3. STAR Procedures
A. What is a STAR?

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i. An IFR routing established to transition aircraft from the en route structure to the terminal area
a. Provides the route, and in some cases altitude(s) and airspeed(s), flown during the arrival
b. A single STAR can serve multiple airports and runways
c. Whereas a DP starts at the pavement and goes to the en route structure, the STAR starts at the
en route structure but doesn’t reach the pavement
• Ends at a fix or navaid which connects to, or allows for vectors to, an instrument approach
d. Like a DP, the STAR increases capacity, organizes traffic, and reduces environmental impact
ii. Where to Find STARs
a. Terminal Procedures Publications, Section Z
• Separate from the SIDs, approaches, and airport diagrams
iii. Types of STARs
a. RNAV: Used by aircraft equipped with FMS or GPS
b. Non-RNAV: For use by aircraft with conventional/ground-based navaids
iv. Transition Routes
a. Transitions can exist at the start and/or end of the STAR
b. Start: Various feeder routes to “funnel” traffic onto the STAR
c. End: Various transitions depending on the destination airport and/or landing runway
v. Pilot Responsibilities when Choosing/Planning a STAR
a. Determine which STARs, if any, are compatible with your route
• Consider the arrival direction and look for corresponding STARs
• Review the required airspeeds, altitudes, and equipment
a Many begin above Class A airspace, and have high altitude and airspeed requirements
b. If capable and desired, file the STAR and its associated transition in your flight plan
c. Put “NO STAR” in the remarks if you cannot comply with/do not have/do not wish to fly STARs
B. STAR Example

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C. Reading the STAR

i. Understanding the Charts
a. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP): Pg G1
b. Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide: Pg 124
c. Same legend in both documents
D. Pilot Responsibilities (AIM 5-4-1, Instrument Procedures Handbook - Chapter 3)
i. IFR aircraft destined to locations where STARs have been published may be issued a STAR
a. It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse an issued STAR
b. Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at least the approved chart
• RNAV STARs must be retrievable by the procedure name from the aircraft database
c. Notify ATC as soon as possible if unable to comply with procedure requirements
d. “NO STAR” in the remarks if you cannot comply with/do not have/do not wish to fly STARs
ii. Flying the STAR
a. Cleared for the arrival, i.e., “Cleared HADLY ONE arrival”
• When cleared for the STAR, the pilot is only cleared the lateral routing
• In this case, further speed and altitude instruction will come later
b. Descent - Cleared to a specific altitude, or cleared to “descend via”
• Specific Altitude
a Maintain the routing and descend to the assigned altitude using normal procedures
• Descend Via
a A “Descend Via” clearance reduces radio congestion and ATC instruction
b The pilot is expected to follow the lateral, and vertical requirements of the STAR
1. Routing, Altitudes, and Airspeeds
c Descend Via authorizes a pilot to:
1. Descend to meet published restrictions and laterally navigate on a STAR
2. When cleared to a waypoint on a STAR, to descend from a previously assigned
altitude at pilot’s discretion to the altitude depicted at that waypoint
3. Once established on the depicted arrival, to descend and to meet all published or
assigned altitude and/or speed restrictions
d May receive a “Descend via, except maintain xxxx” clearance
1. Follow lateral/vertical requirements, except maintain the requirement specified
c. Expect Altitudes on the STAR
• Many stars have altitudes to “expect” at specific points
a The pilot can anticipate being assigned the altitudes, but these expected altitudes and
airspeeds are not part of the clearance until ATC includes them verbally
d. A STAR is simply a published routing; it doesn’t have the force of a clearance until specifically
issued by ATC
iii. Any Procedure
a. Acknowledgement and understanding of the ATC clearance
b. Request clarification of clearance, if needed
c. Request an amendment to a clearance if it is unacceptable from a safety perspective
d. Promptly comply with ATC requests (advise immediately if unable)
E. ATC Responsibilities
i. Clear the pilot for the STAR procedure
a. Route, altitudes and/or airspeeds
ii. Ensure acknowledgement by the pilot for issued information, clearances, or instructions
iii. Ensure pilot readback is correct, and makes corrections as appropriate

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iv. En route traffic separation, Traffic advisories

F. Communications
i. Communication Overview
a. Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC / “Center”)
• Often a STAR will begin while still with ARTCC (high altitude aircraft)
• Transitioning out of their airspace, ARTCC will provide an Approach frequency
b. Approach
• Manages the lower altitudes and hands you off to the tower for landing
• Uncontrolled airfields especially may not have an approach control
a Center will clear you for the approach and a frequency change
b Transmit on CTAF, then cancel IFR when able on the radio with center or via phone
ii. Transitioning through airspace ATC will provide new frequencies to maintain contact
a. Copy the new frequency, acknowledge it and contact the next controller
iii. Lost Communications
a. See IX.A. Loss of Communications
G. STAR Checklist Items
i. As required
ii. Generally, the descent checklist, in addition to the arrival/approach briefing, and 5 Ts, as necessary

Pre-Approach Brief (FFIIMMMMS) 5 T’s – All Fixes / Glide Slope Intercept

i. Fixes (Ask and answer at each fix / heading change)
ii. Frequencies
iii. Inbound Course i. Turn (Which way?)
iv. Identify ii. Time (Start timer)
v. Marker Beacons iii. Twist (Rotate OBS)
vi. Minutes iv. Throttle (Set as required)
vii. Minimums v. Talk (Report to ATC)
viii. Missed
ix. Security

H. Selecting STAR Charts

i. It’s important to have the necessary, current publications for your flight
ii. Out of date publications may have missing, changed, and/or incomplete information
a. Verify currency
iii. Ensure you have the procedures necessary for your route of flight, alternate(s) included
a. What you file or expect to fly may not be what you are cleared to fly
• Ensure you have all procedures for each intended airport
b. Mark the specific procedures that may be necessary to the flight (digital or paper)
c. Keep the charts organized and, in a place, where they can be easily reached
iv. Check the FDC NOTAMS for any updates to TPPs
I. Safety Considerations
i. Safety
a. Aircraft Capabilities
• Ensure the aircraft can meet the required speeds and altitudes
a Several STARs are designed for jet aircraft
• Verify navigation capabilities
b. Situational Awareness

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• Stay ahead of the aircraft

a Review the procedures prior to flight
b Know where you are and what’s coming next
• Ask for help, if necessary
c. NOTAMs & Currency: Ensure current pubs and check NOTAMs for changes
ii. Efficiency
a. Standard Operating Procedures
• Have and follow standard procedures (checklists, descent procedures, airspeeds, etc.)
b. File the desired STAR, or enter NO STAR
• File the desired flight plan, adjust based on ATC changes
• Leaving it up to ATC creates for more stress and work
c. Review STARs and ATC procedures
• The more familiar with the procedures, the more SA and efficient flying
d. Succinct Communications
• Know what you’re going to say before you key the mic
• Pilot/Controller Glossary
4. NAVAIDS (DP, Enroute, STAR)
A. Record and check frequencies of NAVAIDS on navlog
B. Record and check correct way points
C. Tune and identify first NAVAID before takeoff if within range
i. Verify on G1000 comm box by noting the NAVAID identifier
ii. Or use the NAV button to listen to and identify the Morse code
D. En route, tune and identify each NAVAID used
i. Confirm NAVAID identification on G1000
ii. Confirm correct Morse code
iii. Change navigation guidance at the appropriate changeover points (COPs)
a. Change frequency from station behind to station ahead at COP
b. Use COP depicted, if none depicted, use midpoint or point where heading changes
5. Pilot Reports
A. FAR 91.183: IFR Communication
i. Position Reports:
a. Time and altitude passing each designated reporting point, when not under radar control
b. When under radar control, only report the points specifically requested by ATC
ii. Unforecast weather
iii. Any information relating to the safety of flight
B. Making FAR 91.83 Required Position Reports (AIM 5-3-2)
i. Reporting Points – depicted on enroute charts
a. Compulsory reporting point:
b. On request reporting point:
ii. Reporting Requirements
a. Flights along Airways or Routes
• Position reports are required by all flights, regardless of altitude
b. Flights on a Direct Route
• Position reports are required by all flights, regardless of altitude
c. Flights in a Radar Environment
• Discontinue reports when informed that the aircraft is in “radar contact”
a Resume when ATC advises “radar contact lost,” or “radar service terminated”

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d. Oceanic (non-radar) Environment

• Report over each point, even if it is an “on request” reporting point
iii. Position Report Items
a. Identification
b. Position
c. Time
d. Altitude or FL
e. Type of flight plan (not required in IFR position reports made directly to ARTCC/approach)
f. ETA and name of next reporting point
g. The name only of the next reporting point along the route of flight
h. Pertinent remarks
C. AIM 5-3-3. Additional Reports
i. At all times
a. Vacating any previously assigned altitude of FL for a new one
b. Altitude change if operating on a VFR-on-top clearance
c. Unable to climb/descend at least 500 fpm
d. Missed approach
e. Change in the average TAS of 5% of 10 knots (whichever is greater)
• At cruising altitude
• From the airspeed filed in the flight plan
f. Time and altitude reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared
g. Leaving any assigned holding fix or point
h. Loss of navigation equipment
• Report should include aircraft ID, equipment affected, any impairment to operating under
IFR, nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC
i. Any information relating to the safety of flight
ii. Not in radar contact
a. Leaving FAF or outer marker inbound on a final approach
b. When a previous time estimate is in error by more than 2 minutes
iii. Unforecast weather and/or hazardous weather
D. Minimum & Emergency Fuel
i. Minimum Fuel (AIM 5-5-15)
a. Fuel has reached a state where, reaching the destination, you cannot accept any undue delay
b. NOT an emergency, just an advisory that an emergency is possible should a delay occur
c. On initial contact the term “minimum fuel” should be used after stating your call sign
• XYZ Approach, Diamond 4DS, minimum fuel
d. No traffic priority
• If priority is required, declare an emergency and report fuel remaining in minutes
ii. Emergency Fuel (Feb 2012 DOT/FAA Air Traffic Bulletin)
a. Not defined in the AIM or FAA regulations
b. Industry-wide connotation typically associated with fuel emergency is:
• The point at which, the judgement of the PIC, it is necessary to proceed directly to the
airport of intended landing due to low fuel
• Explicit statement that priority handling by ATC is required and expected
6. MFD Situational Awareness
A. Immense gains in situational awareness come with a modern MFD setup (G1000, Avidyne, etc.)
i. The moving map can enhance the pilot’s awareness of location in relation to the desired course

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

a. Seeing the aircraft in relation to the course allows for far greater accuracy/situational awareness
• Navaid sensitivity doesn’t vary based on the distance from the fix as it does with a VOR
a A one dot deflection 100 nm from a VOR is far greater than a 1 dot deflection 10 miles
from the VOR – navigational accuracy is much improved, and far more consistent on the
GPS CDI, and moving map of an MFD
ii. Wind drift can be visualized on the screen (heading vs course), and many setups provide the actual
wind based on the aircraft’s current position and altitude
a. Immensely simplifies crosswind corrections in order to maintain the desired course centerline
b. Information is also used for ground speed, improving time and fuel situational awareness
iii. The MFD can track and display various other pieces of information to greatly enhance situational
awareness. Depending on the system and installed options, the MDF can include options such as,
weather, traffic, time to waypoints/destination, terrain, airports, navaids, etc.
7. ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast) Basics
A. What is it?
i. Foundation for NextGen (moving from ground radar to satellites)
a. More precise tracking: Broadcasts every second vs a radar sweep every 5-12 seconds
b. Radar waves are limited to line-of-sight and installation sites
• ADS-B combines ground stations/satellites for better visibility regardless of terrain/obstacles
• ADS-B ground stations are much easier to install than radars
ii. ADS-B
a. Automatic: Automatically transmits information
b. Dependent: Position/velocity are derived from GPS/FMS
c. Surveillance: Allows 3D position and identification
d. Broadcast: Transmits the information to anyone with appropriate receiving equipment
iii. ADS-B Out
a. Broadcasts GPS location, altitude, ground speed and more to ground stations/other aircraft
iv. ADS-B In
a. General
• Pilots can see what controllers see in the air as well as on the ground (taxiways/runways)
• Provides weather and traffic position information directly to the cockpit
a Graphical weather displays, advisories (NOTAMs, weather, terrain, TFRs, etc.)
b. FIS-B (Flight Information Service Broadcast – available on 978 MHz UAT equipment)
• Like XM weather, but more information
• Textual/graphical weather products/flight info (SIGMET, PIREP, turbulence, lightning, etc.)
c. TIS-B (Traffic Information Service Broadcast – available to 1090ES and UAT equipment users)
• Provides traffic information on all transponder-based aircraft in the vicinity of the ADS-B
B. Who Needs it?
i. FAR 91.225 – Effective Jan 1, 2020, ADS-B OUT is required in:
a. Class A, B, and C airspace
• Above the ceiling of Class B and C airspace up to 10,000’ MSL
b. Up to 10,000’ MSL within 30 nm of the airports in Part 91 Appendix D, Section 1
• Numerous big airports
c. Class E airspace at and above 10,000’ MSL excluding at and below 2,500’ AGL
• At and above 3,000’ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico within 12 nm of the coast
ii. ADS-B IN is voluntary
iii. ADS-B Deviation Authorization
a. ADAPT, or ADS-B Deviation Authorization Preflight Tool – Must meet the following:

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V.B. Compliance with Departure, En Route, and Arrival Procedures and Clearances

• Must be equipped with operational transponder and altitude encoder

• Submit no more than 24 hours before flight and no less than 1 hour before flight
C. What do I need?
i. Straight from the FAA: Equip ADS-B Installation
ii. FAR 91.227 – ADS-B Out Equipment Performance Requirements

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to compliance with
departure, en route, and arrival procedures and clearances by describing:
1. Selection and use of current and appropriate navigation publications.
2. Pilot and controller responsibilities with regard to DPs, En Route Low and High-Altitude Charts, and
STARs.
3. Selection and use of appropriate communications frequencies.
4. Selection and identification of the navigation aids.
5. Accomplishment of the appropriate checklist items.
6. Pilot’s responsibility for compliance with vectors and also altitude, airspeed, climb, descent, and
airspace restrictions.
7. Pilot’s responsibility for the interception of courses, radials, and bearings appropriate to the procedure,
route, or clearance.
8. Procedures to be used in the event of two-way communications failure.
9. The uses of the multifunction display and other graphical navigational displays, if installed, to monitor
position track, wind drift, and other parameters to maintain situational awareness and desired
flightpath.

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VI. Flight by Reference to Instruments
VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight – Control & Performance

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to basic attitude instrument
flight and have the ability to smoothly and steadily control the airplane without the use of
outside references. The student will be able to perform this as required in the PTS / ACS.

Key Elements 1. Pitch + Power = Performance

2. Trim
3. Crosscheck
4. Adjust

Elements 1. Control and Performance

2. Establish
3. Trim
4. Crosscheck
5. Adjust
6. Straight-and-Level Flight
7. Constant Airspeed Climbs
8. Constant Airspeed Descents
9. Constant Rate Climbs
10. Constant Rate Descents
11. Turns to Headings

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can smoothly and steadily control the airplane by reference to the instruments
Standards only. He or she will be able to establish and maintain a thorough crosscheck and make the
required adjustments to the flight attitude.
VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Attitude instrument flying may be defined as the control of an aircraft’s spatial position by using instruments
rather than outside visual references.

Why
Flying without visual reference is dependent on the instruments. Your ability to fly IFR will depend on this.

Note
This lesson focuses on Basic Attitude Instrument Flight and the Control and Performance method. It
combines the PTS tasks required in section VI.A-E into a single lesson. Each lesson is then broken down
individually, while focusing specifically on the PTS requirements and the Primary and Supporting Method.

How:
1. Control and Performance
A. Performance is achieved by controlling attitude and power
i. Pitch + Power = Performance
B. The three general categories of instruments are control, performance, and navigation instruments
i. Control – Used to set Pitch and Power (Attitude indicator and power indicators)
a. Display immediate attitude and power indications and permit precise adjustments
ii. Performance – Indicate the aircraft’s actual performance
a. Determined by the Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, VSI, Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator
iii. Navigation - Indicate position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix
a. Determined by course indicators, range indicators, glide-slope indicators and bearing pointers
C. Procedural Steps
i. Establish - attitude / power setting on the control instruments to obtain the desired performance
a. Known or computed attitude changes and approximate power settings can reduce workload
ii. Trim - until control pressures are neutralized.
a. Trimming is essential for smooth, precise control and allows attention to be diverted elsewhere
iii. Crosscheck –performance instruments to determine if the desired performance is being obtained
a. If a deviation is noted, determine the correction necessary
iv. Adjust – the attitude and/or power settings on the control instruments as necessary
2. Establish
A. The control instruments are used to establish the necessary pitch, bank attitude, and power
i. Set the approximate pitch, bank, and power settings for the desired performance
B. Pitch and Bank Control
i. Accomplished using the Attitude Indicator
a. Provides an immediate, direct, and corresponding indication of any change in pitch or bank
b. Set the approximate pitch and bank required, and then fine tune
ii. Pitch attitude is changed by precise amounts in relation to the horizon

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iii. Bank attitude is changed by precise amounts in relation to the bank scale
iv. Common Error – Applying control inputs without reference to the Attitude Indicator
C. Power Control
i. Accomplished with throttle adjustments and reference to the power indicators
ii. Set the approximate throttle position, check the indicator(s), and then fine tune the setting
a. Don’t fixate on the indicator(s) while setting the power
b. Once set, little attention is necessary to ensure the power setting remains constant
3. Trim
A. Trim the plane for hands off flight
i. Trim to relieve control pressures - once close, fine tune with small trim changes
B. Common Error – Faulty Trim Procedures
i. Not trimming at all, or over/under controlling with trim
ii. Trim should be used to relieve control pressures, not to fly the airplane
4. Crosscheck
A. The continuous and logical observation of instruments for attitude and performance information
B. It is impossible to establish an attitude and have performance remain constant for a long period of time
i. Necessary to constantly monitor the instruments and make appropriate changes
C. Different Crosschecks
i. Select Radial Crosscheck (Most common crosscheck. Based off the Attitude Indicator)
a. Scan an instrument, return to the attitude indicator, scan the next instrument, return to the
attitude indicator, scan the next instrument, etc.
b. The only crosscheck discussed in the Instrument Flying Handbook for glass cockpit displays

ii. Inverted V Crosscheck (shown to the right)

a. Eyes move from the Attitude Indicator to
the Turn Coordinator, up to the Attitude
Indicator, to the VSI, and back to the
Attitude Indicator
iii. Rectangular Crosscheck (shown below, right)
a. Move across the top three instruments,
then drop down to scan the bottom three
b. Gives equal weight to each instrument,
regardless of the maneuver
c. Increases the time for your eyes to return
to a maneuver’s critical instrument

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VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

D. Crosscheck and Bank

i. Once established, check the Heading Indicator
and Turn Coordinator to ensure performance
E. Crosscheck and Pitch
i. Once established, check the Altimeter, VSI and
Airspeed Indicator to ensure performance
F. Crosscheck Errors
i. Common Error - Fixation
a. Staring at a single instrument (bank during a
turn, altimeter during a climb/descent, etc.)
b. Eliminates the crosscheck of other pertinent instruments
ii. Common Error - Omission
a. Omitting an instrument from the crosscheck
b. Whether forgetting to look at it, or not realizing its importance to the maneuver
iii. Common Error – Emphasis
a. Putting emphasis on a single instrument, instead of the necessary combination of instruments
b. You may naturally tend to rely on the instrument most understood
G. Instrument Interpretation
i. Understanding the instrument’s operating principles and applying this to aircraft performance
a. Basically, different aircraft have different pitch / power settings to obtain desired performance
ii. For each maneuver, learn what performance to expect and the combination of instruments to
interpret to control the aircraft
a. For pitch, use: the Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, VSI and Attitude Indicator
b. For bank, use: the Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator, and Attitude Indicator
5. Adjust
A. Make small, precise adjustments to the pitch and power instruments to obtain the desired performance
i. Restrict the Attitude Indicator’s displacement to ½ - 1 bar width movements up or down
ii. Use a bank angle that approximates the degrees to turn, not to exceed 30o
a. Or, estimate standard rate turns: TAS/10 + 5
iii. Fine tune power settings for the desired performance
B. Common Error – Incorrect interpretation of instruments and improper controls to correct
i. Ex: Using rudder to fix heading
ii. Understand each instrument’s operation, and how it impacts the desired maneuver/performance
6. *Straight-and-Level Flight

Pitch + Power = Desired Performance

Nose on Horizon + Cruise Power = Straight and Level
Control Performance
Pitch On Horizon Altimeter Constant
Bank Constant VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

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VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

A. Establish – Attitude Indicator: establish a no bank, level flight attitude; Power: set cruise power setting
B. Trim – Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors, retrim the airplane, continue the crosscheck
7. *Constant Airspeed Climbs

Pitch + Power = Desired Performance

10o Nose Up + Full Power = Constant Airspeed Climb
Control Performance
Pitch 10o Nose Up Altimeter Climbing
Bank Level VSI Positive Climb
Power Climb Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish
i. Raise the nose to the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb speed
ii. As the airspeed approaches the climb speed, set the power to the climb setting (full)
B. Trim – Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors as necessary and retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed (½ to 1 bar width movements)
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm climb is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish – Reduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck – VSI, Altimeter, and Attitude Indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight-and-level flight
8. *Constant Airspeed Descents
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
3o Nose Down + Descent Power = Constant Airspeed Descent
Control Performance
Pitch 3o Nose Down Altimeter Descending
Bank Level VSI Negative Climb
Power Descent Power Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
Pitch Bank
A. Establish A/I 3o Nose Down A/I Wings Level
Alt Descending Heading Ind Constant
i. Reduce/set powerVSI
for the descent, maintain straight-and-level
Negative Climb Compass
as airspeed decreases
Constant
ii. As the desired airspeed approaches, lower the nose to descend at that speed
B. Trim – Trim to relieveA/Sthe control pressures
Constant Descent Airspeed T/C Level/Coordinated
C. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors, retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm descent is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish – Introduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck – VSI, Altimeter, and Attitude Indicator should show level flight

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c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight-and-level flight

9. Constant Rate Climbs

Pitch + Power = Desired Performance

5-10o Nose Up + Full Power = Constant Rate Climb
Control Performance
Pitch 5-10o Nose Up Altimeter Climbing
Bank Level VSI Desired fpm
Power Climb Power Airspeed Varies w climb rate
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated

A. Establish
i. Raise the nose to the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb rate
a. 5-10o is an estimate, vary as required
ii. Simultaneously, smoothly set the power to the climb setting (full)
B. Trim – Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors as necessary and retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
i. Adjust the pitch attitude to maintain the desired climb airspeed (½ to 1 bar width movements)
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm climb is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish – Reduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck – VSI, Altimeter, and Attitude Indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight-and-level flight
10. Constant Rate Descents
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
1-3o Nose Down + Descent Power = Constant Rate Descent
Control Performance
Pitch 1-3o Nose Down Altimeter Descending
Bank Level VSI Desired FPM
Power Descent Power Airspeed Varies w descent rate
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
Pitch Bank
A. Establish A/I 3o Nose Down A/I Wings Level
Alt Descending Heading Ind Constant
i. Reduce power forVSIthe descentNegative Climb Compass Constant
ii. Lower the nose to descend at the desired rate
a. 1-3o is an estimated,
A/S vary as Descent
Constant required
Airspeed T/C Level/Coordinated
B. Trim – Trim to relieve the control pressures
C. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors, retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
E. Leveling Off
i. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed (Ex: 500 fpm descent is led by 50’)
ii. Use the same procedure to level off the plane
a. Establish – Introduce power and apply smooth steady elevator pressure toward a level attitude
b. Crosscheck – VSI, Altimeter, and Attitude Indicator should show level flight
c. Trim the airplane and maintain straight-and-level flight

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VI.A-E. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

11. *Turns to Headings

Pitch + Power = Desired Performance

Wings Banked/Nose Slightly High + Cruise Power = Turn to Heading
Control Performance
Pitch Nose Slightly High Altimeter Constant
Bank Wings Banked VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Turning
Turn Coord Banked/Coordinated

A. Prior to beginning, determine which direction the turn will be made and the angle of bank required
i. Generally, use an angle of bank equal to the number of degrees to turn, not to exceed 30o
ii. For a standard rate turn, estimate the bank angle using the following: TAS/10 + 5
B. Establish – establish the desired bank (coordinate aileron and rudder) and pitch on the attitude indicator
i. If standard rate, set the estimated bank angle, and double check it against the Turn Coordinator
ii. Adjust pitch (small increase) to maintain level flight
C. Trim – Trim the airplane
D. Crosscheck – consistent scan to recognize deviations from the desired performance
E. Adjust – Correct any performance errors, retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
F. Rolling Out
i. Apply coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to level the wings on the Attitude Indicator
a. Depending on the amount of turn, rollout about 10o before the desired heading
• Or, use ½ the bank angle or less for small turns
ii. During the rollout reduce pitch to return to level flight
a. Increase the scan when coordinating two movements (roll and pitch)

Common Errors:
• “Fixation,” “Omission,” and “Emphasis” errors during instrument crosscheck
• Improper instrument interpretation
• Improper control applications
• Failure to establish proper pitch, bank, or power adjustments during altitude, heading, or airspeed
corrections
• Faulty trim procedure

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

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VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to flying straight and level by
reference to only the instruments.

Key Elements 1. Primary Pitch: Altimeter

2. Primary Bank: Heading Indicator
3. Primary Power: Airspeed Indicator
4. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
Elements
1. Primary and Supporting Method
2. Pitch, Bank, and Power
3. Trim Technique
4. Partial Panel

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to maintain straight and level flight based on the instruments.
Standards
VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson covers the most fundamental piece of instrument flying, straight and level flight based solely on
the instruments

Why
Straight and level flight based on the instruments is the basis of all instrument flight. It’s very important in
developing your IFR abilities and instrument scan.

Note
Whereas the previous lesson (VI.A-E) focused on the Control and Performance method, the following
individual lessons focus on the Primary and Supporting method, and hit each of the CFII PTS requirements.

How:
1. Primary and Supporting Method
A. Direct extension of the control and performance method (discussed in VI.A-E Basic Attitude Instrument
Flight – Control and Performance)
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
ii. Focuses more on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the desired attitude
B. Attitude is established with the attitude indicator / power instruments, but each maneuver has specific
primary and supporting instruments
i. Primary: the instrument that gives the most pertinent information for a specific parameter
ii. Supporting: Show trend away from the desired parameter, but don’t provide a direct indication
a. Forewarn of an impending deviation
b. An efficient crosscheck catches and corrects these potential deviations early
2. Pitch, Bank, and Power
A. Pitch
i. Pitch Attitude: The angle between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon
a. Pitch varies with airspeed – slower speeds require a higher pitch attitude, and vice versa
b. At a constant airspeed, there is only one pitch attitude for level flight
ii. Pitch instruments: Attitude Indicator, Altimeter, VSI, and Airspeed Indicator
iii. Attitude Indicator
a. Direct indication of pitch attitude
b. Establish the required pitch attitude on the attitude indicator, trim to relieve control pressures
c. Adjustments are made using the elevators to raise/lower the aircraft in relation to the horizon
• Airspeed must be constant
• If adjusted properly on the ground, the mini aircraft should show level flight at normal cruise
d. Pitch adjustments by reference to instruments are much smaller than those for visual flight
• Make small, smooth pitch changes (pitch changes should be limited to ½ to 1 bar width)

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VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

iv. Altimeter (Primary pitch instrument during level flight)

a. At constant power/airspeed, any deviation from level flight is the result of a pitch change
• Therefore, the altimeter gives an indirect indication of the pitch attitude in level flight
b. At a constant airspeed, any change in altitude is corrected with a change in pitch
• If gaining altitude, lower the nose, and vice versa
c. Rate of control movement is as important as the direction of movement
• An excessive change in pitch results in a rapid change of altitude and vice versa
• Use small, smooth control inputs
d. Corrections
• Light control pressures should be used for a:
a Change of attitude to stop the needle movement, then a
b Change of attitude to return to the desired altitude
• When you observe that the needle movement indicates an altitude deviation, apply just
enough pressure to slow the rate of movement
a If it slows abruptly, ease off some of the pressure
b When the needle stops moving, you are in level flight
• Adjust the pitch attitude to return to the desired altitude
• Rule of Thumb:
a For errors less than 100’, use a half-bar-width correction
b For errors in excess of 100’, use an initial full-bar-width correction
v. VSI
a. Indirect indication of pitch attitude and is both a trend, and rate instrument
• Trend Instrument: Shows the initial vertical movement of the airplane which can be
considered a reflection of pitch change
b. To maintain level flight, use the VSI in coordination with the Altimeter and Attitude Indicator
• Note any trend of the needle and apply a very light corrective pressure
• As the needle returns to zero, relax the corrective pressure
c. Lag Characteristics (glass panel displays are instantaneous, no lag characteristics)
• Lag: The delay that occurs before the needle attains a stable indication after a pitch change
a If a slow, smooth pitch change is initiated, lag will be minimal
b If a large, abrupt change is initiated, erratic needle movement, reversal can/will occur
c Do not chase the needle in turbulent conditions
d. Altitude Correction Technique:
• Use a vertical speed that is double the altitude deviation, max of 500-1,000 fpm depending
on the aircraft’s performance abilities
• For example, if altitude is off by 100’ the correction should be at approximately 200 fpm
• When correcting back to an altitude the VSI is the primary pitch instrument
vi. Airspeed Indicator
a. Indirect indication of pitch attitude
b. At a constant power setting/pitch attitude, airspeed remains constant
c. As the pitch attitude lowers, airspeed increases and the nose should be raised, and vice versa
d. A rapid change in airspeed indicates a large change in pitch attitude
B. Bank
i. The angle between the lateral axis of the airplane and the horizon
a. To maintain straight flight, the wings of the airplane must be kept level with the horizon
b. Adjustments are made using coordinated aileron and rudder pressure
ii. Bank instruments: Attitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn coordinator

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VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

iii. Attitude Indicator

a. Direct indication of bank attitude
b. Keep the wings level
c. Only the primary instrument when attempting to fly a specific bank angle
iv. Heading Indicator (primary bank instrument in straight flight)
a. Indirect indication of bank
b. The rate of movement of the heading indicator indicates the amount of bank
c. When deviations from straight flight are found on the heading indicator:
• Correct to desired heading with a bank angle no greater than the degrees to be turned
• Or use a standard rate turn (standard rate bank estimate: TAS/10 + 5)
v. Turn Coordinator
a. Indirect indication of the bank
• When the mini aircraft is level, the airplane is in straight flight
b. Include in your cross check and correct for even the smallest deviations from desired position
c. Ball – Indicates the quality of the turn. If the ball is off center, the airplane is slipping or skidding
• If the ball is out of center, apply the necessary rudder pressure to return it to center
• At the same time, level the wings, and crosscheck the Heading and Attitude Indicators
C. Power
i. Any change in power results in a change in airspeed or altitude
a. At a given airspeed, power determines whether the airplane is in a climb, descent, or level
• Increasing power and keeping airspeed constant will result in a climb, and vice versa
• On the other hand, if altitude is held constant, then power will determine the airspeed
ii. The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the need for a change in pitch or power
a. If airspeed is high or low, check the altimeter before deciding a power change is needed
• Altitude and Airspeed are interchangeable:
a Trade altitude for airspeed by lowering the nose, and airspeed for altitude by raising it
• If altitude is high and airspeed low, or vice versa, a change in pitch can fix both problems
• If both airspeed and power are high or low, then a change in pitch and power are needed
iii. Airspeed changes / power control is much easier when approximate power settings are known
a. Set the approximate power required and fine tune as necessary
iv. When changing power, pitch, bank, and power must be coordinated to maintain altitude/heading
a. When you increase power, pitch instrument will show a climb – forward elevator is needed
b. The airplane will tend to yaw and roll left unless you apply corrective pressures
c. Keeping ahead of these changes requires an increase in crosscheck speed
D. Primary and Supporting Recap
i. Pitch
a. Primary: Altimeter
b. Supporting: Attitude indicator, VSI, airspeed indicator
ii. Bank
a. Primary: Heading indicator
b. Supporting: Attitude indicator, turn coordinator
iii. Power
a. Primary: Airspeed indicator
b. Supporting: Power instruments (RPM, manifold pressure, etc.)

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3. Trim Technique
A. Establish the desired attitude, then trim to relieve control pressures (do not fly the plane with trim)
B. In most cases, a change in attitude, power, or configuration will require a trim adjustment
4. Partial Panel
A. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
i. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI, Magnetic Compass
ii. Very important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
B. Pitch
i. Altimeter is primary for pitch, so you still have the info needed to maintain level flight
a. Without the Attitude Indicator, there is no direct pitch indication

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VI.A. Straight-and-Level Flight

b. Use the altimeter in coordination with the airspeed indicator and VSI
c. Make pitch corrections by reference to the rate of change of the instruments
ii. Very important to use small, gentle pressures. Do not overcontrol or chase the instrument(s)
C. Bank
i. Without the Heading Indicator, use the Compass and Turn Coordinator to maintain heading
ii. For straight flight, keep the mini airplane in the turn coordinator as level as possible
iii. Use the magnetic compass for heading indications (if swinging, average the readings)
iv. Use timed standard rate turns to return to the desired heading
a. Ex. 10o off desired heading = 3 second standard rate turn

Common Errors
• Slow or improper crosscheck during straight and level flight
• Improper power control
• Failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of teaching straight-and-level flight by describing-
A. the relationship of pitch, bank, and power in straight-and-level flight.
B. procedure using full panel and partial panel.
C. coordination of controls and trim.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to straight-and-level flight by describing-
A. slow or improper cross-check during straight-and-level flight.
B. improper power control.
C. failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required.
D. uncoordinated use of controls.
E. improper trim control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight-and-level flight from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight-and-level flight.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

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VI.B. Turns

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to completing standard rate
turns in instrument conditions.

Key Elements 1. Standard Rate = 3o per second

2. Standard Rate Bank Angle = TAS/10 + 5
3. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
Elements
1. Primary and Supporting Method
2. True Airspeed and Angle of Bank
3. Constant Rate Turn
4. Coordination of Controls and Trim

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands what a standard rate turn is, how to approximate the bank angle
Standards required for a standard rate turn, and how to enter and recover from the turn.
VI.B. Turns

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A standard rate turn is a turn at a rate of 3o per second.

Why
A standard rate turn is the basis for all IFR turns, it provides a safe, standard rate of turn for all aircraft to use.

How:
1. Primary and Supporting Method
A. Direct extension of the control and performance method (discussed in VI.A-E Basic Attitude Instrument
Flight – Control and Performance)
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
ii. Focuses more on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the desired attitude
B. Attitude is established with the attitude indicator / power instruments, but each maneuver has specific
primary and supporting instruments
i. Primary: the instrument that gives the most pertinent information for the specific maneuver
ii. Supporting: Show trend away from the desired performance, but don’t provide a direct indication
a. Forewarn of an impending deviation
b. Crosschecking the supporting instruments helps to catch and correct potential deviations
2. True Airspeed and Angle of Bank
A. Rate of turn varies with true airspeed and angle of bank
i. The rate of turn at any given airspeed depends on the amount of sideward force causing the turn
a. That is, the horizontal component of lift
ii. This varies directly in proportion to the bank in a coordinated turn
a. At a given airspeed, rate of turn increases as bank angle increases, and turn radius decreases
iii. As airspeed increases, the turn rate gets slower and the turn radius gets larger
iv. A reduction in airspeed, or an increase in bank angle, will result in a faster rate and smaller radius
B. Estimate angle of bank for a standard rate turn by dividing TAS by 10 and adding 5 to the result
i. Ex. Standard Rate Turn at 110 knots = 11 + 5, or 16o
ii. Standard Rate = 3o per second
iii. There are various formulas for estimating the angle of bank for a standard rate turn. Use whichever
one works best for you and your aircraft:
a. TAS/10 + 5; TAS/10 + 7; 15% of TAS
3. Constant Rate Turn
A. Entry
i. Use the Attitude Indicator to establish the approximate angle of bank for a standard rate turn
a. The Attitude Indicator is primary for bank while rolling into the turn
ii. The Turn Coordinator indicates a standard rate turn; maintain this bank angle throughout the turn
a. The Turn Coordinator is the primary instrument for bank reference while in the turn
b. Note the degree of bank when the Turn Coordinator shows a standard rate turn, and maintain it

189
VI.B. Turns

iii. Altimeter is primary for pitch because there is not an intended change in altitude
iv. Bank Control – Discussed above in part 2. True Airspeed and Angle of Bank
v. Pitch Control
a. Due to the loss of vertical lift, the nose will tend to pitch down and back pressure is needed
b. Scan your pitch instruments during the roll in, roll out, and through the turn
• Attitude Indicator: Watch to ensure you are holding the intended pitch
• VSI: Watch for pitch deviations
• Altimeter: Ensure the altitude remains constant
vi. Power Control
a. Airspeed decreases in level turns because the increased AOA results in increased induced drag
b. To maintain airspeed, additional power is needed
c. Cross check the instruments to ensure you maintain your airspeed as well as pitch and bank
vii. Once established, trim the airplane, continue the crosscheck, adjust as necessary, repeat
B. Recovery
i. To stop the turn on the desired heading lead the roll-out by approximately ½ the angle of bank
ii. Used coordinate rudder and aileron pressure to roll out
iii. As you initiate the recovery, the Attitude Indicator becomes the primary bank instrument
iv. When approximately level, the Heading Indicator is the primary bank instrument
C. Half Standard Rate Turn
i. Performed the same as a standard rate turn except divide the bank angle in half
ii. Use the Turn Coordinator to maintain ½ standard rate turn

D. Partial Panel
i. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
a. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI, Magnetic Compass
b. Very important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
ii. Establish a standard rate turn using the turn coordinator
a. For small turns, or corrections back to a heading use timed standard rate turns
• For example, a 10o heading change = 3 second standard rate turn
b. For larger turns, use the compass and adjust for compass errors (ANDS, UNOS)
iii. Overall crosscheck has to accelerate
a. Not a normal crosscheck due to inoperative instruments / including the compass
b. Do not fixate on the turn coordinator or compass, monitor altitude and airspeed as well
4. Coordination of Controls and Trim
A. Throughout any turn ensure the ball remains centered and make necessary corrections as needed

190
VI.B. Turns

B. Once the controls pressures have been established, trim to relieve them

Common Errors
• Improper cross check procedures
• Improper bank control during roll-in and roll-out
• Failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of teaching turns by describing-
A. the relationship of true airspeed and angle of bank to a standard rate turn.
B. technique and procedure using full panel and partial panel for entry and recovery of a constant
rate turn, including the performance of a half-standard rate turn.
C. coordination of controls and trim.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to turns by describing-
A. improper cross-check procedures.
B. improper bank control during roll-in and roll-out.
C. failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required.
D. uncoordinated use of controls.
E. improper trim technique.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains turns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to turns.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

191
VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to adjusting airspeed in
different flight conditions and configurations.

Key Elements 1. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

2. Higher speed = lower pitch; Lower speed = higher pitch
3. Scan, Scan, Scan

Elements 1. Primary and Supporting Method

2. Changing Airspeed in Straight-and-Level Flight
3. Changing Airspeed in Turning Flight
4. Coordination of Controls and Trim

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to change airspeed with no other effect on level flight or turning
Standards flight.
VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
As airspeed is increased or decreased lift is increased or decreased in tandem. If adjustments are not made
for changes in speed altitude will suffer. This lesson will explain how to adjust for changes in airspeed in
straight and level and turning flight.

Why
This is necessary in order to obtain a better understanding of how an airplane performs at different speeds
and the required control inputs necessary to maintain altitude. The student also will obtain a better feel for
the aircraft and its abilities.

How:
1. Primary and Supporting Method
A. Direct extension of the control and performance method (discussed in VI.A-E Basic Attitude Instrument
Flight – Control and Performance)
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
ii. Focuses more on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the desired attitude
B. Attitude is established with the attitude indicator / power instruments, but each maneuver has specific
primary and supporting instruments
i. Primary: the instrument that gives the most pertinent information for a specific parameter
ii. Supporting: Show trend away from the desired parameter, but don’t provide a direct indication
a. Forewarn of an impending deviation
b. An efficient crosscheck catches and corrects these potential deviations early
2. Changing Airspeed in Straight-and-Level Flight
A. Full Panel
i. Decreased Speed

a. Decrease power to the desired level (Usually lower than the power that will be required)
b. A reduction in power / airspeed will require an increase in pitch / lift to maintain altitude

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VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight

•As the airspeed begins to slow, increase back pressure to maintain altitude
a Trim to relieve control pressures
• If gear or flaps are being extended, adjust the pitch as necessary to maintain the altitude
c. Rate of crosscheck must be increased to maintain altitude / bank while reducing airspeed
d. As the aircraft approaches the desired speed, increase power to capture that speed
ii. Increased Speed (same concept as the picture below, but with increasing airspeed)
a. Same concept as above, but increase power and lower the nose as the airplane accelerates
b. Trim to relive pressures and increase the speed of the crosscheck
c. Approaching the desired speed, decrease power to capture that speed
B. Partial Panel
i. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
a. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI Magnetic Compass
b. Very important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
ii. Changing Airspeed
a. Same process as above, although with a different scan due to inoperative instruments
b. Altimeter is primary for altitude control
• If in a climb or descent, first establish level flight (adjust pitch to freeze the altimeter), then
gently correct back to altitude
a Avoid large pitch changes – tendency to chase the altitude
c. Use the Magnetic Compass and Turn Coordinator to maintain heading
• Keep the miniature airplane as level as possible
• Before making adjustments, give the Magnetic Compass time to stabilize
a If the compass is swinging, use the average heading
b Correct back to the desired heading with standard rate turns
1. Standard rate = 3o per second (Ex. 10o off would require a 3 second turn)
3. Changing Airspeed in Turning Flight
A. Full Panel
i. Proper execution requires rapid cross check and interpretation as well as smooth control
a. Altimeter is primary for pitch
b. Miniature aircraft of the Turn Coordinator is primary for bank (standard rate turn)
c. Manifold pressure gauge is primary for power while the airspeed is changing
• As the airplane reaches the desired speed, Airspeed Indicator becomes primary for power
ii. The angle of bank necessary for a specific rate of turn is proportional to airspeed
a. To maintain standard rate, as airspeed is reduced, bank angle must be reduced and vice versa
b. Pitch must also change to maintain altitude – slower speeds require higher pitch and vice versa
iii. Two Methods for Changing Airspeed in Turns
a. Airspeed is changed after the turn is established
• Roll to the approximate bank angle for a standard rate turn, fine tune as necessary
• Set the power for the desired airspeed
• Crosscheck to maintain a standard rate turn, and altitude
a Adjust bank if the mini aircraft of the Turn Coordinator does not show standard rate
1. Increasing airspeed requires increasing bank, and vice versa
b Crosscheck the altimeter and VSI for pitch changes and to maintain altitude
1. Increasing airspeed requires a decreased pitch attitude, and vice versa
• Trim to relive control pressures
a Control pressures change through the acceleration/deceleration, trim will also change
• When approaching the desired airspeed, set the power to maintain that speed

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VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight

b. Airspeed is changed simultaneously with the turn entry

• Establish both the standard rate bank angle and power for the desired airspeed
• Continue with the same procedures as above
c. In both methods, the rate of crosscheck increases as the power is changed

B. Partial Panel
i. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
a. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI, Magnetic Compass
b. Very important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
ii. Use the Turn Coordinator to establish and maintain the standard rate turn
iii. Without the Attitude Indicator, use the Airspeed Indicator, VSI, and altimeter to maintain altitude
iv. As in all partial panel situations, the scan rate must be increased
v. Use the Magnetic Compass to roll out of the turn
a. Be aware of Magnetic Compass errors – ANDS, UNOS
4. Coordination of Controls and Trim
A. Trim is important to relieve control pressures (do not fly the airplane with trim)
B. Maintain coordination during the turn with aileron and rudder pressures

Common Errors
• Slow or improper crosscheck during straight and level flight and turns
• Improper power control
• Failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of teaching change of airspeed in straight-and-level flight and turns by
describing-

195
VI.C. Change of Airspeed in Straight-and-Level and Turning Flight

A. procedure using full panel and partial panel for maintaining altitude and changing airspeed in
straight-and-level and turning flight.
B. coordination of controls and trim technique.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to changes of airspeed in straight-and-level
and turning flight by describing-
A. slow or improper cross-check during straight-and-level flight and turns.
B. improper power control.
C. failure to make smooth, precise corrections, as required.
D. uncoordinated use of controls.
E. improper trim technique.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains changes of airspeed in straight-and-level and turning flight
from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to changes of airspeed in straight-and-level
and turning flight.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

196
VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to constant airspeed climbs
and descents in both straight flight and turning flight.

Key Elements 1. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

2. 10% Rule
3. Scan, Scan, Scan

Elements 1. Primary and Supporting Method

2. Constant Airspeed Straight Climb
3. Constant Airspeed Turning Climb
4. Constant Airspeed Straight Descent
5. Constant Airspeed Turning Descent

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the concepts behind constant airspeed climbs and is competent in
Standards performing them.
VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson will discuss the ability to climb and descend at a constant airspeed and maintain that airspeed
throughout the climb and in a turn.

Why
Aircraft specific speeds are published for performance as well as safety reasons. In order to obtain this
performance and remain safe, a consistent speed must be able to be maintained.

How:
1. Primary and Supporting Method
A. Direct extension of the control and performance method (discussed in VI.A-E Basic Attitude Instrument
Flight – Control and Performance)
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
ii. Focuses more on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the desired attitude
B. Attitude is established with the attitude indicator / power instruments, but each maneuver has specific
primary and supporting instruments
i. Primary: the instrument that gives the most pertinent information for a specific parameter
ii. Supporting: Show trend away from the desired parameter, but don’t provide a direct indication
a. Forewarn of an impending deviation
b. An efficient crosscheck catches and corrects these potential deviations early
2. Constant Airspeed Straight Climbs
A. The objective is to maintain a specific airspeed at a specific power setting during a climb
B. General
i. Establish power and pitch for the desired airspeed and accept the resulting rate of climb
a. Raise the mini aircraft to the approximate nose high indication for the desired climb speed
b. Power may be advanced to the climb power setting simultaneously with the pitch change, or
after the pitch is established and the airspeed approaches the climb speed
ii. During the pitch transition, the attitude indicator is the primary pitch instrument
iii. Once established in the climb, the airspeed indicator is the primary pitch instrument
a. This is because the airspeed indications dictate whether pitch adjustments are necessary
iv. Once established, trim the aircraft and continue the crosscheck adjusting as necessary (more below)
v. Airspeed Corrections
a. Pitch adjusts the airspeed during a constant power climb
• If the airspeed is too slow, lower the pitch attitude to regain the desired airspeed
• If the airspeed is too high, increase the pitch attitude
b. Use small, controlled pitch movements to correct to / maintain the desired airspeed
• ½ to 1 bar movements

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VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

C. Stabilized Climb
i. At a constant airspeed / attitude, the Airspeed Indicator is primary for pitch and the Heading
Indicator is primary for bank
a. Monitor the tachometer / Manifold Pressure to ensure power is as desired
ii. If the pitch attitude is correct for the power setting, airspeed will stabilize at the appropriate speed
a. If the airspeed is high or low, make the appropriate small pitch correction

D. Level Off
i. Start the level off prior to reaching the desired altitude
a. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed
ii. Apply smooth and steady forward elevator toward the level flight pitch attitude
a. As pitch decreases, the VSI will approach 0, and the altimeter’s rate of movement will decrease
b. Airspeed will begin to increase
iii. As airspeed increases toward cruise speed, continue to gently reduce pitch to maintain altitude
iv. Approaching cruise speed, reduce power to the cruise setting and trim for level flight
E. Partial Panel
i. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
a. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI, Magnetic Compass

199
VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

b. Extremely important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
ii. Partial panel climb entries tend to be easier / more accurate if entered at the climb airspeed
a. Slow the airplane to the climb airspeed, then smoothly establish the climb power setting
b. Use the Altimeter, VSI, and Airspeed Indicator to make pitch changes
• None of these instruments are direct indications of pitch, so it is very important to use
smooth, small control inputs and allow time for the changes to take effect
iii. Once established, the airspeed indicator is the primary instrument for pitch
a. The rate of movement of the altimeter can also provide indirect pitch information
b. Include the compass and turn coordinator in your crosscheck to maintain heading
iv. Level Off
a. Like normal, lead the level off by 10% of the vertical speed
b. Apply smooth, steady forward pressure
• Small control movements are especially necessary without the attitude indicator
c. Monitor the airspeed indicator, altimeter and VSI to return to level flight
d. Approaching cruise speed, reduce power to the cruise setting
3. Constant Airspeed Turning Climb
A. For climbing turns, combine the straight climbs with the turn techniques in lesson VI.B. Turns
B. The rate of crosscheck and interpretation must be increased to keep up with changes in pitch and bank
4. Constant Airspeed Straight Descent
A. Entry (same process as the above pictures, but in a descent)
i. Reduce power and maintain altitude to slow to descent speed
ii. Approaching descent speed, establish the pitch attitude for the descent (and power, if necessary)
a. Make small pitch adjustments as necessary to fine tune the airspeed
b. Trim to relive the control pressures
c. Crosscheck correcting any deviations
B. Stabilized Descent (same process as the above pictures, but in a descent)
i. The Airspeed Indicator is primary for pitch and the Heading Indicator is primary for bank
ii. Any deviation from the desired airspeed requires a pitch adjustment, power should remain constant
C. Level Off
i. The level off must be started prior to reaching the desired altitude
ii. *To level off at cruise airspeed, set cruise power 100-150’ prior to level off (varies based on aircraft)
iii. To level off at descent airspeed, lead the desired altitude by 10% of the vertical speed
a. Simultaneously adjust pitch to obtain level flight and power to maintain airspeed
iv. Trim the airplane for level flight
D. Partial Panel
i. Loss of gyro / AHRS instruments (attitude indicator and heading indicator)
a. Remaining instruments: Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, Turn Coordinator, VSI, Magnetic Compass
b. Extremely important to use gentle pressure and wait for results on the primary instruments
ii. Slow the airplane to the descent airspeed, then smoothly establish the descent pitch attitude
a. Use the Altimeter, VSI, and Airspeed Indicator to make pitch changes
• None of these instruments are direct indications of pitch, so it is very important to use
smooth, small control inputs and allow time for the changes to take effect
iii. Once established, the airspeed indicator is the primary instrument for pitch
a. Make small pitch changes to maintain the descent airspeed
b. Include the compass and turn coordinator in your crosscheck to maintain heading
iv. Level Off
a. Like normal, lead the level off by approximately 10% of the vertical speed
b. Apply smooth, steady back pressure

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VI.D. Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents

• Small control movements are especially necessary without the attitude indicator
c. Monitor the airspeed indicator, altimeter and VSI to return to level flight
d. Simultaneously increase power to accelerate to cruise speed
• Power can be increased simultaneously with pitch, or, to level off at a higher airspeed,
increase power prior to the pitch change
e. Trim the airplane for level flight
5. Constant Airspeed Turning Descents
A. For descending turns, combine the straight descent with the turn techniques in lesson VI.B. Turns
B. The rate of crosscheck and interpretation must be increased to keep up with changes in pitch and bank

Common Errors
• Failure to use a proper power setting and pitch attitude
• Improper correction of vertical rate, airspeed, heading, or rate-of-turn errors
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of constant airspeed climbs and descents by describing-
A. procedure using full panel and partial panel for an entry into a straight climb or climbing turn,
from either cruising or climbing airspeed.
B. a stabilized straight climb or climbing turn.
C. a level-off from a straight climb or climbing turn, at either cruising or climbing airspeed.
D. procedure using full panel and partial panel for an entry into a straight descent or descending turn
from either cruising or descending airspeed.
E. a stabilized straight descent or descending turn.
F. a level-off from a straight descent or descending turn, at either cruising or descending airspeed.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to constant airspeed climbs and descents by
describing-
A. failure to use a proper power setting and pitch attitude.
B. improper correction of vertical rate, airspeed, heading, or rate-of-turn errors.
C. uncoordinated use of controls.
D. improper trim control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a constant airspeed climb and a constant airspeed descent
from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to constant airspeed climbs and descents.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

201
VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to maintaining a constant rate
of climb whether flying straight or in a turn.

Key Elements 1. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

2. 10% Rule
3. Scan, Scan, Scan

Elements 1. Primary and Supporting Method

2. Constant Rate Straight Climbs
3. Constant Rate Climbing Turns
4. Constant Rate Straight Descents
5. Constant Rate Descending Turns

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the concepts behind constant rate climbs and is competent in
Standards performing them.
VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson will discuss the ability to climb and descend at a constant rate and maintaining that rate whether
straight or in a turn.

Why
Maintaining a constant rate is most often used in descents. A stable rate will allow better descent and climb
planning as well as increase the pilot’s scan and flying abilities.

How:
1. Primary and Supporting Method
A. Direct extension of the control and performance method (discussed in VI.A-E Basic Attitude Instrument
Flight – Control and Performance)
i. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
ii. Focuses more on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the desired attitude
B. Attitude is established with the attitude indicator / power instruments, but each maneuver has specific
primary and supporting instruments
i. Primary: the instrument that gives the most pertinent information for a specific parameter
ii. Supporting: Show trend away from the desired parameter, but don’t provide a direct indication
a. Forewarn of an impending deviation
b. An efficient crosscheck catches and corrects these potential deviations early
2. Constant Rate Straight Climbs
A. Objective is to maintain a specific rate of climb on the VSI, while controlling airspeed
i. Generally used for short climbs, within 1,000’ of your altitude
a. Constant airspeed climbs are much more common
B. General
i. Pitch controls the rate of climb and power controls airspeed
ii. During the pitch transition, the Attitude Indicator is the primary pitch instrument
iii. Once established in the climb, the VSI is the primary pitch instrument
a. Use pitch to maintain the desired VSI (increased pitch = increased rate of climb, and vice versa)
iv. VSI may lag 6 seconds or more; Use the Airspeed Indicator for pitch changes until the VSI stabilizes
a. Not applicable to glass cockpit displays with instantaneous VSI indications
C. Entry
i. Use the attitude indicator to establish the approximate pitch attitude for the desired climb rate
a. Apply gentle back elevator pressure to initiate and maintain the climb attitude
ii. Power may be advanced to the climb power setting simultaneously with the pitch change, or after
the pitch is established and the airspeed approaches the climb speed
iii. Once the VSI stabilizes, fine tune the climb rate with small pitch changes
iv. Trim to relieve control pressures

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VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

D. Stabilized Climb
i. Once stabilized at a constant rate, the VSI is primary for pitch and the Heading Indicator for bank
ii. The airspeed Indicator is primary for power, if it indicates low, increase power
a. If additional power is not available, pitch will have to be adjusted, which will affect rate of climb
• In this case, the airplane cannot maintain the desired rate in its current state
a Affected by altitude, weight, power, etc.
iii. If the climb attitude is correct for the power setting, the VS will stabilize at the appropriate rate
a. If VS is too low, increase back pressure; if it’s too high, decrease back pressure
b. Use small pitch corrections, the VSI is sensitive – do not chase the indications
iv. Crosscheck the primary and supporting instruments, correcting as necessary

E. Level Off
i. It will be necessary to start the level off before reaching the desired altitude
a. Lead the altitude by 10% of the vertical speed being used
ii. Apply smooth / steady forward elevator toward the level flight attitude for the current speed
a. Maintain the climb power setting during the transition to level flight

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VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

iii. The VSI will move toward 0, altimeter movement will slow, and airspeed will begin to accelerate
iv. As the airspeed accelerates, adjust pitch to maintain altitude
v. Approaching cruise speed, reduce power to the cruise setting
vi. Trim for level flight
F. Partial Panel
i. Entry – Partial panel climb entries are easier / more accurate if entered at the climb airspeed
a. Slow the airplane to the climb airspeed, then establish the climb power setting
b. Simultaneously pitch to attain the desired vertical speed
• Use small, controlled pitch inputs as the VSI may lag and is sensitive to pitch changes
• Keep a constant crosscheck and continue to fine tune pitch
ii. Stabilized Climb
a. VSI is the primary pitch instrument once established in the constant rate climb
b. Further pitch changes are based off the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed Indicator
c. Monitor heading on the compass and turn coordinator
iii. Level Off
a. Gently lower the nose toward level flight, increasing the crosscheck to monitor performance
b. As airspeed increases, continue to lower the nose to maintain altitude
c. Once established in level flight, trim the airplane
3. Constant Rate Climbing Turns
A. For constant rate climbing turns, combine the straight climbs with the turn techniques in VI.B. Turns
B. The rate of crosscheck and interpretation must be increased to keep up with changes in pitch and bank
4. Constant Rate Straight Descent
A. Objective is to maintain a specific rate of descent on the VSI, while controlling airspeed
B. General
i. Pitch controls the rate of descent and power controls airspeed
ii. During the pitch transition, the Attitude Indicator is the primary pitch instrument
iii. In the descent, VSI is the primary pitch instrument / Airspeed Indicator is primary power instrument
a. Use pitch to maintain the desired VSI (lower pitch = greater rate of descent, and vice versa)
iv. VSI may lag 6 seconds or more; Use the Airspeed Indicator for pitch changes until the VSI stabilizes
a. Not applicable to glass cockpit displays with instantaneous VSI indications
C. Entry
i. Reduce power and simultaneously lower the nose to the approximate pitch attitude for the descent
a. As mentioned, the VSI may lag – use the Airspeed Indicator as necessary until the VSI stabilized
b. Fine tune the pitch attitude to obtain the desired vertical speed
ii. Trim to relieve control pressures
D. Stabilized Descent
i. VSI is the primary pitch instrument
a. Adjust pitch to maintain the desired vertical speed
ii. Airspeed Indicator is primary for power – If speed is too slow, add power, and vice versa
iii. Heading indicator is the primary bank instrument
iv. Crosscheck the primary and supporting instruments, correcting as necessary
E. Level Off
i. The level off must be started prior to reaching the desired altitude
ii. *To level off at cruise airspeed, set cruise power 100-150’ prior to level off (varies based on aircraft)
iii. Use the 10% rule to begin the level off (lead the desired altitude by 10% of the vertical speed)
a. Attitude indicator is the primary pitch instrument during the level off
• Increase pitch to maintain level flight, as airspeed increases adjust pitch to maintain altitude
iv. Trim for level flight

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VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

F. Partial Panel Entry

i. Entry
a. Reduce power, and slow the airplane to the descent airspeed
b. Approaching descent airspeed, pitch to attain the desired vertical speed and fine tune power
• Without the attitude indicator, use the VSI, and altimeter to establish the descent attitude
• Use small, controlled pitch inputs as the VSI may lag and is sensitive to pitch changes
• Keep a constant crosscheck and continue to fine tune pitch
• Trim the airplane for the descent
ii. Stabilized Descent
a. Primary instruments are the same as a normal descent
b. Pitch changes are based off the VSI and supporting Altimeter
c. Power changes are based off the Airspeed Indicator
d. Monitor heading on the compass and turn coordinator
iii. Level Off
a. Like normal, lead the level off by approximately 10% of the vertical speed
b. Gently raise the nose toward level flight while increasing power
• Small control movements are especially necessary without the attitude indicator
• To level off at a higher airspeed, increase power prior to beginning the level off
c. Monitor the airspeed indicator, altimeter and VSI to return to level flight
d. Trim the airplane for level flight
5. Constant Rate Descending Turns
A. For constant rate descending turns, combine the straight descent with the turn techniques in VI.B. Turns
B. The rate of crosscheck and interpretation must be increased to keep up with changes in pitch and bank

Common Errors
• Failure to use a proper power setting and pitch attitude
• Improper correction of vertical rate, airspeed, heading, or rate-of-turn errors
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of constant rate climbs and descents by describing-
A. procedure using full panel and partial panel for an entry into a constant rate climb or descent.
B. a stabilized constant rate straight climb or climbing turn, using the vertical speed indicator.
C. a level-off from a constant rate straight climb or climbing turn.
D. an entry into a constant rate straight descent or descending turn.
E. a stabilized constant rate straight descent or descending turn using the vertical speed indicator.
F. level-off from a constant rate straight descent or descending turn.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to constant rate climbs and descents by
describing-
A. failure to use a proper power setting and pitch attitude.
B. improper correction of vertical rate, airspeed, heading, or rate-of-turn errors.
C. uncoordinated use of controls.

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VI.E. Constant Rate Climbs and Descents

D. improper trim control.

3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a constant rate climb and a constant rate descent from an
instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to constant rate climbs and descents.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

207
VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Compass Headings

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to magnetic compass errors
and using a compass for heading information.

Key Elements 1. North Lags

2. South Leads
3. UNOS – Undershoot N, Overshoot S
4. ANDS – Accelerate N, Decelerate S
Elements
1. Magnetic Compass
2. Timed Turns

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to compensate for errors in the compass and can competently
Standards make turns to various headings using the magnetic compass.
VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Headings

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The magnetic compass is not as simple as a heading indicator when making turns. This lesson describes the
operation of the magnetic compass and its innate errors as well as how to overcome them in flight.

Why
In the case you lost your gyro instruments (specifically the heading indicator) you would need to turn to the
magnetic compass for heading information. It is very important you understand its operation so that you can
competently navigate the aircraft.

How:
1. Magnetic Compass
A. Operation
i. Two small magnets attached to a metal float sealed inside a bowl of clear compass fluid
ii. A card is wrapped around the float and visible from the outside with a lubber line
a. Lubber Line: The reference line used in a magnetic compass or heading indicator
iii. The float/card has a steel pivot in the center riding inside a spring loaded, hard glass jewel cup
a.
The jewel and pivot mount allow the float to rotate and tilt up to approximately 18o
iv. The magnets align with the Earth’s magnetic field and direction is read opposite the lubber line
a. The pilot always sees the compass card from its backside (the card stays
stationary and the pilot turns around it)
• For this reason, headings appear backward on the compass
• When flying N, E is shown left of the lubber line vs right in actuality
b. Technique: Don’t turn toward the heading as displayed on the compass,
instead move the desired heading to the lubber line
B. Errors
i. Variation
a. Caused by the difference in the locations of the magnetic and geographic north pole
• The magnetic north pole is not collocated with the geographic north pole
• They’re approximately 1300 miles apart
b. Isogonic Lines: Lines used to connect points with the same magnetic variation

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VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Headings

c. Agonic Line: The line along which the two poles are aligned, and there is no variation

ii. Deviation
a. Caused by local magnetic fields within the aircraft
• Not affected by geographic location (like variation)
b. Degrees of deviation is shown on a compass correction card
• Different on each heading; can be minimized by “swinging the compass”
c. Compensator units (magnets that compensate for deviation) can also help
iii. Finding the Compass Course – True Course corrected for Variation and Deviation
a. True Course ± Variation = Magnetic Course; Magnetic Course ± Deviation = Compass Course
b. Remember: East is Least, West is Best
• East: Subtract variation from true course; West: Add variation to true course
iv. Dip Errors
a. What’s Going On
• Lines of magnetic flux leave the Earth at the magnetic N pole/enter at magnetic S pole
a At both poles the lines are perpendicular to the surface
b Over the equator the lines are parallel to the surface
• Magnets align with these fields and near the poles they dip/tilt the float and card
b. Northerly and Southerly Turning Errors (basically, the compass pulls toward the North)
• Starting a turn from a Southerly heading (turning to a Northerly direction):
a Compass Leads – initially shows a more aggressive turn in the same direction
b As the aircraft banks, the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the card
in the direction of the turn (toward the North)
c Undershoot Northerly headings to compensate (30o- N; 20o- 030/330; 10o- 060/300)
• Starting a turn from a Northerly heading (turning to a Southerly direction):
a Compass Lags – initially shows a turn in the opposite direction
b As the aircraft banks the compass card tilts with it, and the magnetic field pulls the card
opposite the direction of turn (back toward the North)
c Overshoot Southerly headings to compensate (30o- S; 20o- 150/210; 10o- 120/240)
• Remember: Undershoot North, Overshoot South (no compensation needed for E/W)
c. Acceleration Error (only applicable on East and West headings)

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VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Headings

• Due to the pendulous-type mounting, the aft end of the compass tilts up when accelerating
and down when decelerating
• On an E or W heading, acceleration
appears as a turn to the North, and
deceleration indicates a turn
toward the South
• Remember: ANDS – Accelerate
North, Decelerate South
v. Oscillation Error
a. A combination of all the other errors as
well as the movement of the plane
• It results in the compass card swinging back and forth around the heading being flown
b. Use the average indication
2. Timed Turns
A. General
i. Clock and turn coordinator are used to change heading a specific number of degrees in a given time
a. Ex: In a standard rate turn, the plane turns 45o in 15 seconds, half standard = 45o in 30 seconds
ii. Same control / crosscheck as a normal turn, except the clock replaces the heading indicator
iii. Mini aircraft of the turn coordinator is primary for bank
iv. Altimeter is primary for pitch
v. Airspeed Indicator is primary for power
B. Turn Coordinator Calibration (depicted, right)
i. Prior to performing timed turns, calibrate the
turn coordinator to determine its accuracy
ii. Note the heading, and establish a standard rate
turn as the second hand of a clock passes a
cardinal direction (12, 3, 6, 9)
iii. Hold standard rate and note heading changes
every 10 seconds (should be 30o of turn)
iv. If the amount of turn is more or less than 30o,
adjust bank to obtain standard rate
v. Check the standard rate bank in both directions,
use the corrected bank angle for all timed turns
C. Full Panel Timed Turn

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VI.F. Timed Turns to Magnetic Headings

i. Establish a standard rate turn on the turn coordinator as the second hand passes a cardinal point
a. Trim as required
ii. Include the clock in the crosscheck in place of the heading indicator
iii. Crosscheck and adjust to maintain bank, airspeed, and altitude
a. Heading / Attitude indicators can be crosschecked for additional situational awareness
iv. Begin the rollout when the required time has elapsed
a. If the rate of roll-in and roll-out is the same, the time for the entry / recovery can be ignored
v. Check the heading indicator for turn accuracy
D. Partial Panel Timed Turn
i. Very similar to full panel, except the attitude indicator and heading indicator are inoperative
ii. Establish a standard rate turn on the turn coordinator as the second hand passes a cardinal point
a. Trim as required
iii. Crosscheck and adjust to maintain bank, airspeed, and altitude
iv. Begin the rollout when the required time has elapsed
a. Again, the time to roll-in and roll-out is not a factor if they’re performed at the same rate
v. Check the magnetic compass at the completion of the turn, taking into account compass errors

Common Errors
• Incorrect calibration procedures
• Improper timing
• Uncoordinated use of the controls
• Improper trim control

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of timed turns to magnetic compass headings by describing-
A. operating characteristics and errors of the magnetic compass.
B. calibration of the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator, both right and left, using full panel
and the clock.
C. procedures using full panel and partial panel performing compass turns to a specified heading.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to timed turns to magnetic compass
headings by describing-
A. incorrect calibration procedures.
B. improper timing.
C. uncoordinated use of controls.
D. improper trim control.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains timed turns to magnetic compass headings from an
instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to timed turns to magnetic compass headings.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

212
VI.G. Steep Turns

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15)

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to performing steep turns in
IMC conditions.

Key Elements 1. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

2. Know and Use Approximate Pitch and Power Settings
3. Scan, Scan, Scan

Elements 1. General
2. Full Panel Steep Turn
3. Partial Panel Steep Turn

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can complete a steep turn making the proper adjustments in order to maintain
Standards altitude and airspeed throughout the turn and recovering on the entry heading.
VI.G. Steep Turns

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Standard rate turns are the desired turns in IMC conditions, but there are situations in which steeper bank
angles will be necessary. The student will learn the control inputs necessary to maintain altitude and airspeed
at higher angles of bank by reference to the instruments.

Why
Practicing steep turns will not only increase proficiency in the basic instrument flying skills, but also enable
smooth, quick, and confident reactions to unexpected abnormal flight attitudes under instrument conditions.

How:
1. General
A. In instrument flight, any turn greater than standard rate may be considered steep
B. In principle, techniques for entering, maintaining, and recovering are the same as for shallow turns, but:
i. The steeper the bank, the greater the effects of aerodynamic forces on the airplane, thus:
a. Errors become more exaggerated, occur rapidly, and are more difficult to correct, so:
• Skill in crosscheck, interpretation, and control is increasingly important
2. Full Panel Steep Turn
A. Entry and Maintaining the Turn
i. Establish the required pitch, bank power in the
same way as for a shallow turn
a. Smooth, controlled inputs make for a smooth,
controlled maneuver
b. As the bank steepens, the crosscheck will have
to accelerate rapidly
c. Because of the greatly reduced vertical lift, pitch
will have to be increased to a greater degree
• Pitch is usually the most difficult part of this
maneuver
• Know and set the approximate pitch
attitude required for the turn
• The faster the roll-in, the faster pitch must
be adjusted – slow and smooth is easier
d. Increased pitch results in increased drag so
power must be increased to maintain airspeed
• Know and set the approximate power required to maintain airspeed
ii. Bank Control – Primary instrument is the Attitude Indicator
a. Maintain the bank angle on the Attitude Indicator (45o)
• Use coordinated aileron and rudder throughout the entirety of the turn

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VI.G. Steep Turns

• Be alert to, and correct for, any overbanking tendency

b. Under / Overbanking can lead to large changes in altitude (more below)
c. Bank can also be used to correct altitude
• If high, increased bank angle, without a corresponding pitch change, will reduce lift
• If low, decreased bank angle, without a corresponding pitch change, increases lift
iii. Pitch control – Primary instrument is the Altimeter
a. Crosscheck the altimeter, along with the VSI, Airspeed, and Attitude Indicator for changes
b. Unless immediately noted and corrected, steep turns can lead to rapid loss of lift
• The faster the change in bank, the more suddenly the change in lift occurs
c. An overbank without a pitch change requires increasingly stronger back pressure to correct
• The loss of vertical lift and increased wing loading reach a point where back pressure
tightens the turn without raising the nose
d. Overbanking is recognized by a high bank angle, as well as a rapid downward movement of the
altimeter, and VSI, and an increase in airspeed despite added of back pressure (diving spiral)
• To recover:
a Immediately shallow the bank with coordinated aileron and rudder
b Hold or slightly relax elevator pressure and increase your crosscheck
c Reduce power if airspeed increase is rapid
iv. Power Control – Primary Instrument is the Airspeed Indicator
a. The power required to maintain a constant airspeed increases with bank and induced drag
b. Crosscheck the airspeed indicator during the turn and make necessary changes
B. Recovery
i. Bank, pitch, and power must be coordinated for a smooth, level roll-out
ii. Begin the rollout approximately ½ the bank angle prior to the desired heading
a. Adjust as you learn your roll-out tendencies / speed
iii. As bank is reduced, smoothly decrease pitch and power to return to straight-and-level flight
a. Just like the roll-in, smooth and steady is far easier to control
3. Partial Panel Steep Turn
A. General
i. Without an attitude indicator, the exact angle of bank is unknown
a. According to the Instrument Flying Handbook, any bank greater than standard is steep
ii. Heading indicator is replaced with the magnetic compass
iii. Increased rate of crosscheck is especially important at high bank angles and partial panel
B. Entry and Maintaining the Turn
i. Smooth and steady roll-in, establishing the desired bank, pitch and power
ii. Turn coordinator is primary for bank
a. Keep the mini aircraft of the turn coordinator stable to maintain a constant turn
b. Exact angle of bank is unknown without an Attitude Indicator
iii. The altimeter is primary for pitch
a. As bank increases, increased back pressure is required to maintain altitude
• Smooth and steady roll-in makes a big difference here
b. Monitor the altimeter (as well as the VSI) for changes in altitude, adjust accordingly
iv. The airspeed indicator is primary for power
a. Set the approximate known power setting to maintain airspeed during the turn
b. Monitor and adjust as necessary
C. Recovery
i. The Magnetic Compass is used for the rollout

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VI.G. Steep Turns

a. Take into account compass errors (ANDS, UNOS, etc.)

b. Plan ahead – know the compass indication where you will start the rollout
ii. Smooth and steady roll-out, establishing straight-and-level flight
a. As bank is reduced, lower the nose and reduce power
• Monitor the altimeter and VSI to recognize level flight
• Set the power setting for cruise flight

Common Errors
• Failure to recognize and make proper corrections for pitch, bank, or power errors
• Failure to compensate for precession of the horizon bar of the attitude indicator
• Uncoordinated use of controls
• Improper trim technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of timed turns to steep turns by describing-
A. procedure using full panel and partial panel for entry and recovery of a steep turn.
B. the need for a proper instrument cross-check.
C. roll-in/roll-out procedure.
D. coordination of control and trim.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to steep turns by describing-
A. failure to recognize and make proper corrections for pitch, bank, or power errors.
B. failure to compensate for precession of the horizon bar of the attitude indicator.
C. uncoordinated use of controls.
D. improper trim technique.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains steep turns from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to steep turns.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Maintain altitude ±100 feet during level flight, selected headings ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, and bank
angles ±5° during turns.
2. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation, and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, power,
and trim corrections when applicable.

216
VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

References: Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to recovering from entry into
unusual flight attitudes.

Key Elements 1. Nose High – Power, Nose, Bank

2. Nose Low – Power, Bank, Nose
3. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

Elements 1. General
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
3. Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
4. Recovery Basics
5. Nose High Recovery
6. Nose Low Recovery
7. Partial Panel Recovery
8. Coordination During Recovery

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to safely recover from nose high and nose low unusual attitudes.
Standards
VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson will explain common causes of unusual attitudes as well as the proper techniques to recover from
a climbing turn or spiraling descent using a full or partial panel (gyro failure).

Why
Safety. In the off chance that you end up in an unusual attitude in the clouds it is essential that you have the
ability to recognize and recover from an unusual attitude solely by reference to the instruments.

How:
1. General
A. Since unusual attitudes (UAs) are not intentional maneuvers, they are often unexpected
i. The reaction is therefore, instinctive rather than intelligent and deliberate
a. Individuals usually react with abrupt muscular effort, which is purposeless and even hazardous
in turbulent conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there,
but what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
2. Unusual Attitude Situations and Conditions
A. Unusual attitudes may result from a number of situations/conditions, such as:
• Turbulence • Preoccupation with cockpit duties
• Disorientation • Carelessness in crosschecking
• Instrument Failure • Errors in instrument interpretation
• Confusion • Lack of proficiency in aircraft control
3. Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
A. General Rule: If you note an instrument rate of movement or indication other than those you associate
with the basic instrument flight maneuvers, assume an unusual attitude and increase the speed of
crosscheck to confirm the attitude, or instrument error, or instrument malfunction
B. When an unusual attitude is noticed on your crosscheck, the immediate problem is not how it got there,
but what is the aircraft doing and how to get it back to straight and level flight as quickly as possible
C. Unusual attitudes are broken down into two categories: Nose high, and Nose low attitudes
D. Nose High Attitudes (Climbing Turn)
i. Shown by the rate/direction of movement of the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator as well as the
immediately recognizable indication of the attitude indicator (except in extreme attitudes)
a. Decreasing airspeed
b. Increasing altitude
c. Positive rate of climb
d. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
e. A lot of blue on the attitude indicator
E. Nose Low Attitudes (Diving Spiral)

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VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

i. Shown by the same instruments but in the opposite directions

a. Increasing airspeed
b. Decreasing altitude
c. Negative rate of climb
d. The turn coordinator indicates a bank
e. A lot of brown on the attitude indicator
F. Common Error - Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
i. Be alert to situations that can lead to unusual attitudes, and any out of the ordinary instrument
indications – recover at the first sign
ii. Do not distract yourself with how the situation came to be, get back to straight-and-level flight
4. Recovery Basics
A. In moderate unusual attitudes, the pilot can normally reorient with the attitude indicator, but this
should not be done:
i. If the attitude indicator is spillable - its upset limits may have been exceeded and is unreliable
ii. It may have become inoperative due to mechanical malfunction, and is a reason for the UA
iii. Even if it isn’t spillable and is operating properly, errors of up to 5o pitch and bank may result
iv. Indications are difficult to interpret in extreme attitudes
B. Recovery, instead, is initiated by reference to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator
i. Follow the POH recommended recovery procedures, if they differ from the information here
C. Nose High vs Nose Low Unusual Attitudes
i. Although similar, the recovery procedures for each are different
ii. The basic intent of the nose high recovery is to prevent a stall
iii. The basic intent of the nose low recovery is to prevent over stressing the airplane
5. Nose High (Climbing Turn) Recovery
A. Nose High Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid a stall) - If the airspeed is decreasing, or below that desired:

i. Procedure
a. Power
• Increase power as necessary (in proportion to the deceleration)
• Power is increased to arrest the decreasing airspeed
b. Pitch
• Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose
• Forward elevator pressure reduces the AOA, in order to prevent a stall
c. Bank

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VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

• Correct bank with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
d. The steps listed are made in the sequence described above, but occur almost simultaneously
ii. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling
a. As the rate and movement of the altimeter and airspeed indicator needles decrease, the
attitude is approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish/verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level Flight is indicated by:
• Reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator
b. Straight and Coordinated Flight is indicated by:
• Level miniature aircraft and centered ball on the turn coordinator
c. Set power to maintain the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
6. Nose Low (Diving Spiral) Recovery
A. Nose Low Attitudes (Main Point: Avoid over G-ing) - If the airspeed is increasing, or above that desired:

i. Procedure
a. Power
• Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude
b. Bank
• Level the wings
• Correct bank with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
• Leveling the wings prior to raising the nose reduces the load factors in the recovery
c. Pitch
• Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying smooth back-elevator pressure
a Smooth back pressure avoids overstressing the airplane
b If ground contact is a concern, use whatever back pressure necessary to survive
d. All components of control should be changed simultaneously for a smooth, proficient recovery
ii. After initial control has been applied, continue with a fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling
a. As the rate and movement of the altimeter and airspeed indicator needles decrease, the
attitude is approaching level flight
b. When the needles stop and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level flight
iii. Return to the desired altitude, and establish/verify straight-and-level, coordinated cruise flight
a. Level Flight is indicated by:

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VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

• Reversal and stabilization of the altimeter and airspeed indicator

b. Straight and Coordinated Flight is indicated by:
• Level miniature aircraft and centered ball on the turn coordinator
c. Set power to maintain the desired airspeed once the airspeed is under control
d. With an operative attitude indicator, level flight exists when the miniature airplane is level with
the horizon
e. Without the attitude indicator, level flight is indicated by the reversal and stabilization of the
airspeed indicator and altimeter
7. Partial Panel Recovery
A. Very similar to the procedures discussed above since the attitude indicator is not used for recovery
i. No attitude indicator or heading indicator
ii. Once recovered, return to the desired altitude and use the compass to return to the desired heading
B. Nose High
i. Recognize
a. Altimeter / VSI show climb, airspeed decreasing, possible bank on turn coordinator / compass
ii. Recover
a. Power – Increase power as necessary (in proportion to the deceleration)
b. Pitch – Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose
• You are passing level flight when the airspeed / altimeter stop, and then reverse direction
• Once reaching level flight, maintain elevator pressure and allow the instruments to stabilize
• Then, establish pitch to return to the desired altitude
c. Bank – Correct with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
• Use the turn coordinator to stop the turn and return to straight flight
C. Nose Low
i. Recognize
a. Altimeter / VSI show descent, airspeed increasing, possible bank on turn coordinator / compass
ii. Recover
a. Power – Reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude
b. Bank – Level the wings
• Correct bank with coordinated aileron/rudder pressure by reference to the turn coordinator
• Leveling the wings prior to raising the nose reduces the load factors in the recovery
c. Pitch – Raise the nose to level flight attitude with smooth back-elevator pressure
• Smooth back pressure avoids overstressing the airplane
• If ground contact is a concern, use whatever back pressure necessary to survive
8. Coordination During Recovery
A. Use the turn coordinator to maintain coordinated flight during control inputs
i. Keep the ball centered
ii. Skidding and slipping sensations can easily aggravate disorientation and delay or inhibit recovery
iii. Nose low recovery could result in excessive G’s and uncoordinated flight – very dangerous
B. Partial Panel with an Electronic Flight Display
i. Slip / Skid Indicator is lost and there is no backup turn coordinator
ii. Be very cautious

Common Errors:
• Failure to recognize an unusual flight attitude
• Consequences of attempting to recover from an unusual flight attitude by “feel” rather than by
instrument indications

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VI.H. Recovery from Unusual Flight Attitudes

• Inappropriate control applications during recovery

• Failure to recognize from instrument indications when the airplane is passing through a level flight
attitude

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
When recovering from an unusual attitude, it is essential to use the Airspeed indicator, Altimeter, Turn
Coordinator, Heading Indicator and VSI to determine the situation, ignoring the Attitude Indicator. Recovery
should be made promptly in the proper order to avoid damaging the airplane or aggravating the condition. Once
level flight has been attained, the airplane should be reconfigured for straight-and-level flight.

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of recovery from unusual flight attitudes by describing-
A. conditions or situations which contribute to the development of unusual flight attitudes.
B. procedure using full panel and partial panel for recovery from nose-high and nose-low unusual
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to recovery from unusual flight attitudes by
describing-
A. incorrect interpretation of the flight instruments.
B. inappropriate application of controls.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains recovery from unusual flight attitudes, solely by reference to
instruments, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to recovery from unusual flight attitudes.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Use proper instrument cross-check and interpretation to identify an unusual attitude (including both
nose-high and nose-low), and apply the appropriate pitch, bank, and power corrections, in the correct
sequence, to return to a stabilized level flight attitude.

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VII. Navigation Systems
VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigational Systems and DME Arcs

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to operation and use of VORs.

Key Elements 1. Always check the VOR ID

2. Never fly the tail of the CDI (avoid reverse sensing)
3. VORs are Line-of-sight

Elements 1. Components
2. Tracking with the VOR
3. VOR Tips
4. Intercepting and Maintaining a Selected Course
5. Intercepting and Maintaining a DME Arc

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands the VOR, and has the ability to VORs for navigation as well as
Standards approach procedures
VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigational Systems and DME arcs

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The VOR (or very high frequency omni-directional range) is an instrument used for navigation and approach
procedures in the IFR system. Since the student is already familiar on a basic level with VORs from the PPL,
this lesson will provide a more in-depth overview of using the VOR, and tracking and intercepting radials.

Why
A very important part of the IFR system, VORs are the backbone of the federal airway system, and many
approaches are based off VOR navigation.

How:
1. Components - Ground Transmitter and Receiver
A. Ground Transmitter: At a specific position on the ground; transmits on an assigned frequency
i. Oriented to magnetic North, provides 360 courses To or From the station
ii. Various strengths and operating ranges; Line of sight
B. Receiver: Consists of an antenna, the tuning device, and the VOR instrument
i. Antenna receives the signals from the ground transmitter
ii. Tuning device is used to select and identify the desired VOR frequency
iii. VOR instrument consists of:
a. Course Selector, or OBS (Omni Bearing Selector)
• Dial that is rotated to select a radial or determine the radial the airplane is currently on
b. CDI (Course Deviation Indicator) Needle
• As the OBS is rotated, the CDI shows the radial in relation to the plane
• Centering the CDI indicates the radial the airplane is on, or the radial To / From the station
c. To / From Indicator
• Shows whether the selected course, if flown, will take the aircraft To or From the station
• Does not indicate whether the aircraft is heading to or from the station
2. Tracking with the VOR
A. Tune the VOR frequency and check the identifiers to verify the desired VOR is being received
i. Station can be identified by its Morse code identification or a voice stating the name and VOR
ii. If out of service, the coded identification is removed and not transmitted
a. Do not use for navigation
iii. VOR receivers have an alarm flag to indicate when signal strength is inadequate
a. The plane is either too far or too low and is out of the line-of-sight of the transmitting signal
B. Rotate the OBS to center the CDI with a “TO” indication
i. If centered with a “FROM” indication, rotate 180o
a. From indicates the radial we are on, TO indicates TO the station
C. Turn to the heading indicated on the OBS
i. This will track directly to the station in a no wind situation

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VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigational Systems and DME arcs

D. If there is a crosswind, and heading is maintained, you will drift off course
i. If the crosswind is from the right, the plane will drift left, and the CDI will gradually move right
ii. To return to the desired radial, the heading must be altered to the right
iii. When centered, the airplane is on the radial, and must be crabbed into the wind (right in this case)
a. Amount of crab, or wind correction, will vary based on the strength of the crosswind
E. Upon arriving, and passing the VOR, the “TO” indication will change to “FROM”
i. Generally, the same procedures apply for tracking outbound as inbound
a. If the intent is to continue on the same course the course selector shouldn’t be changed
b. If tracking outbound on a different course, the new course must be set into the selector
• Turn to intercept this course and track as previously discussed
F. Reverse Sensing
i. If flying To a VOR with a FROM indication, or vice versa, the CDI will indicate opposite
a. Following the needle leads away from the desired course
b. For example, if right of course, the CDI indicates a right correction is required
3. VOR Tips
A. Always identify the station
B. Remember, VOR signals are line-of-sight
C. Correct for wind drift, don’t reset the radial (avoid homing)
D. When flying TO a station always fly the selected course with a TO indication
E. When flying FROM a station always fly the selected course with a FROM indication
4. Intercepting and Maintaining a Selected Course
A. Where are we? What radial is the aircraft on?
B. Where do we want to go? Which direction is the course and do we want to fly inbound or outbound?
C. How do we get there?
i. Determine the difference between the radial the airplane is on and the radial to be intercepted
ii. Intercept Angle: Double the difference and apply it in the direction we want to fly
a. Apply it to the radial to be intercepted
b. Intercept angle will not be less than 20o or more than 90o
D. Does it make sense? Will the bearing we have chosen get us to the course we want to fly?
E. Ex: SE of the VOR on the 160o radial, and want to intercept the 205o radial
i. Difference between radial on and radial to intercept = 45o; Double it = 90 o
ii. Turn to 295 o (205 o + 90 o)
5. Intercepting and Maintaining a DME arc
A. Intercept the lead-in radial designated in the approach
B. Approximately ½ mile before reaching the arc distance, make a 90o turn to intercept the arc
i. Turn the OBS needle 10o in the direction you will be flying
ii. Distance for the turn varies based on groundspeed
C. When the needle centers, turn the OBS 10o further and make a 3 second standard rate turn
i. Repeat until approximately 10o prior to the inbound course
D. Turn to intercept the final approach course
E. If the DME distance is getting too big or too small, adjust the turns to maintain DME
i. Too small: Reduce or eliminate the turn (ex. rotate the CDI 10o but don’t turn)
ii. Too big: Increase the turn (ex. Rotate the CDI 10o and turn 15o)
F. OR, load the DME arc approach in the GPS and follow the needle!

Common Errors:
• Incorrect tuning and identification procedures
• Failure to properly set the navigation selector on the course to be intercepted

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VII.A. Intercepting and Tracking Navigational Systems and DME arcs

• Failure to use the proper procedures for course DME arc interception and tracking
• Improper procedures for intercepting a course or localizer from a DME arc

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of intercepting and tracking navigational systems and
DME arcs by describing-
A. tuning and identification of a navigational facility.
B. setting of a selected course on the navigation selector or the correct identification of a selected
bearing on the RMI.
C. method for determining aircraft position relative to a facility.
D. procedure for intercepting and maintaining a selected course.
E. procedure for intercepting and maintaining a DME arc.
F. procedure for intercepting a course or localizer from a DME arc.
G. recognition of navigation facility or waypoint passage.
H. recognition of navigation receiver or facility failure.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to intercepting and tracking navigational
systems and DME arcs by describing-
A. incorrect tuning and identification procedures.
B. failure to properly set the navigation selector on the course to be intercepted.
C. failure to use proper procedures for course or DME arc interception and tracking.
D. improper procedures for intercepting a course or localizer from a DME arc.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains intercepting and tracking navigational systems and DME arcs
from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to intercepting and tracking navigational
systems and DME arcs.
5. Exhibits instructional knowledge on the uses of the MFD and other graphical navigational displays, if
installed, to monitor position in relation to the desired flightpath during holding.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Tune and correctly identify the navigation facility/program the navigation system and verify system
accuracy as appropriate for the equipment installed in the aircraft.
2. Determine aircraft position relative to the navigational facility or waypoint.
3. Set and correctly orient to the course to be intercepted.
4. Intercept the specified course at appropriate angle, inbound to or outbound from a navigational facility
or waypoint.
5. Maintain airspeed ±10 knots, altitude ±100 feet, and selected headings ±5°.
6. Apply proper correction to maintain a course, allowing no more than ¾-scale deflection of the CDI. If a
DME arc is selected, maintain that arc ±1 nautical mile.
7. Recognize navigational system or facility failure, and when required, report the failure to ATC.
8. Use an MFD and other graphical navigation displays, if installed, to monitor position, track wind drift,
and to maintain situational awareness.
9. Properly use the autopilot, if installed, to intercept courses.

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VII.B. Holding Procedures

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to holding procedures.

Key Elements 1. Use the entry that makes the most sense
2. Standard turns are to the Right
3. Triple the wind correction on the outbound leg

Elements 1. Basics
2. Holding Instructions
3. Navigation Equipment
4. Entry Procedures
5. Recognition of Arrival at the Holding Fix
6. Timing
7. Wind Drift Correction
8. DME in a Holding Pattern
9. Lost Comms

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to draw a hold based on given holding instructions, can choose and
Standards perform the necessary entry into the hold, and maintain the hold making the corrections
required for wind and time.
VII.B. Holding Procedures

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A hold is an IFR maneuver used to keep an airplane in a specific, protected area for a certain amount of time.
There are various reasons an aircraft may be requested to hold, including over congestion at the destination
airport, weather, runway closures, another aircraft on the IFR approach into an uncontrolled airport, etc.

Why
Since aircraft do not have the ability to pull over (like a car) a hold is used to wait in the air. Delays or various
other criteria can result in an aircraft being requested to hold. It is important an understanding of holds is
obtained in order to competently work with ATC during holding situations.

How:
1. Basics
A. Predetermined maneuver to keep aircraft in specified airspace while awaiting further ATC clearance
B. Standard Holding Pattern

i. Race track - Inbound course, 180o turn, outbound course, 180o turn
ii. Standard Holding Pattern = Right Turns
a. Nonstandard = left. ATC will specify left turns when necessary
C. Holding Airspeeds
i. Min Holding Altitude – 6,000’ = 200 knots
ii. 6,001’ – 14,000’ = 230 knots
a. May be restricted to 210 knots
iii. 14,001’ and above = 265 knots
iv. Holding patterns may be restricted to 175 knots (rare)
v. *DA40 – Hold at approx. 100 knots, 18” MP / 2300 RPM
2. Holding Instructions
A. When a hold is necessary, ATC will specify the following:
i. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the 8 cardinal compass points (N, NE, E, SE, etc.)
ii. Holding fix

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VII.B. Holding Procedures

iii. Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on which the aircraft is to hold
iv. Leg length in miles, if DME or RNAV is to be used
v. Direction of turns, if left turns are to be made
vi. Time to EFC (expect further clearance) and any pertinent additional delay info
B. If you arrive at your clearance limit before receiving clearance beyond the fix, ATC expects you to
i. Maintain the last altitude
ii. Begin holding in accordance with the depicted pattern
a. If the pattern is not depicted, hold in a standard pattern on the course you approached on
• Immediately request further clearance
C. Drawing a Hold
i. Holding can be complicated and confusing, especially while flying. Drawing the hold and your
position in relation to the holding fix can make the process considerably easier.
a. Draw the holding fix – Navaid and / or fix for the hold
b. Draw the inbound leg – Always goes TO the hold, draw it on the holding side of the fix
c. Note the inbound course – Ensure it is TO the fix, draw an arrow for direction
d. Draw the 1st turn – 180o turn from the holding fix (R or L, depending on instructions)
e. Draw the outbound leg & turn – Parallels the inbound leg, draw an arrow, add the 180o turn
f. Note the outbound heading – Reciprocal of the inbound leg
g. Verify it’s correct – Verify holding direction, turn direction, headings, etc.
h. Find your location – Draw the aircraft in relation to the fix
i. Choose the entry – Based on your location to the fix
j. Draw the entry – Note the associated headings
ii. Hold examples, entries, and practice drawing holds can be found in our Resources Section
a. VOR and Intersection holds, Entries, Drawing holds, Examples to practice drawing holds
b. TheBackseatPilot.com – Resources – Pilot Resources – Instrument Pilots – Drawing Holds
3. Entry Procedures
A. Reduce to holding airspeed within 3 min of arriving at the holding fix
i. Prevents overshooting the holding airspace limits
B. Parallel Procedure – approaching the fix from anywhere in the blue
i. Fly to the fix, then fly a heading to parallel the holding course
outbound for approximately 1 minute
ii. Turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180o
iii. Return to the holding fix or intercept the course inbound
C. Teardrop Procedure –approaching the fix from anywhere in the red
i. Fly to the fix and turn 30o into the holding pattern (on the holding
side) for approximately 1 minute
ii. Then, turn in the direction of the holding patter to intercept the inbound course
D. Direct Entry Procedure –approaching the fix from anywhere in the grey
i. Fly directly to the fix, and turn to follow the holding pattern
E. Turns – All turns should be standard rate (3o per second), or 30o bank, whichever is less
4. Navigation Equipment
A. If the hold will be off a VOR, tune and identify the VOR and set the inbound course with the OBS
B. If the holding fix is a DME distance from a VOR, tune and identify the VOR
i. Follow the radial you will hold on to the DME distance fix and perform the hold there
C. If an RNAV fix, setup the hold in the GPS
i. If able, always build any hold in the GPS for added situational awareness
5. Recognition of Arrival at the Holding Fix
A. If the holding fix is a VOR, when the To / From flag switches you have reached the holding fix

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VII.B. Holding Procedures

B. At a DME distance, once the readout indicates the distance desired you have reached the holding fix
C. Once you have reached the fix, promptly enter the turn to begin the entry to the hold
6. Timing
A. The initial outbound leg is flown for 1 min at or below 14,000’ MSL
i. 1 ½ min above 14,000’
ii. Timing for subsequent legs should be adjusted to achieve 1-minute inbound legs
B. Begin timing the outbound leg over or abeam the holding fix, whichever occurs later
i. VOR: outbound timing begins when the To / From flag reverses
ii. Airway intersection: Outbound timing begins at completion of outbound turn
a. The 90o point cannot be measured from an airway intersection like with a VOR
iii. Compass Locator: Outbound timing starts when ADF RB is 90o minus drift correction
iv. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when the turn outbound is completed
7. DME in a Holding Pattern
A. The same entry and holding procedures apply to DME, except distances are substituted for time
B. The length of the outbound leg will be specified by the controller
C. Turn when reaching the specified DME distance
i. Ex. Hold E of the VOR, 5 nm legs, means the turn will be made at 5 DME from the VOR
8. Wind Drift Correction
A. Crab into the wind to maintain the inbound course
i. Note the degrees of wind correction required
B. Triple the wind correction on the outbound leg
i. Ex: If 4o of correction maintains the inbound course, use 12o of correction on the outbound leg
ii. Why Triple the Drift?
a. The wind has an opposite effect on groundspeed in each of the turns in the hold
b. For example, as pictured below, there is a crosswind from the North
• In the turn from the inbound to the outbound leg, groundspeed decreases
a Slower groundspeed = smaller turn radius
• In the turn from the outbound leg to the inbound leg, groundspeed increases
a Faster groundspeed = larger turn radius
• Because of the change in groundspeed, and therefore the different sized turns, it is
necessary to overcorrect on the outbound leg
• Not correcting would result in being blown south of the inbound leg

9. Lost Comms – FAR 91.185 – Leaving the Clearance Limit

A. If the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins
i. Leave as close as possible to the EFC time, if one has been issued
ii. If no EFC, leave as close as possible to the ETA from the filed (or amended) estimated time en route
B. If the clearance limit is not a fix from which the approach begins
i. Leave the fix as close as possible to the EFC time, if one has been issued
ii. If no EFC, proceed to a fix to where an approach begins and commence descent and approach as
close as possible to the ETA from the filed (or amended) estimated time en route

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VII.B. Holding Procedures

Common Errors
• Incorrect setting of aircraft navigation equipment
• Inappropriate altitude, airspeed, and bank control
• Improper timing
• Improper wind drift correction
• Failure to recognize holding fix passage
• Failure to comply with ATC instructions

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of holding procedures by describing-
A. setting of aircraft navigation equipment.
B. requirement for establishing the appropriate holding airspeed for the aircraft and altitude.
C. recognition of arrival at the holding fix and the prompt initiation of entry into the holding pattern.
D. timing procedure.
E. correction for wind drift.
F. use of DME in a holding pattern.
G. compliance with ATC reporting requirements.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to holding procedures by describing-
A. incorrect setting of aircraft navigation equipment.
B. inappropriate altitude, airspeed, and bank control.
C. improper timing.
D. improper wind drift correction.
E. failure to recognize holding fix passage.
F. failure to comply with ATC instructions.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains holding procedures from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to holding procedures.
5. Exhibits instructional knowledge on the use of the MFD and other graphical navigational displays, if
installed, to monitor position in relation to the desired flightpath during holding.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Explain and use an entry procedure that ensures the aircraft remains within the holding pattern airspace
for a standard, nonstandard, published, or non-published holding pattern.
2. Change to the holding airspeed appropriate for the altitude or aircraft when 3 minutes or less from, but
prior to arriving at, the holding fix and set appropriate power as needed for fuel conservation.
3. Recognize arrival at the holding fix and promptly initiate entry into the holding pattern.
4. Maintain airspeed within ±10 knots; altitude ±100 feet; selected headings within ±10°; and track a
selected course, radial or bearing within ¾-scale deflection of the CDI.
5. Use proper wind correction procedures to maintain the desired pattern and to arrive over the fix as
close as possible to a specified time and maintain pattern leg lengths when specified.
6. Use an MFD and other graphical navigation displays, if installed, to monitor position in relation to the
desired flightpath during holding.
7. Comply with ATC reporting requirements and restrictions associated with the holding pattern.
8. Demonstrate SRM.

232
VIII. Instrument Approach Procedures
VIII.A. Non-Precision Instrument Approach

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to non-precision instrument
approaches.

Key Elements 1. Ensure you have the correct chart

2. 5 Ts at every waypoint: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
3. Brief the Approach

Elements 1. What is a Non-Precision Approach?

2. Approach Charts
3. Approach Categories
4. Choosing an Appropriate Approach and Chart
5. Flying the Approach
6. Cold Weather Corrections
7. Safety & Efficiency

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to set up for, brief, and execute non-precision approaches without
Standards the assistance of the instructor.
VIII.A. Non-Precision Instrument Approach

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A non-precision approach provides lateral guidance, and in some cases vertical guidance, to a runway. There
are various types of non-precision approaches, such as VOR, GPS, and Localizer approaches. Non-precision
approaches generally do not take you as close to the ground as precision approaches (like an ILS) but do
provide an avenue for landing in marginal weather.

Why
Non-precision approaches are commonly flown at all levels of flying. Even commercial airlines and charter
services will fly non-precision approaches from time to time. It is important to understand how they operate.

How:
1. What is a Non-Precision Approach?
A. Instrument approach that provides course deviation information but no glidepath deviation information
i. Ex: VOR, TACAN, LNAV, NDB, LOC, ASR
B. Compared to other types of approaches
i. Precision: Course and glidepath deviation that meet the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10
a. Ex: PAR, ILS, GLS
ii. Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV): Same as precision but doesn’t meet the Annex 10 standards
a. Ex: LNAV / VNAV, LPV
C. MDA vs DA / DH
i. Minimum Descent Altitude (non-precision approaches use an MDA)
a. Used when no electronic glideslope is provided on the approach
b. Lowest altitude which descent is authorized on final approach or during a circle to land
• Must level off at or above this altitude if visual references are not in sight
• May continue at MDA to the missed approach point
ii. Decision Altitude (precision approaches and APV use DA)
a. Altitude at which a missed approach must be initiated if visual references are not established
b. Equivalent of a missed approach point
2. Approach Charts (general overview for NACO and Jeppesen charts)
A. NACO – Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide (go to pg. 92)
i. Top Bar / Chart Info
a. City and state, Issue #, Type of Approach / Runway, Airport
ii. Briefing Information
a. Frequencies, Course, Runway distances, Notes, Missed Approach, Approach Lighting
iii. Plan View
a. Overhead view of procedure – Initial Fix through Missed Approach. Contains MSA diagram
iv. Profile View
a. Side view depicting Waypoints, Course, Altitude, Distance, Missed Approach Point, etc.

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VIII.A. Non-Precision Instrument Approach

v. Minimums / Airport Diagram

a. Minimums, Airport Diagram and Time to MAP, if needed
vi. Bottom Bar
a. Amendments, Lat / Long, Airport Identifier, Approach Type and Runway
B. Jeppesen – Jeppesen Chart Legend (go to pg. 76)
i. Top Bar / Chart Info
a. Airport, City and State, Date, Identifier, Type of Approach / Runway
ii. Briefing Strip
a. Frequencies, Course, FAF Altitude, MDA, Elevations, Missed Approach, Notes, MSA
iii. Plan View
a. Overhead view of approach procedure(s) – Initial Fix through Missed Approach
iv. Profile View
a. Side view depicting Waypoints, Course, Altitude, Distance, Missed Approach Point, etc.
v. Minimums
a. Minimums, Time to MAP (if needed), Approach Lighting, Visual Missed Approach Steps
3. Approach Categories
A. General
i. Grouping of aircraft based on landing speed - if not specified, then at 1.3 VSO at max landing weight
ii. Generally, higher minimums apply to higher speed categories
a. Designed this way to contain the aircraft within a safe area based on altitude
• Terrain, turn containment, height loss at decision altitude, missed approach climb, etc.
B. Categories
i. A: Less than 91 knots
ii. B: 91 knots - 120 knots
iii. C: 121 knots - 140 knots
iv. D: 141 knots - 165 knots
v. E: 166 knots or more
C. An airplane is only certified in one approach category
i. Cannot use a lower approach category
ii. Must use the higher category minimums if a faster approach speed is used
a. For example, approaches with inoperative flaps, icing conditions, or heavy weight landings
4. Choosing the Appropriate Approach and Chart
A. ATIS information will often specify the runway and approaches in use
B. Airplane capabilities will dictate which approaches are an option to fly
C. From there, weather (especially ceilings) may help make the decision
i. Ex: A VOR approach with minimums above the current ceiling vs an RNAV with minimums below
D. Straight-In vs. Circling Approach
i. Straight-in – Used when available based on aircraft equipment, ground equipment, etc.
a. Generally, lower minimums, simpler procedure, safer and more efficient
ii. Circling – Used due to closed runways, weather (wind), terrain, or equipment dictating a circle
a. Generally, higher minimums and more complex, but can be necessary to land
iii. Ensure you apply the correct minimums
E. Personal Preference
i. Comfort
a. Is there a type of approach you are most competent and comfortable with?
b. Don’t learn “on the fly” close to the ground, in potentially hazardous IMC conditions
ii. Safety
a. Lateral + vertical guidance

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b. Stay within your capabilities

F. Always verify you are reading the appropriate approach chart for the appropriate runway
i. Many similar approaches (ex. LOC 25L vs 25R), especially important after a change of approach
5. Flying the Approach
A. Basics
i. Maintaining Course, Altitudes, and Airspeed
a. Always ask, “What am I doing next?”
b. Stay ahead of the airplane – altitudes, airspeeds, track (verify with the chart)
• Be proactive in maintaining course
a Bug the heading that will maintain the desired course, accounting for wind
b Adjust the R / L of the heading bug to correct for course deviations
c. Use the 5 Ts at every waypoint – Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
d. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
• Keep the crosscheck moving, include everything in your scan
a Approach chart should be included in the scan
ii. Rate of Descent
a. A descent rate greater than 1,000 FPM is unacceptable during the final stages of an approach
• Due to human perceptual limitation, independent of the type of airplane
b. Intent is to reach the MDA at a distance from the runway to allow a safe landing
• On many IAPs this distance is annotated by a VDP (visual descent point)
a Point from which a normal (3o) descent from MDA to the runway can be commenced
1. Provided the pilot has required visual references
• Calculating a VDP:
a HAT (Height Above Touchdown) ÷ 300 = VDP in nautical miles
b Ex. MDA = 1350’ MSL, TDZE = 810
1. HAT = 540’
2. 540’ ÷ 300’ per nm = 1.8 nm
• VDP can be treated as a MAP
a Beyond the VDP, no longer using normal rate & maneuvers as required in FAR 91.175
b May continue at MDA to MAP
c. To determine the required rate of descent:
• Subtract the TDZE from the FAF altitude and divide by the time inbound
• Ex: FAF altitude is 2,000’ MSL, TDZE is 400’ MSL, and time inbound is 2 min = 800 FPM
descent
d. To verify the airplane is on an approximate 3o glidepath, use “300’ to 1 NM”
• Desired height is calculated by multiplying NMs from the runway by 300
a Ex: At 10 NM the aircraft should be 3,000’ above the TDZE, at 5 NM 1,500’, etc.
iii. Missed Approach (more information in VIII.C. Missed Approach)
a. Non-Precision MAPs can be indicated in different ways
• Time from the FAF to MAP (determine time based on ground speed and distance)
• Specific fix – Identified by DME, VOR cross radial, RNAV (GPS) waypoint, etc.
b. Common reasons for executing the missed approach
• Required flight visibility doesn’t exist or required visual references cannot be seen
• Descent to landing cannot be made at a normal descent rate with normal maneuvers
• Men and equipment, or animals on the runway, not stabilized approach, etc.
c. Reaching the MAP, execute a go-around and fly the procedure unless instructed otherwise
• Technique to have the first 2-3 steps of the procedure memorized to reduce workload

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• Ex. Turn left heading xxxo, climb x,xxx’

d. Obstacles may require steeper climb gradients – published in Notes on the approach chart
iv. Radio Communication with ATC
a. Comply with ATC clearances and instructions given
• Repeat back important information regarding clearances
b. If unable to comply with an instruction advise ATC “unable”
c. If you do not understand an instruction from ATC request “say again” or clarification
d. More detail in V.A. ATC Clearances and V.B. Compliance with Procedures and Clearances
B. Setup / Pertinent Information
i. Technique is to use FFIIMMMMS:
a. Fixes
• Expected fixes
• How to identify them
• Altitudes / speeds associated
b. Frequencies
• Navigation
• Communication
c. Inbound Course
• Set
• Be alert for course changes
d. Identify
• Tune, identify, monitor (details below)
e. Marker Beacons
• On, if required
• Expected location
f. Minimums
• Verify approach category and straight-in vs circling
g. Minutes
• From FAF to MAP, if required
h. Missed Approach
• Understand the procedure
• Commit the first 2-3 steps to memory (i.e., climbing right turn heading XXXo)
i. Security
• Passengers
• Seat belts
• Equipment
ii. Tune, Identify, Monitor
a. To identify / verify there are generally two options:
• G1000 (or similar) will put the navaid ID next to the frequency, indicating it is identified
• Listen to the Nav for the Morse code identifier
b. If the identifier is not displayed or heard, the navaid is out of service and should not be used
iii. Inoperable aircraft navigation equipment will show a flag, indicating that it is not working
C. Brief the Approach
i. Briefing strip plus any other pertinent information
ii. Brief should be short and sweet. Technique: Less than 1 min, otherwise people stop paying attention
iii. CFI should give example brief
D. *Checklists, and Configuration and Airspeed

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i. Checklists
a. Arriving at any Fix – 5 T’s: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
b. Pre-Landing Checklist
• LBBGUMPFS - Landing Gear, Boost Pump, Brakes (off), Gas, Undercarriage, Mixture, Prop,
Flaps, Safety
c. Inside Outer Marker / FAF – Reds, Blues, Greens, Whites, Power: 11-13” Hg
• Mixture, Prop, Engine Gauges, Lights, Power
ii. Configuration and Airspeed
a. Procedure Turn / Course Intercept
• Airspeed: 100 KIAS
• Power: 18-20” Hg, 2300 RPM
b. One Mile Outside the FAF
• Airspeed: Decelerating to 90 KIAS
• Power: 18-20” Hg 2300 RPM
• Configuration: Takeoff Flaps
c. FAF
• Airspeed: 90 KIAS
• Power: 11-13” Hg 2300 RPM
• Configuration: Landing Flaps
• Pitch: 6o Nose Down
6. Cold Weather Corrections
A. When temperatures are colder than standard, true altitude is less than indicated altitude
i. The colder the temperature, the greater the difference – obstacle clearance may be an issue
ii. In extreme cold conditions, pilots may need to make temperature corrections to approach altitudes
a. Do not correct altitudes specifically assigned by ATC (i.e., “maintain 5,000 ft”)
b. If temperature corrections are applied, advise ATC of the correction
• Not required if correcting on the final segment only
B. Cold Temperature Airports (CTA) (AIM 7-3-4)
i. Airports at high risk for loss of required obstacle clearance
ii. Will have an icon and temperature limit published on the IAP in the TPP
iii. CTA List (Scroll down to Additional Resources –> Cold Temperature Airports PDF)
C. Cold Temperature Airport Procedures (AIM 7-3-5)
i. Correct at, at or above, and at or below altitudes when reported temps are below published temp
ii. Do not correct SID, ODP, or STAR altitudes
iii. All Segments Method
a. Snow flake icon / CTA temperature limit – No need to reference CTA list
b. Correct all segments from IAF to MA holding altitude
iv. Individual Segments Method
a. Only correct the marked segments indicated in the CTA list

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D. ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table

i. Enter the chart at the reported temperature

ii. Find the corresponding column for Height Above Airport
a. Height Above Airport = Chart Altitude (FAF altitude, MDA, etc.) minus Airport Elevation
iii. Raise your altitude by the amount shown – interpolate, if necessary
a. Use the 5,000’ column for altitudes > 5,000’ – no extrapolation is required
7. Safety & Efficiency
A. Safety
i. Personal Minimums
a. Set personal minimums based on comfort level and experience
• Wind, ceiling, visibility, weather phenomena, airspace, etc.
• Do not bend or break these minimums
b. Just because it’s legal does not mean it’s safe
ii. Aircraft Capabilities
a. Ensure aircraft capabilities are sufficient for the planned and/or assigned approach
• All required NAVAIDs
• Meet required performance (altitudes, climb gradients on missed, etc.)
• Airspeeds and approach category
• Approach Notes
a Check notes to verify they do not affect the approach
iii. Situational Awareness
a. Stay ahead of the airplane
b. If SA is lost, consider a missed approach or request vectors to set-up for the approach again
c. Ask for help, if necessary
iv. Currency & NOTAMs
a. Verify current charts and check NOTAMs for changes to published information
B. Efficiency
i. Standard Operating Procedures
a. Briefings: Review all pertinent information the same way every time
b. Aircraft: Checklists, power settings, airspeeds, 5 T’s, etc.
• Consistency = efficiency
ii. Review approaches
a. The more familiar you are, the more situational awareness and ability to adapt to changes
iii. Succinct Communications
a. Know what you’re going to say before keying the mic
b. AIM Pilot Controller Glossary

Common Errors

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• Failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach chart
• Incorrect communications procedures or noncompliance with ATC clearances or instructions
• Failure to accomplish checklist items
• Faulty basic instrument flying technique
• Inappropriate descent below MDA

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a non-precision instrument approach by describing-
A. selection of the appropriate instrument approach procedure chart.
B. pertinent information on the selected instrument approach chart.
C. radio communications with ATC and compliance with ATC clearances, instructions, and
procedures.
D. appropriate aircraft configuration, airspeed, and checklist items.
E. selection, tuning, identification, and determination of operational status of ground and aircraft
navigation equipment.
F. adjustments applied to the published MDA and visibility criteria for the aircraft approach category.
G. maintenance of altitude, airspeed, and track, where applicable.
H. establishment and maintenance of an appropriate rate of descent during the final approach
segment.
I. factors that should be considered in determining whether:
i. the approach should be continued straight-in to a landing;
ii. a circling approach to a landing should be made; or
iii. a missed approach should be performed.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a non-precision instrument approach by
describing-
A. failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach chart.
B. incorrect communications procedures or noncompliance with ATC clearances or instructions.
C. failure to accomplish checklist items.
D. faulty basic instrument flying technique.
E. inappropriate descent below the MDA.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a non-precision instrument approach from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a non-precision instrument approach.
5. Exhibits instructional knowledge on the uses of the MFD and other graphical navigational displays, if
installed, to monitor position, track, wind drift, and other parameters to maintain desired flightpath.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Accomplish the appropriate non-precision instrument approaches as selected by the evaluator.
2. Establish two-way communications with ATC, as appropriate, to the phase of flight or approach
segment, and uses proper communication phraseology.
3. Select, tune, identify, and confirm the operational status of navigation equipment to be used for the
approach.
4. Comply with all clearances issued by ATC or the evaluator.

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5. Recognize if any flight instrumentation is inaccurate or inoperative, and take appropriate action.
6. Advise ATC or the evaluator if unable to comply with a clearance.
7. Establish the appropriate aircraft configuration and airspeed considering turbulence and wind shear,
and complete the aircraft checklist items appropriate to the phase of the flight.
8. Maintain altitude ±100 feet, heading ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots prior to beginning the final approach
segment.
9. Apply adjustments to the published MDA and visibility criteria for the aircraft approach category, as
appropriate, for factors that include NOTAMs, inoperative aircraft or navigation equipment, or
inoperative visual aids associated with the landing environment, etc.
10. Establish a stabilized descent to the appropriate altitude.
11. For the final approach segment, maintain no more than a ¾-scale deflection of the CDI, and maintain
airspeed ±10 knots, and altitude, if applicable, above MDA, +100/-0 feet, to the Visual Descent Point
(VDP) or Missed Approach Point (MAP).
12. Execute the missed approach procedure if the required visual references for the intended runway are
not distinctly visible and identifiable at the appropriate point or altitude for the approach profile.
13. Execute a normal landing from a straight-in or circling approach when instructed by the evaluator.
14. Use an MFD and other graphical navigation displays, if installed, to monitor position, track wind drift and
other parameters to maintain desired flightpath.

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References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to precision approaches.

Key Elements 1. Ensure you have the correct chart

2. 5 Ts at every waypoint: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
3. Brief the Approach

Elements 1. What is a Precision Approach?

2. Approach Charts
3. Approach Categories
4. Choosing the Appropriate Approach and Chart
5. Flying the Approach
6. Cold Weather Corrections
7. Safety & Efficiency

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student has the ability to set up for, brief, and execute precision approaches without the
Standards assistance of the instructor.
VIII.B. Precision Instrument Approach

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A precision approach provides lateral and vertical guidance to a runway (ILS). Because of the addition of
vertical guidance (the glide slope), the precision approach has the ability to get an aircraft closer to the
ground than a non-precision would allow. The ILS is an expensive system, so although it makes it easier to get
into an airport in poor weather or visibility, they are most often located at larger, busier airports.

Why
The ILS system is important to understand since it is used throughout the US, and has the ability to get you
down to 200’ AGL. The ILS, if available, is normally the default approach assigned by ATC.

How:
1. What is a Precision Approach?
A. Instrument approach providing course and glidepath information meeting the ICAO Annex 10 standards
i. Ex: PAR, ILS, GLS
B. Compared to other types of approaches
iv. Non-Precision: Provides course deviation information but no glidepath deviation information
a. Ex: VOR, TACAN, LNAV, NDB, LOC, ASR
ii. Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV): Same as precision but doesn’t meet the Annex 10 standards
a. Ex: LNAV / VNAV, LPV
C. DA / DH vs MDA
i. Decision Altitude (precision approaches and APV make use of DA / DH)
a. Altitude at which a missed approach must be initiated if visual references are not established
b. Equivalent of a missed approach point
ii. Decision Height
a. Height above the threshold at which a decision must be made to continue or go missed
b. Used on aircraft with radar altimeters on Category II and III ILS approaches
iii. Minimum Descent Altitude (non-precision approaches use an MDA)
a. Used when no electronic glideslope is provided on the approach
b. Lowest altitude which descent is authorized on final approach or during a circle to land
• Must level off at or above this altitude if visual references are not in sight
• May continue at MDA to the missed approach point
2. Approach Charts (general overview for NACO and Jeppesen charts)
A. NACO – Aeronautical Chart User’s Guide (go to pg. 92)
i. Top Bar / Chart Info
a. City and state, Issue #, Type of Approach / Runway, Airport
ii. Briefing Information
a. Frequencies, Course, Runway distances, Notes, Missed Approach, Approach Lighting
iii. Plan View

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a. Overhead view of procedure – Initial Fix through Missed Approach. Contains MSA diagram
iv. Profile View
a. Side view depicting Waypoints, Course, Altitude, Distance, Missed Approach Point, etc.
v. Minimums / Airport Diagram
a. Minimums, Airport Diagram and Time to MAP, if needed
vi. Bottom Bar
a. Amendments, Lat / Long, Airport Identifier, Approach Type and Runway
B. Jeppesen – Jeppesen Chart Legend (go to pg. 76)
i. Top Bar / Chart Info
a. Airport, City and State, Date, Identifier, Type of Approach / Runway
ii. Briefing Strip
a. Frequencies, Course, FAF Altitude, MDA, Elevations, Missed Approach, Notes, MSA
iii. Plan View
a. Overhead view of approach procedure(s) – Initial Fix through Missed Approach
iv. Profile View
a. Side view depicting Waypoints, Course, Altitude, Distance, Missed Approach Point, etc.
v. Minimums
a. Minimums, Time to MAP (if needed), Approach Lighting, Visual Missed Approach Steps
3. Approach Categories
A. General
i. Grouping of aircraft based on landing speed - if not specified, then at 1.3 VSO at max landing weight
ii. Generally, higher minimums apply to higher speed categories
a. Designed this way to contain the aircraft within a safe area based on altitude
• Terrain, turn containment, height loss at decision altitude, missed approach climb, etc.
B. Categories
i. A: Less than 91 knots
ii. B: 91 knots - 120 knots
iii. C: 121 knots - 140 knots
iv. D: 141 knots - 165 knots
v. E: 166 knots or more
C. An airplane is only certified in one approach category
i. Cannot use a lower approach category
ii. Must use the higher category minimums if a faster approach speed is used
a. For example, approaches with inoperative flaps, icing conditions, or heavy weight landings
4. Choosing the Appropriate Approach and Chart
A. ATIS information will often specify the runway and approaches in use
B. Airplane capabilities will dictate which approaches are an option to fly
C. From there, weather (especially ceilings) may help make the decision
i. Ex: A VOR approach with minimums above the current ceiling vs an ILS with minimums below
D. Straight-In vs. Circling Approach
i. Straight-in – Used when available based on aircraft equipment, ground equipment, etc.
a. Generally, lower minimums, simpler procedure, safer and more efficient
ii. Circling – Used due to closed runways, weather (wind), terrain, or equipment dictating a circle
a. Generally, higher minimums and more complex, but can be necessary to land
iii. Ensure you apply the correct minimums
E. Always verify you are reading the appropriate approach chart for the appropriate runway
i. Many similar approaches (ex. ILS 25L vs 25R), especially important after a change of approach
5. Flying the Approach

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A. Basics
i. Maintaining Course, Altitudes, and Airspeed
a. Always ask, “What am I doing next?”
b. Stay ahead of the airplane – altitudes, airspeeds, track (verify with the chart)
• Be proactive in maintaining course
a Bug the heading that will maintain the desired course, accounting for wind
b Make adjustments to the R / L of the heading bug to correct for course deviations
c. Use the 5 Ts at every waypoint – Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
d. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
• Keep the crosscheck moving, include everything in your scan
a Approach chart should be included in the scan
e. *When the glide slope centers, pitch down approximately 5o
• Be proactive in maintain glide slope
a If the ball moves up or down make small adjustments immediately to arrest movement
b As ground speed increases, rate of descent must increase, and vice versa
ii. Rate of Descent
a. A descent rate of greater than 1,000 FPM is unacceptable during the final stages of an approach
• This is due to human perceptual limitation and independent of the type of airplane
b. Configured and on speed, the glide slope will ensure an appropriate rate of descent
iii. Missed Approach (more information in VIII.C. Missed Approach)
a. In the case of a precision approach, Decision Altitude is the MAP
• Reaching DA, if the required visual references aren’t available, fly the missed approach
• Expected that the aircraft will momentarily descend below DA. This is OK
a If visual references become available below DA, it is NOT OK to attempt to land.
b. Common reasons for executing the missed approach
• Required flight visibility doesn’t exist or required visual references cannot be seen
• Descent to landing cannot be made at a normal descent rate with normal maneuvers
• Men and equipment, or animals on the runway, not stabilized approach, etc.
c. Reaching DA, execute a go-around and fly the procedure unless instructed otherwise
• Technique to have the first 2-3 steps of the procedure memorized to reduce workload
• Ex. Turn left heading xxxo, climb x,xxx’
d. Obstacles may require steeper climb gradients – published in Notes on the approach chart
iv. Radio Communication with ATC
a. Comply with ATC clearances and instructions given
• Repeat back important information regarding clearances
b. If unable to comply with an instruction advise ATC “unable”
c. If you do not understand an instruction from ATC request “say again” or clarification
d. More detail in V.A. ATC Clearances and V.B. Compliance with Procedures and Clearances
B. Setup / Pertinent Information
i. Technique is to use FFIIMMMMS:
a. Fixes
• Expected fixes
• How to identify them
• Altitudes / speeds associated
b. Frequencies
• Navigation
• Communication

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c. Inbound Course
• Set
• Be alert for course changes
d. Identify
• Tune, identify, monitor (details below)
e. Marker Beacons
• On, if required
• Expected location
f. Minimums
• Verify approach category and straight-in vs circling
g. Minutes
• From FAF to MAP, if required
h. Missed Approach
• Understand the procedure
• Commit the first 2-3 steps to memory (i.e., climbing right turn heading XXXo)
i. Security
• Passengers
• Seat belts
• Equipment
ii. Tune, Identify, Monitor
a. To identify / verify there are generally two options:
• G1000 (or similar) will put the navaid ID next to the frequency, indicating it is identified
• Listen to the Nav for the Morse code identifier
b. If the identifier is not displayed or heard, the navaid is out of service and should not be used
iii. Inoperable aircraft navigation equipment will show a flag, indicating that it is not working
C. Approach Briefing
i. Briefing strip plus any other pertinent information
ii. Brief should be short and sweet. Technique: Less than 1 min, otherwise people stop paying attention
iii. CFI should give example brief
D. *Checklists, and Configuration and Airspeed
i. Checklists
a. Arriving at any Fix – 5 T’s: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
b. Pre-Landing Checklist
• LBBGUMPFS - Landing Gear, Boost Pump, Brakes (off), Gas, Undercarriage, Mixture, Prop,
Flaps, Seat Belts
c. Inside Outer Marker / FAF – Reds, Blues, Greens, Whites, Power: 11-13” Hg
• Mixture, Prop, Engine Gauges, Lights, Power
ii. Configuration and Airspeed
a. Procedure Turn / Localizer Intercept
• Airspeed: 100 KIAS
• Power: 18-20” Hg, 2300 RPM
b. ½ Dot Above Glide Slope
• Airspeed: Decelerating to 90 KIAS
• Power: 18-20” Hg 2300 RPM
• Flaps: Takeoff Flaps
c. Glide Slope Intercept (FAF)
• Airspeed: 90 KIAS

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• Power: 13-14” MP 2300 RPM

• Pitch: 5o Nose Down
6. Cold Weather Corrections (AIM 7-3)
A. When temperatures are colder than standard, true altitude is less than indicated altitude
i. The colder the temperature, the greater the difference – obstacle clearance may be an issue
ii. In extreme cold conditions, pilots may need to make temperature corrections to approach altitudes
a. Do not correct altitudes specifically assigned by ATC (i.e., “maintain 5,000 ft”)
b. If temperature corrections are applied, advise ATC of the correction
• Not required if correcting on the final segment only
B. Cold Temperature Airports (CTA) (AIM 7-3-4)
i. Airports at high risk for loss of required obstacle clearance
ii. Will have an icon and temperature limit published on the IAP in the TPP
iii. CTA List (Scroll down to Additional Resources –> Cold Temperature Airports PDF)
C. Cold Temperature Airport Procedures (AIM 7-3-5)
i. Correct at, at or above, and at or below altitudes when reported temps are below published temp
ii. Do not correct SID, ODP, or STAR altitudes
iii. All Segments Method
a. Snow flake icon / CTA temperature limit – No need to reference CTA list
b. Correct all segments from IAF to MA holding altitude
iv. Individual Segments Method
a. Only correct the marked segments indicated in the CTA list
D. ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table

i. Enter the chart at the reported temperature

ii. Find the corresponding column for Height Above Airport
a. Height Above Airport = Chart Altitude (FAF altitude, MDA, etc.) minus Airport Elevation
iii. Raise your altitude by the amount shown – interpolate, if necessary
iv. Use the 5,000’ column for altitudes > 5,000’ – no extrapolation is required
7. Safety & Efficiency
A. Safety
i. Personal Minimums
a. Set personal minimums based on comfort level and experience
• Wind, ceiling, visibility, weather phenomena, airspace, etc.
• Do not bend or break these minimums
b. Just because it’s legal does not mean it’s safe
ii. Aircraft Capabilities
a. Ensure aircraft capabilities are sufficient for the planned and/or assigned approach
• All required NAVAIDs
• Meet required performance (altitudes, climb gradients on missed, etc.)

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• Airspeeds and approach category

• Notes
a Check notes to verify they do not affect the approach
iii. Situational Awareness
a. Stay ahead of the airplane
b. If SA is lost, consider a missed approach or request vectors to set-up for the approach again
c. Ask for help, if necessary
iv. Currency & NOTAMs
a. Verify current charts and check NOTAMs for changes to published information
B. Efficiency
i. Standard Operating Procedures
a. Briefings: Review all pertinent information the same way every time
b. Aircraft: Checklists, power settings, airspeeds, 5 T’s, etc.
• Consistency = efficiency
ii. Review approaches
a. The more familiar you are, the more situational awareness and ability to adapt to changes
iii. Succinct Communications
a. Know what you’re going to say before keying the mic
b. AIM Pilot Controller Glossary

Common Errors
• Failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach chart
• Incorrect communications procedures or noncompliance with ATC clearances or instructions
• Failure to accomplish checklist items
• Faulty basic instrument flying technique
• Inappropriate descent below MDA

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a precision instrument approach by describing-
A. selection of the appropriate instrument approach chart.
B. pertinent information on the selected instrument approach chart.
C. selection, tuning, identification, and determination of operational status of ground and aircraft
navigation equipment.
D. radio communications with ATC and compliance with ATC clearances, instructions, and
procedures.
E. appropriate aircraft configuration, airspeed, and checklist items.
F. adjustments applied to the published DH/DA and visibility criteria for the aircraft approach
category.
G. maintenance of altitude, airspeed, and track, where applicable.
H. establishment and maintenance of an appropriate rate of descent during the final approach
segment.
I. factors that should be considered in determining whether:
i. the approach should be continued straight-in to a landing;

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ii. a circling approach to a landing should be made; or

iii. a missed approach should be performed.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a precision instrument approach by
describing-
A. failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach procedure
chart.
B. incorrect communications procedures or noncompliance with ATC clearances.
C. failure to accomplish checklist items.
D. faulty basic instrument flying technique.
E. inappropriate application of DH/DA.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a precision instrument approach from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a precision instrument approach.
5. Exhibits instructional knowledge on the uses of the MFD and other parameters to maintain desired
flightpath.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Accomplish the precision instrument approach(es) selected by the examiner.
2. Establish two-way communications with ATC appropriate for the phase of flight or approach segment,
and use proper communication phraseology.
3. Select, tune, identify, and confirm the operational status of navigation equipment to be used for the
approach procedure.
4. Comply with all clearances issued by ATC or the evaluator.
5. Recognize if any flight instrumentation is inaccurate or inoperative, and take appropriate action.
6. Advise ATC or the evaluator of any inability to comply with a clearance.
7. Establish the appropriate aircraft configuration and airspeed considering turbulence and wind shear,
and complete the aircraft checklist items appropriate to the phase of the flight.
8. Maintain altitude ±100 feet, selected heading ±10°, airspeed ±10 knots, prior to beginning the final
approach segment.
9. Apply adjustments to the published DA/DH and visibility criteria for the aircraft approach category, as
appropriate for factors that include NOTAMs, inoperative aircraft or navigation equipment, or
inoperative visual aids associated with the landing environment, etc.
10. Establish a predetermined rate of descent at the point at the point where vertical guidance begins,
which approximates that required for the aircraft to follow the vertical guidance.
11. Maintain a stabilized final approach from the Final Approach Fix (FAF) to DA/DH allowing no more than
¾-scale deflection of either the vertical or lateral guidance indications and maintain the desired airspeed
within ±10 knots.
12. Immediately initiate the missed approach when at the DA/DH, and the required visual references for the
runway are not unmistakably visible and identifiable.
13. Transition to a normal landing approach only when the aircraft is in a position from which a descent to a
landing on the runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvering.
14. Maintain a stabilized visual flight path from the DA/DH to the runway aiming point where a normal
landing may be accomplished within the touchdown zone.
15. Use an MFD and other graphical navigation displays, if installed, to monitor position, track wind drift,
and to maintain situational awareness.

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VIII.C. Missed Approach

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to reading and flying a missed
approach procedure.

Key Elements 1. Brief the Missed Approach

2. Know the first step of the Missed Approach (Don’t hesitate when it’s time to go missed)
3. 5 Ts at every waypoint: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk

Elements 1. What is a Missed Approach?

2. When is a Missed Approach Required?
3. Flying a Missed Approach
4. Required Reports
5. Notification if Unable to Comply
6. Safety & Efficiency

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can understand a fly missed approach procedures without the assistance of the
Standards instructor.
VIII.C. Missed Approach

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The missed approach is a published route and altitude that will keep the aircraft safe from obstacles and
other aircraft in the case you are unable to land. The missed approach can be required for various reasons,
such as weather below minimums, another aircraft on the runway, or an unstable approach.

Why
The missed approach is necessary to provide a safe published option to leave the approach and reassess the
situation (try the approach again, depart to the alternate airport, etc.)

How:
1. What is a Missed Approach?
A. Basics
i. Procedure flown if unable to land from an instrument approach
ii. Route and altitude(s) designed to return to the airway structure while remaining clear of obstacles
iii. Begins at the missed approach point and continues to a fix and / or holding pattern
B. More Details
i. Approach clearance = clearance to fly the published missed approach, unless otherwise instructed
ii. Missed approach course begins at the missed approach point
a. Climb can start prior to MAP (be aware of any climb restrictions on the procedure)
b. Do not start route until reaching the MAP – route is designed from the MAP to avoid obstacles
iii. Assumes a climb rate of 200’ per NM, unless published higher
C. Approach Chart
i. Missed Approach Procedure
a. Each chart defines its respective missed approach
b. Provided in text form as well as in graphic form
• The text is show in the Missed Approach box (in the briefing strip)
• NACO: Diagram is show with a dashed line and usually is followed by a hold at a fix
• Jepp: Diagram on the plan view (dashed line), plus step by step visual below the profile view
ii. Missed Approach Point
a. All Charts
• Shown in profile / plan view by the end of the solid course and beginning of dashed course
a Drawn for the lowest published minima
b. Precision Approach - Point at which the aircraft reaches the DA or DH while on the glideslope
c. Non-Precision Approach – many different depictions
• NAVAID on the airport – when crossing the navaid
• Specific Fix – Radial / DME, DME distance, RNAV waypoint, etc.
• Time and Distance from FAF – reference the table showing distance and time from the FAF
to MAP at specific airspeeds (use approximate groundspeed, interpolate if necessary)

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VIII.C. Missed Approach

2. When is a Missed Approach Required?

A. AIM 5-5-5: Execute a missed approach when one of the following exists:
i. At the MAP, DA/DH and visual reference to the runway environment is insufficient
a. FAR 91.175: Visual reference requirements (below)
ii. A safe approach or landing is not possible
iii. Instructed to do so by ATC
B. FAR 91.175: May not operate below MDA or continue below the DA unless:
i. Descent can be made at a normal rate using normal maneuvers
ii. Flight visibility is not less than that required in the approach
iii. At least one of the following references for the intended runway is visible and identifiable:
a. Approach Light System
• Cannot descend below 100’ above TDZE unless the red terminating bars or side row bars are
visible and identifiable
b. Threshold, Threshold Marking, Threshold Lights
c. Touchdown Zone or Touchdown Zone Markings, Touchdown Zone Lights
d. Runway or Runway Markings, Runway Lights
e. REIL or VASI
C. A rejected landing for any reason (men, equipment, on the runway, unstable, emergency, etc.)
3. Flying a Missed Approach
A. Power - Apply full power
B. Attitude - Establish a climb attitude. Pitch for VX or VY based on the required climb
i. *7o Nose Up
C. Configuration - Configure the airplane for the climb (like a takeoff)
i. *Initiate the missed approach / go-around and retract the flaps to takeoff, at a safe altitude and
speed, retract the flaps
D. Once established in the climb, continue like a normal takeoff (After Takeoff or Climb checklist)
E. Importance of Positive Aircraft Control
i. Just like in a go around, the missed approach can be a dangerous maneuver, especially in IFR
ii. Maintain positive control of the aircraft to ensure safety
a. Low, IMC, disorienting power and pitch changes
b. Departure Stall / Elevator trim stall
iii. Maintain the published missed approach course and altitudes for safety
a. Technique: Commit the first 2-3 steps of the missed approach to memory
• Focus on flying not reading the chart
F. Compliance with the Published Missed Approach Procedure
i. Unless ATC issues other instructions, comply with the missed approach procedure
a. Be aware of alternate missed approach procedures and comply if necessary
• Specific ATC instructions, alternate hold fix depicted on the chart, etc.
ii. Missed approach prior to the MAP: Continue on the approach course until reaching the MAP
iii. Aviate, Navigate, Communicate
iv. Once established on the missed approach, request clearance based on your intentions
a. i.e., another approach, hold for improved conditions, proceed to an alternate
b. May not need to fly the entire missed approach procedure
4. Required Reports (AIM 5-5-5)
A. Advise ATC that you are flying the missed approach (remember, they may not be able to see you at all)
i. When time permits, include the reason for the missed approach, unless it is initiated by ATC
B. Report time and altitude entering the hold
C. Cold Temperature Airport altitude corrections

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VIII.C. Missed Approach

5. Notification if Unable to Comply with Clearance, Instruction, Gradient, Restriction

A. If unable to comply, inform ATC of the situation and request an alternate missed approach clearance
i. State, “unable”
ii. Coordinate ahead of time, do not wait until on the missed
B. Do not attempt the approach if unable to comply with any part of the procedure
i. Safety first!
6. Safety & Efficiency
A. Safety
i. Performance
a. Ensure the aircraft can meet any missed approach requirements (climb gradients, altitudes, etc.)
ii. Terrain and Obstructions: Be aware of terrain and obstructions, follow the designed MAP
a. If you go missed prior to the missed approach point, do not turn early
B. Efficiency
i. Standard Operating Procedures
a. Briefings: Review all pertinent information the same way every time
b. Aircraft: Checklists, power settings, airspeeds, 5 T’s, etc.
• Consistency = efficiency
ii. Review missed approach procedure
a. The more familiar you are, the more situational awareness and ability to adapt to changes
b. Memorize at least the initial steps (for example, climbing right turn heading XXX)
iii. Succinct Communications
a. Inform ATC that you are flying the missed approach
b. Know what you’re going to say before keying the mic
c. AIM Pilot Controller Glossary

Common Errors
• Failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach chart
• Failure to recognize conditions requiring a missed approach
• Failure to promptly initiate a missed approach
• Failure to make the required report to ATC
• Failure to comply with the missed approach procedure
• Faulty basic instrument flying technique
• Descent below the MDA prior to initiating a missed approach

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a missed approach procedure by describing-
A. pertinent information on the selected instrument approach chart.
B. conditions requiring a missed approach.
C. initiation of the missed approach, including the prompt application of power, establishment of a
climb attitude, and reduction of drag.
D. required report to ATC.
E. compliance with the published or alternate missed approach procedure.

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VIII.C. Missed Approach

F. notification of ATC if the aircraft is unable to comply with a clearance, instruction, restriction, or
climb gradient.
G. performance of recommended checklist items appropriate to the go-around procedure.
H. importance of positive aircraft control.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a missed approach by describing-
A. failure to have essential knowledge of the information on the instrument approach chart.
B. failure to recognize conditions requiring a missed approach.
C. failure to promptly initiate a missed approach.
D. failure to make the required report to ATC.
E. failure to comply with the missed approach procedure.
F. faulty basic instrument flying technique.
G. descent below the MDA prior to initiating a missed approach.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a missed approach from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a missed approach.
5. Exhibits instructional knowledge on the uses of the MFD and other graphical navigational displays, if
installed, to monitor position and track to help navigate the missed approach.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Initiate the missed approach promptly by applying power, establishing a climb attitude, and reducing
drag in accordance with the aircraft manufacturer’s recommendations.
2. Report to ATC upon beginning the missed approach procedure.
3. Comply with the published or alternate missed approach procedure.
4. Advise ATC or the evaluator of any inability to comply with a clearance, restriction, or climb gradient.
5. Follow the recommended checklist items appropriate to the missed approach/go-around procedure.
6. Request, if appropriate, ATC clearance to the alternate airport, clearance limit, or as directed by the
evaluator.
7. Maintain the recommended airspeed ±10 knots; heading, course, or bearing ±10°; and altitude(s) ±100
feet during the missed approach procedure.
8. Use an MFD and other graphical navigation displays, if installed, to monitor position and track to help
navigate the missed approach.
9. Demonstrate SRM.

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VIII.D. Circling Approach

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to executing a circling
approach.

Key Elements 1. Use the Circling Minimums (not straight-in)

2. Lose Visual, Go Missed
3. Normal descent using normal maneuvers or Go Missed

Elements 1. What is a Circling Approach?

2. When Would I Circle?
3. Approach Charts
4. Protected Circling Area
5. How to Circle
6. Missed Approach from a Circle to Land
7. ATC Compliance
8. Safety & Efficiency

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands and can perform a circling approach to landing or a missed approach.
Standards
VIII.D. Circling Approach

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Circling approaches are designed when the final approach course is not aligned with the landing runway or a
steep descent gradient is required to reach the runway from the FAF. In this case you are expected to circle,
or visually fly a traffic pattern to align yourself with the landing runway.

Why
Many airports have approaches that bring you to the airport rather than to a specific runway. Once you have
visual contact with the airport it is your responsibility to realign with the landing runway per the tower
instructions (or based on traffic at an uncontrolled field). Other situations which can result in a circling
approach are low weather combined with the wind favoring a different runway (ILS to Runway 02, but the
wind is out of the south. In this case, you have to fly the ILS to runway 02 and circle to land on runway 20
since it does not have an ILS), or steep descent gradients from the FAF (in which case a normal descent rate
may not get you onto the runway, and you have to circle to make a normal landing).

How:
1. What is a Circling Approach?
A. Circling Only Approach: An approach without straight-in landing minimums
i. Straight-in approach with circling minimums: Used if it is necessary to land on a different runway
B. Circling only approaches are designed for the following reasons:
i. Final approach course alignment with the runway centerline exceeds 30o
ii. Descent gradient is greater than 400’ per NM from the FAF to the threshold crossing height (TCH)
iii. Final approach course does not cross the extended runway centerline prior to the runway threshold
iv. A runway is not clearly defined on the airfield
C. Identified by the type of approach followed by a letter
i. The 1st circling approach will be labeled ‘A.’ Lettering will continue in alphabetical order
D. Most straight-in approaches also have circling minimums listed
i. Approach can be flown to the runway with the intent to circle to land on another runway
E. Generally, tower will instruct the direction of your circle
i. For example, circle East of the field for a left downwind, runway 18
F. Circling may require maneuvers at low altitude, at low airspeed, and in marginal weather conditions
i. Use sound judgment, have an in-depth knowledge of capabilities, and fully understand the aircraft
performance to determine the exact circling maneuver since weather, unique airport design, and
the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be considered
2. When Would I Circle? Examples can include:
A. Required by the procedure (i.e., circling approach is the only option)
B. Terrain – Ex. Mountains surrounding airport - Winds favor landing east but can only approach from East
C. Weather – Approaches don’t serve the runway best suited for landing. Find an approach that does work
and circle to land on the wind favored runway
D. Construction – Approach to a closed runway; fly approach to the closed runway, circle to open runway

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VIII.D. Circling Approach

3. Approach Charts
A. Approach Name
i. Identified by the type of approach followed by a letter
a. The 1st circling approach will be labeled ‘A.’ Lettering will continue in alphabetical order
ii. Straight-in approaches can also have circling minimums
B. Circling Minimums
i. NACO Charts
a. Circling minimums are shown in the Landing Minimums section and can differ by category
b. Below the straight-in minimums (if there are any)
ii. Jeppesen Charts
a. Shown in the Minimums section and can differ by aircraft category
b. To the right of the straight-in minimums (if there are any)
C. Notes – Often times there are Notes in the Briefing section of the approach that apply to circling
i. For example, circling to certain runways is NA at night, or circling south of the field is NA
D. Selection of the Appropriate Circling Maneuver
i. If a circling approach has been assigned to you by ATC (i.e., VOR-A) use the corresponding chart
ii. If cleared for an approach to a runway followed by a circle to land on a different runway, use the
approach chart you were cleared to fly
a. Use the circling minimums rather than the straight-in minimums
b. Once the airport complex is visible, circle to the appropriate runway for landing
4. Protected Circling Area
A. Aircraft must remain in their respective category protected areas
i. Circling minimums provide at least 300’ of obstacle clearance within the protected area
B. Standard Circling Minimums
i. Protected areas use the based on fixed radius distances, dependent on aircraft category
a. The faster the plane, the larger the protected area
b. Table on page B2 of the U.S. TPP
ii. Circling Radius:
Approach Category and Circling Radius (NM)
Circling MDA in feet MSL
CAT A CAT B CAT C CAT D CAT E
All Altitudes 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.3 4.5
C. Enhanced Circling Minimums
i. Circling approach areas developed after late 2012 use enhanced circling minimums
a. Also shown on page B2 of the U.S. TPP
b. Identified by the “negative C” symbol on the circling minima (black box with a white C inside)
c. Dependent on aircraft category, but also take into account the altitude of the circling MDA
• This accounts for increases in true airspeed with altitude
ii. Circling Radius:
Approach Category and Circling Radius (NM)
Circling MDA in feet MSL
CAT A CAT B CAT C CAT D CAT E
1000 or less 1.3 1.7 2.7 3.6 4.5
1001-3000 1.3 1.8 2.8 3.7 4.6
3001-5000 1.3 1.8 2.9 3.8 4.8
5001-7000 1.3 1.9 3.0 4.0 5.0
7001-9000 1.4 2.0 3.2 4.2 5.3
9001 and above 1.4 2.1 3.3 4.4 5.5
5. How to Circle

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VIII.D. Circling Approach

A. Descend to the circling minimums

i. If visual prior to reaching circling minimums consider leveling off higher
a. More altitude is safer and provides a more normal approach to landing
ii. Descent is generally at a higher rate than a normal approach
a. The earlier you get down, the easier it is to circle (within reason)
b. Remember, never over 1,000 fpm descent
B. Once visual, inform tower and begin the circle based on tower’s instructions
i. If no tower, broadcast intentions and begin the circle
C. Stay within the circling area
i. Maintain visual contact with the airport area, especially the runway of intended landing
D. Fly no lower than the circling minimums until you are in a position to make a final descent for a landing
i. Remain at or above until a normal rate of descent and normal maneuvers will allow for landing
ii. Minimums are the lowest you can fly. If you can, fly at an altitude close to a VFR pattern
E. If at any point visual contact is lost, go missed
F. Basic Rules (AIM 5-4-20):
i. Maneuver the shortest path to the base or downwind leg, weather permitting
a. No restriction to passing over the airport or other runways
ii. Circling maneuvers may be made while VFR or other traffic is flying. Standard left turns or specific
instruction from the controller for maneuvering must be considered when circling
iii. Without a tower, it may be beneficial to overfly the airport to observe wind indicators / traffic
6. Missed Approach from a Circle to Land
A. During a circling approach, maintain visual contact with the runway of intended landing
B. If visual contact is lost, fly the missed approach for the instrument approach that you were cleared to fly
i. Begin a climbing turn toward the landing runway
ii. Continue the turn until established on the missed approach course
a. Procedures to intercept will vary based on the airport / specific missed approach course
iii. Once reestablished on course, fly the published missed approach procedure
C. Inform tower / ATC of the missed approach and coordinate for what you’d like to do next
7. ATC Compliance
A. Comply with the clearances, restrictions, etc. given by ATC
i. Circling instructions (approach, circling direction, pattern entry, etc.)
B. In the case that the clearance seems unsafe or is not understood, question ATC
i. Reply unable if necessary
8. Safety & Efficiency
A. Safety
i. Verify circling minimums and not straight-in minimums
ii. Be aware of terrain and obstructions, follow the designed MAP
iii. Missed Approach Procedure: Fly the procedure for the approach (not the landing runway)
B. Efficiency
i. Standard Operating Procedures
a. Briefings: Review all pertinent information the same way every time
b. Aircraft: Checklists, power settings, airspeeds, 5 T’s, etc.
• Consistency = efficiency
ii. Review missed approach procedure
a. The more familiar you are, the more situational awareness and ability to adapt to changes
b. Memorize at least the initial steps (for example, climbing right turn heading XXX)
iii. Succinct Communications
a. Know what you’re going to say before keying the mic

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VIII.D. Circling Approach

b. AIM Pilot Controller Glossary

Common Errors:
• Failure to have essential knowledge of the circling approach information on the approach chart
• Failure to adhere to the published MDA and visibility criteria during the circling approach maneuver
• Inappropriate pilot technique during the transition from the circling maneuver to the landing approach

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of a circling approach by describing-
A. selection of the appropriate circling approach maneuver considering the maneuvering capabilities
of the aircraft.
B. circling approach minimums on the selected instrument approach chart.
C. compliance with advisories, clearance instructions, and/or restrictions.
D. importance of flying a circling approach pattern that does not exceed the published visibility
criteria.
E. maintenance of an altitude no lower than the circling MDA until in a position from which a
descent to a normal landing can be made.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to a circling approach by describing-
A. failure to have essential knowledge of the circling approach information on the instrument
approach chart.
B. failure to adhere to the published MDA and visibility criteria during the circling approach
maneuver.
C. inappropriate pilot technique during transition from the circling maneuver to the landing
approach.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a circling approach from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to a circling approach.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Select and comply with the circling approach procedure considering turbulence, wind shear, and the
maneuvering capabilities of the aircraft.
2. Confirm the direction of traffic and adhere to all restrictions and instructions issued by ATC or the
evaluator.
3. Maneuver the aircraft, at or above the MDA, 90o or more from the final approach course, on a flightpath
permitting a normal landing on a suitable runway.
4. Avoid circling beyond visibility requirements and maintain the appropriate circling altitude until in a
position from which a descent to a normal landing can be made.
5. Establish the approach and landing configuration for the situation and maintain altitude +100/-0 feet
until a descent to a normal landing can be made.
6. Demonstrate SRM.

260
VIII.E. Landing from a Straight-In Approach

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to landing after a straight in
instrument approach.

Key Elements 1. Maintain a stabilized approach

2. Do not disregard GS/LOC once visual
3. Use VASI/PAPI to help transition

Elements 1. Required Visibility

2. Transitioning to Visual Flight
3. Stable Approach
4. Checklists
5. ATC Advisories

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can competently and comfortably transition from an instrument approach to
Standards visual landing.
VIII.E. Landing from a Straight-In Approach

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The pilot must have the ability to transition from an instrument (inside the cockpit) approach to a visual
approach (outside the cockpit) for landing.

Why
If you plan on safely landing after an instrument approach, you’re going to have to be able to transition to the
visual approach and make the landing.

How:
1. Required Visibility
A. FAR 91.175: May not land when flight visibility is less than the visibility required on the approach
i. ATC will provide current visibility reports
a. Reported as prevailing visibility, runway visual value (RVV), or runway visual range (RVR)
• Prevailing Visibility: The greatest horizontal visibility equaled or exceeded throughout at
least half the horizon circle (not necessarily continuous)
a Reported in miles or fractions of miles
• RVV: The visibility determined for a particular runway by a transmissometer
a Reported in miles or fractions of miles
b Used in lieu of prevailing visibility in determining minimums for a runway
• RVR: The horizontal distance a pilot will see down the runway from the approach end
a What a pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down the runway
b Reported in hundreds of feet
c Types of RVR: Touchdown, Mid, Rollout, Far end
d Primarily used by Part 121/135 operators
B. However, only the pilot can determine if the flight visibility meets the landing requirements
i. If visibility meets the approach minimums, the approach may be continued to landing
ii. If it doesn’t meet minimums, execute a missed approach regardless of reported visibility
iii. RVR is difficult to argue (i.e., if a landing is made with RVR reported lower than required)
C. Inoperative Components or Visual Aids
i. Published minimums are based on full operation of all associated components and visual aids
ii. Higher minimums are required with inoperative equipment
a. If more than one component is inoperative, each minimum is raised to the highest minimum
required by any single inoperative component
iii. See Inoperative Components or Visual Aids Table
a. Inside front cover of the TPP
2. Transitioning to Visual Flight
A. 100’ to 200’ above MDA / DA attention should be split between the instruments and outside the
airplane to visually acquire at least one visual reference for the runway

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VIII.E. Landing from a Straight-In Approach

i. Approach Light System

a. May continue to 100’ above touch down zone elevation
ii. Threshold, Threshold Markings, Threshold Lights
iii. Touchdown Zone, Touchdown Zone Markings, Touchdown Zone Lights
iv. Runway, Runway Markings, Runway Lights
v. REIL
vi. VASI
B. Once visual, if available, use the VASI / PAPI to smoothly transition to visual flight
i. If using vertical guidance (ex. ILS), do not disregard the glideslope once visual – split attention inside
and outside. Remain on the glidepath
ii. Otherwise, establish a normal approach and landing site picture
C. Be aware of environmental, operational, and meteorological factors that may be at play
i. Ex: sloped runway, night vs day approach, approach and runway lighting, haze, heavy rain, etc.
ii. Use visual and instrument indications to maintain a stable approach to landing
3. Stable Approach
A. Essential for safe operations. Maintain positive control at all times
B. Stable approach simplifies the transition to visual flight
i. Constant approach speed, descent, rate, vertical flight path, configuration
a. Minimize changes during the transition
C. Use a Visual Descent Point (VDP)
i. VDP can be used as a makeshift missed approach point
ii. Beyond the VDP descent rates become greater than 3o and can lead to an unstable approach
D. Also helps to recognize wind shear situations should abnormal indications exist during the approach
E. Perform a missed approach if the airplane cannot be positively controlled for any reason
i. Weather, pilot work overload, inability, etc.
ii. Once missed, advise ATC what you would like to do next
4. Checklists
A. Once transitioned to visual flight, verify the before landing checklist has been completed
i. Reds, Blues, Greens, Whites, Power (mixture, prop, gauges, lights, power setting)
B. Maintain a normal approach speed
C. Do not let the transition distract from flying the airplane / checklists
i. Go around if distracted or behind
ii. Don’t assume / hope checklists are complete
5. ATC Advisories
A. Adhere to ATC advisories. Don’t ignore them
B. Advisories could be NOTAMs, wind shear, wake turbulence, runway surface, braking conditions, etc.
i. How will this affect this flight? Can the flight be completed as planned / intended?
C. Consider the impact on the specific flight and take action to ensure safety of the passengers and yourself
i. Go around and fly the missed approach if you need more time to consider the advisories effects

Common Errors
• Inappropriate division of attention during the transition from instrument to visual flight conditions
• Failure to complete required checklist items
• Failure to properly plan and perform the turn to final approach
• Improper technique for wind shear, wake turbulence, and crosswind
• Failure to maintain positive aircraft control throughout the complete landing maneuver

Conclusion:

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VIII.E. Landing from a Straight-In Approach

Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to landing from a straight in approach by
describing-
A. effect of specific environmental, operational, and meteorological factors.
B. transition to, and maintenance of, a visual flight condition.
C. adherence to ATC advisories, such as NOTAMs, wind shear, wake turbulence, runway surface, and
braking conditions.
D. completion of appropriate checklist items.
E. maintenance of positive aircraft control.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to landing from a straight-in approach by
describing-
A. inappropriate division of attention during the transition from instrument to visual flight
conditions.
B. failure to complete required checklist items.
C. failure to properly plan and perform the turn to final approach.
D. improper technique for wind shear, wake turbulence, and crosswind.
E. failure to maintain positive aircraft control throughout the complete landing maneuver.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains a landing from a straight-in approach from an instructional
standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to landing from a straight-in approach.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Transition at the DA/DH, MDA, or Visual Descent Point (VDP) to a visual flight condition, allowing for
safe visual maneuvering and a normal landing.
2. Adhere to all ATC or evaluator advisories, such as NOTAMs, wind shear, wake turbulence, runway
surface, braking conditions, and other operational considerations.
3. Complete the appropriate checklist items for the pre-landing and landing phase.
4. Maintain positive aircraft control throughout the complete landing maneuver.
5. Demonstrate SRM.

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VIII.X. Procedure Turns

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should understand what procedure turns are, when they’re used, and how to fly
them.

Key Elements 1. PT, Hold-in-lieu, Teardrop

2. When NOT to use a PT

Elements 1. What is a PT?

2. Types of Procedure Turns
3. When not to use a PT
4. More Details

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands when a procedure turn is required and how to fly the required
Standards procedure.
VIII.X. Procedure Turns

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A maneuver prescribed when it’s necessary to reverse direction to establish the aircraft inbound on an
approach course.

Why
Not only are they required (at times), and therefore important, but when to fly or not fly the PT can be
confusing.

How:
Note: All turns discussed in this lesson are assumed to be standard rate turns
1. What is a Procedure Turn (PT)?
A. A way to get the aircraft safely aligned with the final approach course
i. Depending on the direction of arrival, a straight in approach is not always possible
B. Facilitates
i. Reversal in flight direction
ii. Descent from an initial approach fix or assigned altitude to the published PT altitude
iii. Intercepting the inbound course at a sufficient distance to get aligned with final approach
C. 3 basic procedure turns: 45o/180o, Holding in Lieu of a PT, Teardrop
D. Instrument approach charts depict the procedure in the plan view and profile view
2. Types of Procedure Turns
A. Holding pattern in lieu of a procedure turn (pictured below, left)
i. Holding pattern is established over an intermediate fix (IF) or FAF
ii. Treat like a normal hold, using standard hold entry procedures
iii. Once established inbound, if cleared for the approach, start the approach
a. Additional circuits are neither necessary nor expected by ATC
b. If you need to make additional circuits, it is your responsibility to inform ATC
iv. Notes
a. When a holding pattern is depicted (rather than a PT), the holding pattern must be followed
• Exceptions:
a Radar vectors
b NoPT is shown on the approach course
b. Maximum holding airspeeds apply
c. Holding pattern distance or time shown in the profile view must be followed
B. Teardrop (pictured below, right)
i. Consists of:
a. Departure from an IAF on a published outbound course
b. A turn back toward the inbound course, and
c. Intercepting the inbound course prior to the IF

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VIII.X. Procedure Turns

ii. Purpose: reverse direction and lose considerable altitude within reasonably limited airspace
iii. Notes
a. Like the hold in lieu, if a teardrop is depicted it must be flown
b. If there is no fix to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it is assumed to commence
10 nm prior to the FAF
c. When the facility is located on an airport, an aircraft is considered on final approach upon
completion of the penetration turn, however the final approach segment begins on the final
approach course 10 nm from the facility

C. Barbed Arrow (45o/180o) (pictured below)

i. More flexible than the teardrop and holding in lieu procedures
ii. Depicted on instrument approach charts as a 45o/180o barbed arrow
a. However, the point at which the turn is commenced, and the type/rate of turn is up to the pilot
• In addition to the 45o/180o PT, options include the 80o/260o, racetrack, and teardrop PTs

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VIII.X. Procedure Turns

• Still must comply with any remain within distance on the chart

iii. Flying the 45o/180o (example times, adjust as required) (pictured below, left)
a. Start timing when crossing the fix outbound (Pt. A)
b. Fly outbound for a given time (ex. 2 minutes)
c. After 2 minutes (Pt. B), turn 45o to the LEFT
d. Fly the new heading for a given amount of time (ex. 1 min)
e. After 1 minute (Pt. C), turn RIGHT 180o
f. Fly this heading to intercept the final approach course and turn the last 45o (Pt. D)
iv. Flying the 80/260 (pictured below, center)
a. Start timing when crossing the fix outbound (Pt. A)
b. Fly outbound for a given time (ex. 2 minutes)
c. After 2 minutes (Pt. B), turn 80o to the LEFT
d. Immediately start a right turn for 260o and intercept the final approach course (Pt. D)
v. Flying the Teardrop (pictured below, right)
a. Three typical procedure turn – 30o, 20o, 10o
• Selection should be based on assessment of the specific PT
a Wind, complexity, preparedness, altitude, etc.
b. At point B, turn left:
• 30o for 1 minute
• 20o for 2 minutes
• 10o for 3 minutes
c. After the appropriate time, start a right turn to intercept the final approach course

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VIII.X. Procedure Turns

• For 30o entry, turn 210o

• For 20o entry, turn 200o
• For 10o entry, turn 190o
vi. Flying the Racetrack
a. Like a hold
b. Entries should be conducted on the maneuvering side
vii. In all entries, adjust for wind as well as for any remain within distance on the chart

3. When NOT to use a Procedure Turn

A. FAR 91.175(j): In the case of a radar vector to a final approach course or fix, a timed approach from a
holding fix, or an approach for which the procedure specifies “No PT,” no pilot may make a procedure
turn unless cleared to do so by ATC
B. AIM 5-4-9(a): The procedure turn or hold-in-lieu-of-PT is a required maneuver when it is depicted on the
approach chart, unless cleared by ATC for a straight-in approach
C. AIM 5-4-9(b) Limitations on Procedure Turns
i. In the case of a radar initial approach to a final approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a
holding fix, or where the procedure specifies NoPT, no pilot may make a procedure turn unless,
when final approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises ATC and a clearance is received to
execute a procedure turn
a. This was mentioned in FAR 91.175
ii. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course reversal is required, this type turn must
be executed
a. Mentioned above in Section 3, but good to note the source
iii. When a holding pattern replaces a procedure turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except
when radar vectoring is provided or when NoPT is shown on the approach course
a. Mentioned above in Section 3, but good to note
iv. The absence of the procedure turn barb in the plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not
authorized for that procedure
D. All Together (SNoRT):
i. Straight-in approach
ii. NoPT
iii. Radar Vectors
iv. Timed approach
v. Absence of the PT barb
vi. Also,
a. If the teardrop is depicted and course reversal required, a teardrop procedure must be executed
b. If a holding pattern is depicted, it must be followed, except when radar vectoring or NoPT

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VIII.X. Procedure Turns

E. One more note

i. You may elect to use a PT or hold-in-lieu when it is not required by the procedure, but must first
receive an amended clearance from ATC
F. In all cases, if you’re unsure, ask!
4. More Details
A. Descents
i. The altitude prescribed for the PT is a minimum altitude until established on the inbound course
ii. Descent to the PT completion altitude from the PT fix altitude must not begin until crossing over the
PT fix or abeam and proceeding outbound
a. Shown with a note saying “Maintain (altitude) or above until established outbound for
procedure turn” or depict an “at or above” altitude at the PT fix
• Ensures required obstacle clearance
b. Absence of the note or altitude indicates that descent to the PT altitude can commence
immediately upon crossing over the PT fix, regardless of direction of flight
B. Specified Distance
i. The maneuver must be completed within the distance specified in the approach’s profile view
ii. Usually, 10 nm
C. Speeds
i. AIM 5-4-9(a)(3) Max speed 200 knots on an approach involving a procedure turn
a. Ensures containment within the obstruction clearance area
ii. Maximum holding speeds apply to hold-in-lieu procedures

270
IX. Emergency Operations
IX.A. Loss of Communications

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), AIM 6-4, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to loss of communications on
an IFR flight plan in IFR and VFR conditions.

Key Elements 1. Squawk 7600

2. Route: AVE F
3. Altitude: MEA

Elements 1. General
2. Recognizing Lost Communications
3. When to Continue as Filed and When to Deviate
4. The CFRs – FAR 91.185
5. When to Begin the Approach
6. Additionally…

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can safely and properly react to a lost communications situation on an IFR flight
Standards plan.
IX.A. Loss of Communications

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Lost communication is the inability to communicate with ATC on an IFR flight plan. It may be a total, 2-way,
loss of communication or just the inability to receive or transmit communications.

Why
Radio communication is essential to the safety and organization of aircraft when flying on an IFR flight plan.
Without radio communication there must be rules to follow so that ATC knows the route and altitude the
pilot will fly in order to keep the pilot as well as the surrounding traffic separated and safe.

How:
1. General
A. At any point, the pilot must know what route and altitude to fly and when to continue beyond a
clearance limit in the case of lost communications
i. ATC will clear the airspace to keep you and others safe
B. FAR 91.185 - IFR Operations: Two Way Radio Communications Failure - describes the procedures
C. Squawk 7600 to alert ATC to a radio communication failure
2. Recognizing Lost Communications
A. Recognizing a Possible Problem
i. If it has been abnormally quiet on the radio
a. Query ATC to see if it is a communication problem or just quiet
b. Could be a total loss of communication (transmitting and receiving), or just receiving
ii. You can hear other aircraft, but cannot get a response to your transmissions
B. Troubleshoot, do not immediately assume a loss of communications
i. Ensure proper set up of the communication equipment
a. Check the volume, power, switches, etc.
ii. Verify you are on the right frequency
a. If you can hear someone else, but not ATC, transmit a message through them to ATC
• You may be out of range of the ATC facility
• If no other aircraft, broadcast on guard to request a frequency
iii. Check the other comm, if available, for operation
C. Identify the Problem
i. May be able to transmit but not hear
a. May be difficult to identify
b. Transmit intentions, just in case they are going out
ii. You may be able to hear ATC but not transmit
a. In this case you can still receive ATC instruction
b. Response to ATC / understanding of their instructions can be made with the Ident button
iii. Total failure

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IX.A. Loss of Communications

a. Always continue to transmit intentions, just in case they’re going out

3. When to Continue as Filed and When to Deviate
A. Primary objective of the procedures is to prevent extended IFR operation without radio communication
B. If the radio fails while operating on an IFR clearance, but in VFR conditions
i. Continue the flight under VFR conditions, if possible, and land as soon as practicable
a. No requirement to land as soon as possible
C. If IFR conditions prevail, pilots must comply with the procedures designated in the CFRs
i. Ensures aircraft separation
4. The CFRs – FAR 91.185
A. Route (AVE F)– In order of importance:
i. Fly the route Assigned in the last ATC clearance received
ii. If being radar Vectored, fly the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway
specified in the vector clearance
iii. Fly the route that ATC has advised may be Expected in a further clearance
iv. Fly the route Filed in the flight plan
B. Altitude (MEA) – Fly the highest of the following for the route segment being flown:
i. Minimum altitude for IFR operations
ii. Altitude ATC has advised may be Expected
iii. Altitude Assigned in the last ATC clearance received
5. When to begin the Approach (Leaving a Clearance Limit)
A. When the clearance limit is a fix from which an approach begins
i. Commence descent as close as possible to the EFC time if one has been received
ii. If one has not been received, as close as possible to the ETA filed
B. When the clearance limit is not a fix from which an approach begins
i. Leave the clearance limit at the EFC time, if one has been received
ii. If one has not been received, leave upon arrival over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from
which an approach begins. Commence descent as close as possible to the ETA calculated from the
filed or amended estimated time en route
6. Additionally…
A. Squawk 7600
i. Since there is no radio to communicate with, this informs ATC of the problem
B. Use all possible means to re-establish radio communications
i. Monitor navaids, attempt to contact other aircraft, FSS, etc., run any applicable checklists
ii. Return to the previously assigned frequency
iii. Attempt contact with an FSS or New York Radio or San Francisco Radio
a. Give position, altitude, last assigned frequency
iv. Transmit on guard
v. No priority on which frequency to attempt first – if possible, do all at the same time
C. Continue to transmit your intentions to ATC / Guard in case you can transmit but can’t receive calls

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to loss of
communications by describing:
1. Recognition of loss of communications.
2. When to continue with flight plan as filed or when to deviate.

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IX.A. Loss of Communications

3. How to determine the time to begin an approach at destination.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Recognize a simulated loss of communication.
2. Simulate actions to re-establish communication.
3. Determine whether to continue to flight plan destination or deviate.
4. Determine appropriate time to begin an approach.

275
IX.B. Approach with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), Instrument Procedures Handbook,
(FAA-H-8083-16), AIM, IAP

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to partial panel flying.

Key Elements 1. Ignore the failed instruments

2. Get to VMC, if possible
3. Notify ATC (Aviate, Navigate, Communicate)

Elements 1. General
2. Recognizing Failed Instruments
3. Transition to Partial Panel
4. Notifying ATC
5. Restoring the Instruments
6. Flying an Approach

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can competently handle the airplane without gyro instruments in all phases of an
Standards IFR flight.
IX.B. Approach with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A gyro system failure can result in a loss of the heading indicator, attitude indicator and / or turn coordinator.

Why
A loss of the gyro driven instruments impacts the instruments used to fly the airplane in IMC. The pilot must
be able to transition to the remaining instruments to continue the flight and fly an approach to landing. If the
pilot understands how to use each instrument independently, no significant change is encountered when
other instruments fail.

How:
1. General
A. What’s Lost?
i. Heading Indicator, Attitude Indicator, and / or Turn Coordinator
ii. Traditionally, turn coordinators use a different power source than the heading / attitude indicators
a. Ex. Vacuum / suction for the attitude and heading gyros, and electric for the turn coordinator
b. If the heading / attitude indicators fail, the turn coordinator is still usable, and vice versa
B. Different Failures
i. AHRS Failure (Attitude and Heading Reference System)
a. Glass cockpit display – Loss of Attitude Indicator,
Heading Indicator, and Turn Coordinator
b. Generally, a Red X is displayed over the failed
components
• System failures are not standardized and may
be indicated differently in different aircraft
c. Transition to backup instruments (backup attitude
indicator, compass, moving map)
ii. Analog Instrument Failure
a. Indicated by a warning flag on the instrument(s),
or inconsistency between instruments
b. Compare the instruments to determine where the
failure exists
• Technique: Compare attitude indicator with
the rate of turn indicator and VSI
a Provides pitch and bank info, and
compares static system with suction or
pressure system and electrical system
iii. Pneumatic Instrument Failure

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IX.B. Approach with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators

a. Results from a loss of the suction or pressure source (vacuum failure)

b. As the gyroscopes slow down, they will begin to wander, displaying incorrect information
c. Many small aircraft do not have a warning system for vacuum failure
• Look for vacuum failure indications – monitor the vacuum pressure gauge
2. Recognizing Failed Instruments
A. Recognized by a warning indicator, or inconsistency between instruments
B. Immediately compare the Attitude Indicator with the Turn Coordinator and VSI
i. Along with providing pitch / bank information, this compares the static, suction, and electric systems
ii. Identify the failed components and use the remaining functional instruments to maintain control
C. On a G1000, the faulty instruments will be displayed with a red ‘X’
i. Navigate with the standby instruments and use the MFD / moving map to assist navigation
D. Aircraft control must be maintained while identifying the failed instruments
i. Expedite cross check of all instruments
3. Transition to Partial Panel
A. Very important to make a timely transition to partial panel condition
i. Failed instruments can distract / trick the pilot into improper control inputs leading to disorientation
B. Ignore the failed Attitude Indicator and Heading Indicator. Cover them if possible
C. Transition to a partial panel scan at once
i. Maintain pitch with Altimeter (primary), VSI, Airspeed Indicator (and backup attitude indicator, if
available)
a. Use small control pressures to prevent overcontrolling / chasing the altimeter
b. Two steps to fixing deviations:
• Smooth control input to stop the needle movement
• Adjust pitch to return to the desired altitude
ii. Maintain wings level with the Turn Coordinator (primary for bank), if available
a. Glass cockpit – use the backup attitude indicator
iii. Use the Magnetic Compass for heading information
a. Timed turns (standard rate) / Compass turns (adjust for compass errors – ANDS, UNOS)
D. Moving Map: Extremely helpful in maintaining course and orientation
i. Track up setting (rather than north up) allows for easier orientation and tracking of the course
4. Notifying ATC
A. Fly the plane first. When conditions permit, notify ATC of the issue and your ability to continue in IMC
B. If possible, continue flight in VFR conditions
i. Request vectors, use weather reports, etc.
C. If VMC is unavailable, choose and execute the best available approach via ATC vectors, if available
5. Restoring the Instruments
A. If time and conditions permit, troubleshoot the problem
B. Run applicable checklists, check the power source, use an alternate system, reset the instrument(s), etc.
6. Flying an Approach
A. Big Picture
i. Make it as easy as possible on yourself
a. VMC if available, ATC vectors, simplest approach, etc.
ii. Stay ahead of the airplane
a. Know where you are and what’s coming next
b. Use the 5 T’s (Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk) at each waypoint
iii. Use smooth, small, controlled inputs in combination with an accelerated cross check
B. Select the most desirable approach based on the situation / location
i. PTS requires a non-precision approach

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IX.B. Approach with Loss of Primary Flight Instrument Indicators

ii. Real life – request whatever is simplest / safest (Ex. PAR, or vectors to final for an ILS or localizer)
C. Setup the approach like normal
i. Ensure the navigation equipment is tuned, identified, and monitored
ii. Set measurable go around criteria
a. For example, greater than one dot course deflection, + 100’/-0’ altitude, etc. Safety first!
D. Request vectors to final
i. Make the approach as simple as possible
E. Tracking the Course
i. Glass cockpit makes tracking very simple – load the approach, use ‘track up’ display, and zoom in
ii. Otherwise, use the compass to set the approximate heading to maintain course
a. Use small turns to maintain track and compensate for wind (trial and error)
b. Adjust heading, maintain wings level as much as possible, crosscheck, repeat

Common Errors:
• Slow to recognize inaccurate or primary flight indications
• Failure to notify ATC of situation
• Failure to adequately transition from full to partial panel condition

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to loss of primary flight instrument indicators
by describing-
A. recognition of inaccurate or inoperative primary instrument indicators and advising ATC and the
examiner.
B. notification of ATC or examiner anytime that the aircraft is unable to comply with an ATC
clearance or whether able to continue the flight.
C. importance of utilizing navigation equipment in an emergency situation and demonstrating a non-
precision approach without the use of primary flight instruments.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to loss of primary flight instrument indicators
by describing-
A. recognition of failed system components that relate to primary flight instrument indication(s).
B. failure to notify ATC of situation.
C. failure to transition to emergency mode/standby instrumentation.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains loss of primary flight instrument indicators by conducting a
non-precision approach without the use of these indicators.
4. Analyzes and corrects common errors related to loss of primary flight instrument indicators.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Advise ATC or evaluator if unable to comply with a clearance.
2. Complete a non-precision instrument approach without the use of the primary flight instruments using
the skill elements of the non-precision approach Task (See Area of Operation VI, Task A).
3. Demonstrate SRM

279
IX.C. Engine Failure during Straight-and-Level Flight and Turns

References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), POH / AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to single engine operation by
reference to instruments.

Key Elements 1. Fly First

2. Zero Sideslip
3. Rudder Control

Elements 1. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight

2. Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
3. Zero Sideslip by the Instruments
4. Turning Flight by the Instruments

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can handle an engine failure and maneuver the aircraft as necessary in instrument
Standards conditions.
IX.C. Engine Failure during Straight-and-Level Flight and Turns

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
The ability to properly and safely control an engine failure in instrument conditions, emphasizing the
importance of flying the plane first and handling the checklists second.

Why
Being able to manage an engine failure and control the aircraft in IMC is necessary for safety.

How:
1. Basic Attitude Instrument Flight
A. Establish - an attitude / power setting on the control instruments resulting in the desired performance
i. Establish known (approximate) pitch and power settings for the desired performance
B. Trim - until control pressures are neutralized
i. Essential for smooth, precise control, and allows attention to be diverted elsewhere
C. Crosscheck – the performance instruments to determine if the desired performance is being obtained
i. If a deviation is noted, determine the magnitude and direction of correction necessary
D. Adjust – the attitude or power setting on the control instruments as necessary
2. Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
A. Recognize the engine failure
i. Unexpected yaw / roll in the direction of the failed engine
ii. Abnormal engine indications, sounds, feelings
B. Use rudder and aileron to maintain directional control
i. Establish zero sideslip
ii. Zero sideslip will vary based on the aircraft flown, but 1-3o bank toward the operating engine and ½
ball deflection (on the Turn Coordinator) toward the operating engine should be close
C. *Manage the Engine Failure
i. Use the same steps as an engine failure in visual conditions:
a. Full Power
b. Reduce Drag
c. Identify
d. Verify
e. Fix or Feather
f. Restart the Inoperative Engine, if possible
D. Pay even more attention to your instrument scan, and flying the aircraft
i. Between every step stop and check airplane performance and control
a. Zero sideslip, correct airspeed, heading and altitude, monitor engine indications
ii. Fly first (aviate, navigate, communicate)

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IX.C. Engine Failure during Straight-and-Level Flight and Turns

E. Done strictly by instruments

3. *Zero Sideslip by the Instruments
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Nose slightly high + Zero Sideslip + 80% power = SE Straight and Level
Control Performance
Pitch On Horizon Altimeter Constant
Bank Constant VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
Control Performance
Pitch Slightly High Altimeter Constant
o
A. Establish - Use the Attitude
Bank IndicatorConstant
to establish zero side VSI slip, nose about0 fpm 4 high,
power as required
B. Trim – Trim to relieve the control pressures
Power 80% Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
C. Crosscheck
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
D. Adjust – Correct any performance errors and retrim the airplane, then crosscheck again
4. *Turning Flight by the Instruments
Pitch + Power = Desired Performance
Nose slightly high + Zero Sideslip + 80% power = SE Level Turns
Control Performance
Pitch On Horizon Altimeter Constant
Bank Constant VSI 0 fpm
Power Cruise Airspeed Constant
Heading Constant
Turn Coord Level / Coordinated
Control Performance
Pitch 5-6o Nose High Altimeter Constant
A. Continue the scan Bank 10o Bank VSI 0 fpm
i. Add bank, and keep
Power coordinated (zero 80% sideslip) Airspeed Constant
a. Small, smooth control inputs; don’t use large Heading Turning
bank angles or aggressive inputs
Turn Coord ½ ball deflection
ii. Increase pitch to maintain altitude
B. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust

Common Errors:
• Failure to recognize an inoperative engine
• Hazards of improperly identifying and verifying the inoperative engine
• Failure to properly adjust engine controls and reduce drag
• Failure to establish and maintain the best engine inoperative airspeed
• Failure to follow the prescribed checklist
• Failure to establish and maintain the recommended flight attitude for best performance
• Failure to maintain positive aircraft control while maneuvering
• Hazards of exceeding the aircraft’s operating limitations
• Faulty basic instrument flying technique

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Fly first; maintain control of the aircraft (keep up the scan) during the entire process. There is no rush to
complete the checklist

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:

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IX.C. Engine Failure during Straight-and-Level Flight and Turns

1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to engine failure during straight-and-level flight
and turns, solely by reference to instruments, by describing-
A. appropriate methods to be used for identifying and verifying the inoperative engine.
B. technique for maintaining positive aircraft control by reference to instruments.
C. importance of accurately assessing the aircraft’s performance capability with regard to action that
maintains altitude or minimum sink rate considering existing conditions.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to engine failure during straight-and-level
flight and turns, solely by reference to instruments, by describing-
A. failure to recognize an inoperative engine.
B. hazards of improperly identifying and verifying the inoperative engine.
C. failure to properly adjust engine controls and reduce drag.
D. failure to establish and maintain the best engine inoperative airspeed.
E. failure to follow the prescribed checklist.
F. failure to establish and maintain the recommended flight attitude for best performance.
G. failure to maintain positive aircraft control while maneuvering.
H. hazards of exceeding the aircraft’s operating limitations.
I. faulty basic instrument flying technique.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains straight-and-level flight and turns after engine failure,
solely by reference to instruments, from an instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to straight-and-level flight and turns after
engine failure, solely by reference to instruments.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Promptly recognize an engine failure and maintain positive aircraft control.
2. Set the engine controls, reduce drag, identify and verify the inoperative engine, and simulate feathering
of the propeller on the inoperative engine. (Evaluator should then establish a zero-thrust on the
inoperative engine).
3. Establish the best engine-inoperative airspeed and trim the aircraft.
4. Use flight controls in the proper combination as recommended by the manufacturer, or as required to
maintain best performance, and trim as required.
5. Verify the prescribed checklist procedures normally used for securing the inoperative engine.
6. Attempt to determine and resolve the reason for the engine failure.
7. Monitor all engine control functions and make necessary adjustments.
8. Maintain the specified altitude ±100 feet, or minimum sink rate if applicable, airspeed ±10 knots, and
the specified heading ±10°.
9. Assess the aircraft’s performance capability and decide an appropriate action to ensure a safe landing.
10. Avoid loss of aircraft control, or attempted flight contrary to the engine-inoperative operating
limitations of the aircraft.
11. Demonstrate SRM.

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References: 14 CFR part 91, Instrument Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-15), IAP, POH/AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to a single engine instrument
approach.

Key Elements 1. Zero Sideslip

2. Never go below VMC
3. Maintain directional control (Fly the Airplane!)

Elements 1. Managing an Engine Failure

2. Maintaining Altitude, Airspeed, and Track
3. Appropriate Rate of Descent
4. Approach Procedures
5. Landing

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student can competently fly a precision and non-precision approach solely by reference to
Standards the instruments.
IX.D. Instrument Approach and Landing with an Inoperative Engine (by Reference to Instruments)

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
This lesson will discuss how to perform an instrument approach with an inoperative engine.

Why
An instrument approach in a single vs multi engine aircraft is basically the same thing (other than different
speeds / power settings). The primary difference, though, is that in a multi-engine aircraft it is possible to
continue flight with an engine failed. For this reason, if you want instrument privileges on your multi engine
rating you must prove to the examiner that you can handle an instrument approach with a failed engine.

How:
1. Managing an Engine Failure
A. Recognize the Engine Failure
i. Unexpected yaw / roll in the direction of the failed engine
ii. Abnormal engine indications, sounds, feelings
B. Establish a zero-sideslip
i. Zero sideslip will vary based on the aircraft flown, but 1-3o bank toward the operating engine and ½
ball deflection (on the Turn Coordinator) toward the operating engine should be close
ii. Done strictly by instruments
C. Use the same steps as an engine failure in visual
conditions:
i. Full Power
ii. Reduce Drag
iii. Identify
iv. Verify
v. Fix or Feather
vi. Restart the Inoperative Engine, if possible
D. Pay even more attention to your instrument scan,
and flying the aircraft
i. Between every step stop and check airplane
performance and control
a. Zero sideslip, correct airspeed, heading and
altitude, monitor engine indications
ii. Fly first (aviate, navigate, communicate)
2. Maintaining Altitude, Airspeed, and Track
A. Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
i. Maintain the zero sideslip while focusing on the approach
B. Keep the scan moving, include everything in your scan
i. Accelerated scan
ii. Occasionally include the approach chart in the scan

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C. Always know where you are and ask, “What am I doing next?”
i. Stay ahead of altitudes, airspeed, track
D. Use the 5 Ts at every waypoint (Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk)
E. Keep the course needle centered
i. Be proactive in maintaining course
a. Adjust for wind
• Bug the heading that will maintain the desired course
• Make adjustments to the right / left of the heading bug to correct for course deviations
F. Be proactive in maintaining glide slope
i. If the ball starts to move up / down make small adjustments immediately to fix the movement
ii. As ground speed increases, rate of descent must increase, and vice versa
3. Appropriate Rate of Descent
A. A descent rate of greater than 1,000 FPM is unacceptable during the final stages of an approach
i. Due to human perceptual limitations, independent of the type of airplane
ii. Maintain a controlled and stabilized approach – Especially applicable in a single engine situation
B. A descent rate should be used that will ensure reaching the DA at a distance from the threshold that will
allow landing in the touchdown zone
i. The glide slope will ensure you maintain the appropriate rate of descent, follow it
4. Choosing an Approach
A. ATIS information will often specify the runway and approaches in use
B. Airplane capabilities will dictate which approaches are an option to fly
i. Take into account single engine performance
C. From there, weather (especially ceilings) may help make the decision
i. Ex: A VOR approach with minimums above the current ceiling vs an RNAV with minimums below
D. Straight-In vs. Circling Approach
i. Straight-in – Used when available based on aircraft equipment, ground equipment, etc.
a. Generally, lower minimums, simpler procedure, safer and more efficient
b. Highly preferred during a single engine approach
• Much simpler – Less maneuvering and less power changes
ii. Circling – Used due to closed runways, weather (wind), terrain, or equipment dictating a circle
a. Generally, higher minimums and more complex, but can be necessary to land
b. Only circle single engine if absolutely necessary
c. Increased complexity, excessive maneuvering with level offs, power changes, etc.
iii. Ensure you apply the correct minimums
E. Personal Preference
i. Comfort
a. Is there a type of approach you are most competent and comfortable with?
b. Don’t learn “on the fly” close to the ground, in potentially hazardous IMC conditions
ii. Safety
a. Lateral + vertical guidance is safer
b. Stay within your capabilities
F. Always verify you are reading the appropriate approach chart for the appropriate runway
i. Many similar approaches (ex. LOC 25L vs 25R), especially important after a change of approach
5. Approach Procedures
A. In all phases, use the Basic Attitude Instrument Procedures – Establish, Trim, Crosscheck, Adjust
B. Approach Setup
i. FFIIMMMMS
ii. Tune, Identify, Monitor

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C. Approach Brief
i. Normal approach brief + Single engine information
ii. Speeds and configuration will change but the approach itself stays the same
iii. Single engine go around procedures
D. *Precision Approach
i. Configuration
a. Maintain a zero sideslip
• As power is reduced, rudder should be reduced as well
• Scan will have to be increased to maintain scan as well as glideslope / localizer
b. Procedure Turn (inbound/Outbound), Localizer Intercept – Airspeed: 100 KIAS; Power: 80%
c. ½ Dot Below Glide Slope – Airspeed: Decelerating to 90 KIAS; Power: 65%; Flaps: As necessary
d. Glide Slope Intercept (FAF) – Airspeed: SE Approach (no slower than VYSE)
• Power: Approximately 65%; Pitch: Approximately 5o Nose Down
E. *Non-precision Approach
i. Configuration
a. Maintain a zero sideslip
• As power is reduced on the approach, rudder should be reduced as well
• Scan will have to be increased to maintain scan as well as course and monitor step downs
b. Procedure Turn (Inbound / Outbound), Localizer Intercept – Airspeed: 100 KIAS; Power: 80%
c. 1 nm from FAF – Airspeed: Decelerating to 90 KIAS; Power: 65%; Flaps: As necessary
d. FAF – Airspeed: SE Approach (no slower than VYSE); Power: Approximately 55%
• Pitch: Approximately 6o Nose Down
• Descent is faster than Precision Approach to reach MDA prior to missed approach point
e. MDA / Step Down
• Level off without going below MDA / Step down altitude
a Approximately 80% power, do not slow below VYSE
b With increased power comes increased rudder, maintain a zero sideslip
F. Checklists
i. Arriving at any Fix – 5 T’s: Turn, Time, Twist, Throttle, Talk
ii. Pre-Landing Checklist
a. LBBGUMPFS - Landing Gear, Boost Pump, Brakes (off), Gas, Undercarriage, Mixture, Prop, Flaps,
Safety
iii. Inside Outer Marker / FAF – Reds, Blues, Greens, Whites
a. Mixture, Prop, Engine Gauges, Lights, Power
5. Landing
A. Transition from instrument to visual conditions
i. Once visual, the majority of attention should be outside; continue to crosscheck the instruments
a. Maintain a zero sideslip as well as the course and glideslope
• Tendency to “look up, fly up.” Maintain a constant pitch attitude / remain on the glide slope
ii. Transition to VASIs / PAPIs, if available
B. The landing is basically normal
i. During the roundout / flare reduce power to idle
a. As power is reduced, rudder pressure is reduced
b. If rudder pressure is not reduced the aircraft will yaw in the direction of the rudder pressure
• Rudder is counteracting the yaw caused by the thrust of the operating engine
• When the thrust is removed it removes the yaw, therefore the rudder must be reduced
ii. With the power at idle, make a normal landing on the centerline

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6. ATC Instructions
A. There may be times, especially in an emergency, that an ATC clearance or instruction is not feasible
B. Pilot's responsibility to inform ATC “unable” if unable to comply with an instruction
i. Do not put yourself in an unnecessarily dangerous position
ii. Inform ATC of your intentions / needs
C. FAR 91.3: Responsibility & Authority of the PIC
i. Pilot is responsible for the operation of the aircraft
ii. In an in-flight emergency, pilots may deviate from any rule necessary to meet the emergency

Common Errors:
• Failure to have essential knowledge of the information that appears on the selected instrument
approach chart
• Failure to use proper communications procedures
• Noncompliance with ATC clearances
• Incorrect use of navigation equipment
• Failure to identify and verify the inoperative engine and to follow the emergency checklist
• Inappropriate procedure in the adjustment of engine controls and the reduction of drag
• Inappropriate procedure in the establishment and maintenance of the best engine inoperative airspeed
• Failure to establish and maintain the proper flight attitude for best performance
• Failure to maintain positive aircraft control
• Faulty basic instrument flying technique
• Inappropriate descent below the MDA or DH
• Faulty technique during roundout and touchdown

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points
Fly first; maintain control of the aircraft (keep up the scan) during the entire process.

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to an instrument approach with one engine
inoperative by describing-
A. maintenance of altitude, airspeed and track appropriate to the phase of flight or approach segment.
B. procedure if unable to comply with an ATC clearance or instruction.
C. application of necessary adjustments to the published MDA and visibility criteria for the aircraft
approach category.
D. establishment and maintenance of an appropriate rate of descent during the final approach
segment.
E. factors that should be considered in determining whether:
i. the approach should be continued straight-in to a landing; or
ii. a circling approach to a landing should be performed.
2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to an instrument approach with one engine
inoperative by describing-
A. failure to have essential knowledge of the information that appears on the selected instrument
approach chart.
B. failure to use proper communications procedures.

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C. noncompliance with ATC clearances.

D. incorrect use of navigation equipment.
E. failure to identify and verify the inoperative engine and to follow the emergency checklist.
F. inappropriate procedure in the adjustment of engine controls and the reduction of drag.
G. inappropriate procedure in the establishment and maintenance of the best engine inoperative
airspeed.
H. failure to establish and maintain the proper flight attitude for best performance.
I. failure to maintain positive aircraft control.
J. faulty basic instrument flying technique.
K. inappropriate descent below the MDA or DH.
L. faulty technique during roundout and touchdown.
3. Demonstrates and simultaneously explains an instrument approach with one engine inoperative from an
instructional standpoint.
4. Analyzes and corrects simulated common errors related to an instrument approach with one engine
inoperative.

ACS Skills Standards

1. Promptly recognize an engine failure and maintain positive aircraft control. Set the engine controls,
reduce drag, identify and verify the inoperative engine, and simulate feathering of the propeller on the
inoperative engine. (Evaluator should then establish a zero-thrust on the inoperative engine).
2. Use the flight controls in the proper combination as recommended by the manufacturer, or as required
to maintain best performance, and trim as required.
3. Follow the manufacturer’s recommended emergency procedures.
4. Monitor the operating engine and make necessary adjustments.
5. Request and follow an actual or a simulated ATC clearance for an instrument approach.
6. Maintain altitude ±100 feet or minimum sink rate if applicable, airspeed ±10 knots, and selected heading
±10°.
7. Establish a rate of descent that will ensure arrival at the MDA or DH/DA with the aircraft in a position
from which a descent to a landing on the intended runway can be made, either straight in or circling as
appropriate.
8. On final approach segment, maintain vertical (as applicable) and lateral guidance within ¾-scale
deflection.
9. Avoid loss of aircraft control, or attempted flight contrary to the operating limitations of the aircraft.
10. Comply with the published criteria for the aircraft approach category if circling.
11. Execute a normal landing.
12. Complete the appropriate checklist.

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X. Post Flight Procedures
X.A. Checking Instruments and Equipment

References: POH / AFM

Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to ensuring proper operation
of instruments and equipment and reasons for making a written record of improper operation.

Key Elements 1. Always Record Maintenance Issues

2. Don’t leave problems for the next pilot
3. Safety is the #1 Priority

Elements 1. General
2. Documenting Malfunctions

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The student understands how to check the instruments and equipment for proper
Standards functionality and when to make a written record of improper operation.
X.A. Checking Instruments and Equipment

Instructors Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
Checking and documenting improper instrument operation.

Why
Safety. Checking instruments and equipment allows the pilot to make a record of any issues found. The next
pilot can be made aware of the problem, and maintenance can be performed prior to the next flight.

How:
1. General
A. Extremely important to recognize and record any faulty instruments
i. Especially important for flight in IMC conditions
B. Check all instruments and their power sources for proper operation
C. Note equipment not functioning properly and record / report the malfunctions
2. Documenting Malfunctions
A. Document all malfunctions in a maintenance log
i. Keeps a history of all recorded issues in one place that anyone can access
ii. Different flight schools, owners, etc. may have different ways of documenting malfunctions
B. Alerts other pilots of potential issues prior to flying
i. Pilots can note trends, and see what has / hasn’t been fixed before taking the aircraft
ii. Especially important for operations like flight schools where numerous pilots use the same aircraft
C. Helps to get the issues fixed
i. Safety is #1, if you don’t report an issue, the next person to fly has to deal with it
ii. Don’t leave problems for the next person
D. Significantly increases safety and situational awareness

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

PTS Requirements:
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements related to checking
instruments and equipment by describing:
1. Importance of noting instruments and navigation equipment for improper operation.
2. Reasons for making a written record of improper operation or failure and/or calibration of instruments
prior to next IFR flight.

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XI. Appendix
A. ADM, CRM & Risk Management

References: Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25)

Objectives The learner understands the importance of ADM, CRM, and risk management and can apply
the concepts to future flights.

Elements 1. Aeronautical Decision Making

2. Hazardous Attitudes
3. Stress
4. Risk Assessment & Management
5. SRM / CRM
6. Decision Making Process
7. Evaluation

Schedule 1. Discuss Objectives

2. Review material
3. Development
4. Conclusion

Equipment 1. White board and markers

2. References

IP’s Actions 1. Discuss lesson objectives

2. Present Lecture
3. Ask and Answer Questions
4. Assign homework

SP’s Actions 1. Participate in discussion

2. Take notes
3. Ask and respond to questions

Completion The learner can apply CRM, ADM, and risk management concepts to future flights.
Standards
XI.A. ADM, CRM, & Risk Management

Instructor Notes:

Introduction:
Attention
Interesting fact or attention-grabbing story

Overview
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas

What
A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course
of action in response to a given set of circumstances

Why
Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor remains the same: the human factor
which leads to errors.

How:
1. Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
A. A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best
course of action in response to a given set of circumstances
B. Teaching pilots to make sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents
i. It is estimated that approximately 80% of all aviation accidents are a result of human factors
C. Steps for Good Decision Making
i. Identify personal attitudes hazardous to safety & learn behavior modification techniques
ii. Learn how to recognize and cope with stress
iii. Develop risk assessment skills
iv. Use all resources
v. Evaluate effectiveness of one’s ADM skills
2. Attitudes Hazardous to Safety
A. Attitude affects the quality of decisions
i. 5 hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions
a. Contribute to poor judgement
ii. Recognizing is the first step to neutralizing these attitudes
a. Once recognizing a thought as hazardous, label it as hazardous and state the antidote
B. Attitudes & Antidotes

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3. Stress
A. Everyone is stressed to some degree almost all the time
i. A certain amount of stress is good – keeps a person alert and prevents complacency
ii. But effects of stress are cumulative and if not dealt with, they can reach in intolerable burden
B. Effects
i. Lack of motivation
ii. Decreased performance
iii. Decision making abilities decrease
iv. Risk of errors increase
C. 3 types of stress that affect performance

D. Managing Stress
i. IMSAFE checklist
a. Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion

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ii. In the case of a stressful event, stop, think, and analyze before jumping to a conclusion
iii. Set aside time for relaxation and/or physical fitness
iv. Learn to manage time more effectively to avoid pressures of getting behind schedule
4. Risk Assessment & Management
A. 4 Fundamental Principles of Risk Management
i. Goal of these principles is to proactively identify safety-related hazards and mitigate associated risks
ii. Accept no Unnecessary Risk
a. Only accept the necessary risk
• Flying is impossible without risk, do not make a situation more dangerous than necessary
iii. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level
a. In single pilot situations, the pilot makes decisions (not ATC, or passengers)
b. In other situations, it may be beneficial to “go up the ladder” for a decision
• i.e., Talk to the chief pilot or experienced CFI about a potentially risky situation
iv. Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs
a. Analyze costs and benefits, make an informed decision
v. Integrate Risk Management into Planning at All Levels
a. Safety requires risk management planning in all stages of flight
• Plan early and throughout to avoid unnecessary, amplified risk
B. Risk Management Process
i. Step 1: Identify the Hazard
a. A hazard is any real or potential condition that can cause degradation, injury, illness, death,
damage to or loss of equipment or property
ii. Step 2: Assess the Risk
a. Determine the level of risk associated with the identified hazards
• Assess in terms of its likelihood (probability) and its severity (consequences)
b. Develop a method to tangibly measure risk (Risk Assessment Matrix, below)
iii. Step 3: Mitigate the Risk
a. Look into ways to reduce, mitigate, or eliminate the risk
b. All risks have 2 components: Probability of occurrence & Severity of the hazard
• Try to reduce or eliminate at least one component
c. Use the Cost/Benefit analysis to decide if it is worth accepting the risk
C. Level of Risk
i. The level of risk posed by a given hazard is measured in terms of:
a. Severity (extent of possible loss)
b. Probability (likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss)
D. Assessing Risk
i. Pilots must differentiate in advance between a low risk flight and a high-risk flight
ii. Establish a review process and develop strategies to minimize risk on the high and low risk flights
iii. The Risk Matrix is a helpful risk assessment model
a. Assesses the likelihood of an event occurring and the consequences of that event
• Likelihood (probability of occurrence): Probable, Occasional, Remote, Improbable
a i.e., Likelihood of a pilot flying MVFR to encounter IFR conditions
• Severity: Catastrophic, Critical, Marginal, Negligible
a i.e., If pilot is not IFR rated how severe could the consequences be

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b. High Probability/Severity is bad and vice versa:

E. Mitigating Risk
i. After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to reduce the risk
a. Analyze options that can reduce unnecessary risk
• i.e., Cancel/delay flight, bring CFI or more experienced pilot, etc.
ii. By effectively mitigating known risks to acceptable levels, pilots can complete their planned flights
safely or ensure alternate options are selected for those rare occasions when the planned or
ongoing flight cannot be accomplished
F. IMSAFE Checklist
i. Mitigate risk by determining your own physical and mental readiness for flight
a. Illness – Symptoms?
b. Medication – Taking any?
c. Stress – Family, money, relationships, work, etc.
d. Alcohol – Been drinking?
e. Fatigue – Well rested?
f. Eating – Properly nourished?
G. PAVE Checklist
i. Another way to mitigate risk
ii. The risks of flight are divided into 4 categories
a. Once the risks have been identified, decide whether the risk or combination or risks can be
managed safely and successfully. If not, the flight should be cancelled
iii. Pilot in Command: Am I ready? (IMSAFE Checklist, proficiency, recency, currency, etc.)
iv. Aircraft: Is the aircraft appropriate for the trip?
a. Maintenance, Landing Distance, Performance Capabilities, Equipment, Fuel load, Altitude, etc.
v. EnVironment: Weather, Terrain, Airports, Airspace, Day/Night, etc.
vi. External Pressures: Influences outside of the flight that create pressure to complete the flight, often
at the expense of safety
a. This is the most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that
can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk factors
b. Follow your own personal operating procedures (don’t bend the rules for anyone), plan for
delays, and manage passenger’s expectations to reduce external pressure
5. Single Pilot Resource Management / Crew Resource Management (Use all Resources)
A. What is it?
i. How to gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
ii. Application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment

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a. Includes all groups routinely working with the flight crew who are involved in decisions required
to operate a flight safely
• Pilots, dispatchers, cabin crew, maintenance, ATC
iii. Pilots of small and large aircraft must make effective us of all available resources
B. Use of Resources
i. Use all available resources,
a. Think outside the box
ii. Internal Resources
a. Found in the flight deck during flight
• Equipment, systems, charts, books, etc.
• Ingenuity, knowledge, and skill
• Other passengers (even if they are not pilots)
iii. External Resources
a. ATC and flight service specialists
• Traffic advisories, vectors, weather info, emergency assistance
iv. Workload Management
a. Plan, prioritize, and sequence to prevent overload
b. Prepare for high workload situations
• Don’t wait until you’re in the situation
• i.e., prepare for the approach before it begins
c. Be able to recognize high workloads
• Faster paced work along with divided attention
• Stay ahead as much as possible to prevent high workloads
• Manage tasks in order of importance when behind
C. 5 P’s Check
i. Used to evaluate the pilot’s current situation at key decision points during the flight, or when an
emergency arises
a. This is a very helpful portion of Single Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
b. Based on the idea that the pilot has five variables that impact the environment and can cause
the pilot to make a single critical decision, or several less critical decisions, that when added
together can create a critical outcome
c. The process is simple; at least 5 times before/during the flight, review and consider the 5 P’s and
make the appropriate decision required by the current situation
• The decision points include preflight, pre-takeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of flight, pre-
descent, and just prior to the final approach fix or entering the traffic pattern
ii. The 5 P’s:
a. The Plan
• The mission. It contains planning, weather, route, fuel, publication currency, etc.
• The plan is always changing (weather changes, delays, restrictions, etc.), adjust with it
b. The Plane
• Condition, abilities (performance, but also automation, database currency, etc.), equipment,
systems, etc.
c. The Pilot
• IMSAFE
• Allows the pilot to recognize and review his/her physiological situation
d. The Passengers
• Passenger’s desires can have an influence on decision making and risk management

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a Plan as much as possible

• Ensure passengers are involved in decision making process
a Ensure they understand risk involved in situations
1. i.e., IFR approach below minimums or takeoff with IFR below landing minimums
• Understand what passengers want to do
a They may be more risk averse than you
e. The Programming
• Plan when and where programming approaches/route changes, and airport information
gathering should be accomplished, as well as when it should not be accomplished
• Pilot familiarity with the equipment, the route, the local air traffic control environment, and
personal capabilities should drive when, where, how the automation is programmed and
used
• Always consider pilot capabilities in relation to programming
6. Decision Making Process
A. DECIDE Model (pictured below)
i. Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate
B. Analytical Models
i. Examples include DECIDE model and 5 Ps
ii. Good decisions result when pilots gather all information, review it, analyze the options, rate the
options, select a course of action, and evaluate the course of action for correctness
a. This level of analysis is not always possible
C. Automatic or Naturalized Decision Making
i. Reflexive type of decision making anchored in training and experience
ii. In an emergency, a pilot may not survive if they apply analytical models to every decision
iii. Automatic or Naturalized Process
a. Experts faced with a task loaded with uncertainty first assess if the situation looks familiar
b. Rather than comparing pros and cons of different approaches (analytical model), they imagine
how one or a few courses of action will play out and take the first workable option they find
c. May not be the best of all possible choices, but it often works remarkably well
iv. Experienced based actions trigger response to specific situations
v. Improves with training and experience

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vi. Operational Pitfalls

a. Pitfalls/behavioral traps also come with experience
• As a rule, more experienced pilots try to complete flights as planned, please passengers,
meet schedules
• Can have an adverse effect on safety and contribute to unrealistic assessment of skills
• Tendencies must be eliminated

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7. Evaluation
A. Review and debrief each flight
i. What went well?
ii. What could have gone better?
iii. What will I (or we) do next time?
B. Areas to Consider
i. Planning & Decision Making
ii. Leadership Effectiveness
iii. Situational Awareness
iv. Communication
v. Monitor/Cross-Check
vi. Workload Management

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vii. Automation Management

Conclusion:
Brief review of the main points

303