Blow ups

(over C)
Reminder on affine varieties / Spec

“Ring” := finitely generated unital C-algebra


Affine schemes (varieties) C ←→ Rings (without nilpotents)
V p−→ O(V ) = {polynomials on V }
Spec R := {max ideals in R} ←−p R
x ∈V ←→ max ideal mx ⊂ R
x ∈V ←→ evx : R → C
affine space W ←→ Sym W ∗
in coords Cn ←→ C[x1 , . . . , xn ]
{p1 (x) = 0 = . . . = pk (x)} ←→ C[x1 , . . . , xn ]/(p1 , . . . , pk )
“Reminder” on projective varieties / Proj

Replace rings by graded rings ⇐⇒ rings with C∗ -action.

⇐⇒ Spec R has a C∗ -action ⇐⇒ it is a cone.
Proj R is the lines through the origin in Spec R.
Picking (homogeneous) generators and
relations,
R = C[x0 , . . . , xn ]/ p1 (x), . . . , pk (x) , we have

⊆ Cn+1

Xe := Spec R = p1 = 0 = · · · = pk

and X := Proj R is the set of lines in this, inside the set Pn of lines
in Cn+1 . In coordinates Proj R ⊂ Pn is

[x] ∈ Pn : pi (x) = 0 ∀i .

The picture
Coordinates

The linear functions xi downstairs pull back to give functions on

the (total space of the) tautological line bundle OX (−1) upstairs.
They’re linear on the fibres, i.e. sections of its dual OX (1).
Similarly homogeneous degree d polynomials fd (x) in the xi
pullback to functions on OX (−1) which have degree d on the
fibres, so they’re sections of OX (1)⊗d =: OX (d).
L
Thus the graded ring R = d≥0 Rd is the space of sections of
powers of the line bundle L := OX (1). That is, Rd = Γ(Ld ).
Projective polarised schemes ←→ Graded rings
d
L
(X , L) p−→ d≥0 Γ(L )
Proj R := {max∗ hom ideals in R} ←−p R
where max∗ means maximal amongst homogeneous Lideals which
are not the irrelevant maximal ideal (of the origin) d>0 Rd .
Blow up: local model
Consider the projection

C2 \{0} −→ P1 ,
(x, y ) p−→ [x : y ].

Let X , Y be homogeneous coordinates on P1 . (So only defined up to

scale. X /Y well defined function but has a pole.)
Equation of graph inside C2 \{0} × P1 is (“X /Y = x/y ”)

xY = Xy .

So closure is
⊂ C2 × P1 .

xY = Xy (∗)
Over each point each point of P1 we get all points in the
corresponding line. I.e. (∗) is the tautological line bundle

OP1 (−1) ⊂ C2 × P1 .
Other projection

⊂ C2 × P1 .

OP1 (−1) = xY = Xy
Projecting to C2 instead of P1 we find gives an isomorphism away
from 0 ((x, y ) 6= (0, 0) determines [X , Y ]) but the whole P1 over 0.
A more professional picture

Y = 1 =⇒
{x = Xy } ⊂ C2xy × CX .
Blow up

xY = Xy ⊂ C2 × P1

OP1 (−1) =
is called the blow up of C2 in the origin.
At the origin it remembers the line you came in on. Therefore
separates lines at the origin.
Inverse image P1 of 0 ∈ C2 (zero section of OP1 (−1)) is called the
exceptional divisor or exceptional curve or (−1)-curve E .
More generally

xi Yj = Xi yj ∀i, j ⊂ Cn × Pn−1

OPn−1 (−1) =

is called the blow up of Cn in the origin.

Exceptional divisor now E ∼= Pn−1 .
Global
Gluing this model into any complex manifold defines Blp X with
exceptional divisor E ∼
= P(Tp M).
More generally given a codimension-n submanifold Z ⊂ X can
form BlZ X by a family version of the same construction.
Locally analytically Z ⊂ X looks like U × {0} ⊂ U × Cn .
(U ⊂ Z open.)
The blow up BlZ X is then locally U × Bl0 Cn and these glue on
overlaps as U covers Z . Exceptional divisor is now

= P(NZ X ) 
E ∼ / BlZ X

  
Z  / X.

Soon we will see a quicker, more direct construction that blows up

any schemes Z ⊂ X .
Exercises

Ex: Show topologically same as: remove small ball 0 ∈ B 2n ⊂ Cn ,

divide its boundary by scalar action of S 1 ⊂ C∗ to collapse S 2n−1
to Pn−1 by Hopf map.
Ex: Show topologically same as connect sum at 0 ∈ Cn with Pn
(Note opposite orientation on Pn turns normal bundle of hyperplane Pn−1
from O(1) to O(−1).)
Ex: Do real blow up of 0 ∈ R2 . Remove small disc 0 ∈ D 2 ⊂ R2 ,
divide boundary S 1 by ±1 antipodal map. (So in and out get flipped
=⇒ not oriented.)
Show same as gluing in a Möbius band along its boundary S 1 .
Functoriality
Fix p ∈ Z ⊂ X complex manifolds.
Key property: Blp Z is the proper transform of Z in Blp X ,

Blp Z = Z \{p} ⊂ Blp X .

“Blow up remembers
direction Z comes into p”
Proper transform
Enough to prove this locally analytically for

0 ∈ Cm = {xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn } ⊂ Cn .

We want to describe Cm \{0} = {xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn } inside

Bl0 Cn = {xi Xj = xj Xi ∀i, j} ⊂ Cn × Pn−1 .

At any point of Bl0 Cn at least one Xi is nonzero (X1 say), so

x1
xi = Xi
X1
so (Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn ) =⇒ (xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn ).
Similarly away from 0 ∈ Cn one xi is nonzero (x1 say), so

X1
Xi = xi ,
x1
so (xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn ) =⇒ (Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn ).
Proper transform II
So on all of Bl0 Cn we have

(Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn ) =⇒ (xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn ) (1)

while on Cn \{0} = Bl0 Cn \E we have

(xm+1 = 0 = . . . = xn ) =⇒ (Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn ). (2)

By (2), Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn on Cm \{0} ⊂ Bl0 Cn and therefore

also on Cm \{0} ⊂ Bl0 Cn .
By (1) then, Cm \{0} ⊂ Bl0 Cn is precisely Xm+1 = 0 = . . . = Xn .
This just cuts Pn−1 down to Pm−1 and leaves the same blow up
equations xi Xj = xj Xi intact, giving Bl0 Cm as claimed.
Upshot is we can define Blp Z by (1) embedding Z in some
ambient space X (like CN or PN ) then (2) taking the proper
transform Z := Z \p inside Blp X .
Singularities
So for now we can define blow up of singular varieties by
embedding and proper transform.
So to blow up the node {xy = 0} ⊂ C2 we take

{xy = 0}\{0} ⊂ Bl0 C2 .

Ex: As before (xy = 0 =⇒ XY = 0) while, away from origin,

(XY = 0 =⇒ xy = 0). So proper transform is XY = 0.

“Resolution of singularities”
Note (pullback of) xy = 0
contains 2E .
Hartshorne’s picture

Y = 1 =⇒ {x = Xy } ⊂ C2xy × CX .
Ex: What is proper transform Y of black curve
Y = {y 2 = (x − 1)x 2 }?
More singularities
More generally consider the cone (singular at 0) {p = 0} ⊂ Cn ,
where p is a homogeneous polynomial.
Blowing this up (taking proper transform in Bl0 Cn ) gives
n o
O(−1) −→ {p = 0} ⊂ Pn−1 .

“Cylinder resolution of cone on {p = 0} ⊂ Pn−1 .”

Yet more singularities

Ex: Do this for {x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0} ⊂ C3 . What is the exceptional

curve? What is its normal bundle or self-intersection?
For nonhomogeneous p let P denote its leading order
homogeneous part. (E.g. p = x 2 + y 3 =⇒ P = x 2 .)
Then blow up of {p = 0} in 0 need not be smooth but
Ex: its exceptional divisor is {P = 0} ⊂ Pn−1 .
More curve singularities

E.g. Blowing up the cusp y 2 + x 3 = 0 gives exceptional divisor the

double point {Y 2 = 0} ⊂ P1 .

Ex: Blow up is Y 2 = xX 2
and is smooth.
Resolution of singularities

Often have to blow up many times to resolve singularity (i.e. get

something smooth).
Ex: Draw y 2 = x 4 and its blow up. Show resolved by two blow ups.
Ex: Invent your own curve singularities and resolve them by
iterated blow ups in points.
Theorem (Hironaka) Given any variety X we may iteratively blow
it up in smooth centres (Z1 ⊂ X , then Z2 ⊂ BlZ1 X , then . . . ) so
that after a finite number of steps the result is smooth.
Functions

Back to local model


= Pn−1 
E ∼ / Bl0 Cn

  
{0}  / Cn .

Functions on Cn which vanish at 0

(ideal I0 = (x1 , . . . , xn ) ⊂ C[x1 , . . . , xn ])
pull back to give functions on Bl0 Cn which vanish on E
(global sections of ideal sheaf IE .)
Ex: This is all of them: Γ(IE ) = I0 . More generally Γ(IEk ) = I0k .
(Hint: compare short exact sequences 0 → IE → OBl0 Cn → OE → 0 and
0 → I0 → OCn → O0 → 0.)
Sections of line bundles

“Recall” the line bundle-divisor correspondence E ←→ (O(E ), sE ).

Sections of IE are the same as sections of the line bundle
O(−E ) := O(E )∗ :
·/sE
Γ(IE ) −−−→ Γ(O(−E )).
←−·s
−−
E

Combining the two we get an isomorphism

Γ(OBl0 Cn (−kE )) ∼
= I0k .

(This is “familiar” from the Proj lecture. O(−kE ) is the pullback from
Pn−1 of OPn−1 (k) and Γ OPn−1 (k) = X1k , X1k−1 X2 , . . . , Xnk . Therefore




sections of its pullback are the product of these with the functions
C[x1 , . . . , xn ] on the fibres. The result is isomorphic to

k k−1 
x1 , x1 x2 , . . . , xnk C[x1 , . . . , xn ] = (x1 , . . . , xn )k = I0k .)
Proj construction

But sections of (all powers of an ample) line bundle O(−E ) on

Bl0 Cn determine Bl0 Cn by the Proj construction, so
M M
Bl0 Cn = Proj Γ(OBl0 Cn (−kE )) = Proj I0k .
k≥0 k≥0

So this gives a global general way to define a blow up

M
BlZ X := Proj IZk .
k≥0

(Really a relative version of Proj from the last lecture, over base X .)
(Since IZ /IZ2 = NZ∗ we see IZk giving sections Symk NZ∗ of OP(NZ ) (k) on
fibres of exceptional divisor P(NZ ) → Z .)
Let’s unpack this formal definition in a simple example.
Example

Take Z ⊂ X to be {0} ⊂ C2 . What is Proj k

L
k≥0 IZ ?

IZ is generated by x, y over C[x, y ]; call these generators X , Y .

Then IZk is X k , YX k−1 , . . . , Y k C[x, y ].



Therefore k≥0 IZk is generated by x, y (degree 0) and X , Y

L
(degree 1) subject to the only relation xY = Xy ,
M
IZk = C[x, y ][X , Y ]/(xY − Xy ).
k≥0

k
L
So we can read off Proj k≥0 IZ to be

{xY = Xy } ⊂ C2 × P1 ,

the blow up we started with.

Another example
Take Z ⊂ X to be {0} ⊂ {y 2 = x 3 } (all in C2 ).
IZ has generators X := x, Y := y over C[x, y ]/(y 2 − x 3 ) subject
to the relations xY = Xy and Y 2 = xX 2 . Therefore
M C[x, y ] [X , Y ]
IZk = .
(y − x ) (xY − Xy , Y 2 − xX 2 )
2 3
k≥0

So we can read off Proj k≥0 IZk . We times by P1 , impose

L

xY = Xy so it only appears at the origin, then impose Y 2 = xX 2

so over the origin we only get the double point Y 2 = 0.
Notice X 6= 0 so can set it to 1. Proj becomes Spec of ring with
X = 1. Thus can discard x = Y 2 and then y = xY = Y 3 to give

Spec C[Y ] = C.

So blow up of cusp {y 2 = x 3 } is C mapping to cusp by

Y 7→ (Y 2 , Y 3 ). (Cf. an exercise from Spec lecture.)
Exercise: Castelnuevo Criterion

From last time: S projective ⇐⇒ has a (ample) line bundle L → S

such that S = Proj k≥0 Γ(Lk ) (Pullback of O(1) under S ,→ PN .)
L

Smooth projective surface S ⊃ E ∼= P1 with self-intersection −1

(normal bundle NE = OP1 (−1)).
Define d := deg L|E = E c1 (L) – i.e. L|E ∼
R
= OP1 (d).
Ex: Show L(dE ) is trivial on E and its sections contract E but
nothing else.
I.e. S → Proj k≥0 Γ(Lk (kdE )) blows E down to a point p;
L
opposite of blow up at p.
Exercise: weighted blow ups

These use weighted projective spaces.

E.g. consider C∗ y C2 with weights (1, 2) (I.e. λ ∈ C∗ acts as
λ(x, y ) = (λx, λ2 y )) and form (the space of orbits y = ax 2 )

P(1, 2) := C2 \{0} /C∗ = Proj C[X , Y ]

where deg X = 1, deg Y = 2 (a = Y /X 2 ).

Corresponding (1, 2)-weighted blow up of {0 ∈ C2 } remembers
which orbit we come in on (instead of which line):

{X 2 y = x 2 Y } ⊂ P(1, 2) × C2 .

Ex: Write as a Proj.

Relate it to usual blow up of C2 in ideal (x 2 , y ) of fat point.
Show it’s a blow down of Bl[1:0] Bl0 C2 .
Picture: weighted blow ups

Ex: What happens

to straight lines?
Exercise: 3-fold ordinary double point

Ex: Let X := {xy = zw } ⊂ C4 .

Blow up {x = 0 = z}; what do you get?
Do by proper transform and by Proj.
What’s the exceptional locus?
x w
Describe in terms of graph of map X \{0} → P1 given by z = y.
x
Repeat for {x = 0 = w } and graph of w = yz .
Ex: For Z ⊂ X define kZ ⊂ X to be subscheme with ideal sheaf
IkZ := IZk ⊂ OX .
Show BlkZ X ∼= BlZ X (but with a different line bundle on it).
Exercise: all regular birational maps are blow-ups

Suppose π : X → Y is a regular map which is an isomorphism on a

Zariski open subset of Y .
Suppose X is projective and Y is normal.
We want to show π is a blow up.
Ex: Pick ample line bundle L on X and N  0.
Show π∗ LN = M ⊗ IZ for some line bundle M → Y and ideal
sheaf IZ ⊂ OY . (Hint: show M := (π∗ LN )∗∗ is locally free of rank 1.)
Show BlZ Y = X .