HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 1

Introduction to History of Architecture

Architectural history is the discipline that records, studies, and interprets

architecture. It studies its forms, purposes, and most importantly its evolution.
Fortunately, ancient architecture can easily be observed and recorded.
Studying architectural history enables us to understand the society and
culture they represent which is very useful when working as a contemporary
architect.
Comparing and studying ancient and contemporary architecture is essential. It
allows architect to consider a buildings or cities as more than a visual
phenomenon and therefore the architect would have a more fundamental and
culturally inclusive approach to architecture than an approach based purely on
architect's own taste or style. Studying the history of architecture is extremely
important because unlike studying history in other disciplinary groups, the
purpose of studying the history of architecture when practicing contemporary
architecture is to understand how architecture influences society and its
culture.
In other words, students can study the history of architecture in order to
understand how and why each era since the beginning of time formed its own
unique style. The "why" is what really must be understood in order to produce
the kind of an architecture our contemporary society needs because
architectural should reflects the philosophies prevalent at any given time.
In other words, students can study the history of architecture in order to
understand how and why each era since the beginning of time formed its own
unique style. The "why" is what really must be understood in order to produce
the kind of an architecture our contemporary society needs because
architectural should reflects the philosophies prevalent at any given time.
The study of architectural history can also be a good way to inspire modern day
architects into trying new forms of design. Without access to differing styles of
architecture, a designer would become stagnant and locked into one kind of
building. If nothing else, the study of historical architecture will help to
stimulate the creative juices in the minds of the students, and this will make
for more creative and flexible architects overall. For these reasons, it is
important to study ancient architecture and learn the how and why these
buildings were constructed.
Description
The subject introduces key themes in the history and theory of architecture.
Through a depth of study of the Prehistoric and Ancient civilization, it will
examine the way contemporary understandings of architecture have been
developed. In this sense it looks back into ancient history through the eyes of
Egyptian, Greek, and Roman architects and extends the trace of this
understanding to the present.
The subject introduces key themes in the history and theory of architecture.
Through a depth of study of the Prehistoric and Ancient civilization, it will
examine the way contemporary understandings of architecture have been
developed. In this sense it looks back into ancient history through the eyes of
Egyptian, Greek and Roman architects and extends the trace of this
understanding to the present.

PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE
The term prehistory references the period before history was written down,
prior to any kind of written explanation of culture and civilization. This
discussion covers architecture during the period we call the Late New Stone
Age. This is a very small segment or cross-section of prehistory. Prehistory
basically covers the Old Stone Age, Middle Stone Age, and New Stone Age
(Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) periods, as well as portions of the Bronze
and Iron Ages. These ages refer to the materials with which tools were made
during those periods. So, the earliest tools were made of stone and then people
developed bronze and iron metal tools.
Architecture History is the study of architecture as it has evolved over
centuries and across many different landscapes and cultures. As structures
and dwellings are among the chief artifacts that any civil society leaves behind,
the history of architecture is, at its essence, a history of human civilization.
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE is an art which guides us to harmonize in a building both the
beauty and utility requirements. It is concerned with not only to provide a
shelter to man but also to take care of his basic requirements e.g., place for
worship, tombs, business, memorials, and other structures which are needed
in complex civilization. It also depicts about the civilization of an age or race.
Architectural History
• Focuses on the evolution of buildings, monuments, pediments, and
settlements in relation to art, history, and philosophy.
• Is the discipline that records, studies, and interprets architecture. It
studies its forms, purposes, and most importantly its evolution.
• Is an appreciation for understanding and conserving the cultural
heritage that comes along with architecture.
• Allows the development of a broad framework in economics, design,
philosophy, urban development, and art.
• Is a record of man's efforts to build beautifully.

Why study History of Architecture?

• Studying architectural history enables us to understand the society and
culture that every period of development represents and orders us to
have knowledge on how and why each era since the beginning of time
formed its own unique style.
 • Explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms, and
decorations, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and
period.
• To understand the effects of geography, geology, religion, culture and
society, and methods of construction on the evolution and development
of architectural styles reflected on the building design.

Four Great Constructive Principles

1. Post & Lintel Construction

2. Arch & Vault Construction

3. Corbel or Cantilever Construction

4. Truss Construction
 PREHISTORIC PERIOD
Prehistory is the period of time in the past before people could write.
Prehistory starts with the appearance of the first hominid, 4.5 million years
ago, and finishes with the invention of the writing, 3.500 years B.C
This long period can be divided into 3 stages:
v PALEOLITHIC AGE

§ The Paleolithic Age extends from the appearance of our first ancestors to
about 11,000 years ago. Human beings lived from hunting and gathering
§ Paleolithic means "old stone"
§ It starts with the appearance of the first hominids (45 million of years
ago) and ends with the discovery of agriculture (7,000 years B.C).
§ They form small groups of 20 or 30 people called tribes. The members of
a tribe belong to the same family. They live up to about 35 years because
of a cold climate and common diseases.
§ They live in caves or huts made with sticks and the skin of the animals.
§ Tools
– Men discovered that by hitting rocks together, they could make tools.
Tools were so important that the material they were made of is used to
refer to different ages of human history-the Stone Age, the Bronze Age,
the Iron Age, etc.
§ Fire
– Life changed a lot for the early humans when they discovered to how to
make fire. The fire allowed them to cook food, warm themselves and have
light. Fire could also be used to cut down trees and protection against
wild animals.
§ Art
– Around 30,000 years ago humans began painting on the walls of
caves; this shows an artistic sensibility
§ Characteristic of the art
– They paint animals: horses, deers, bisons, mammoth, etc.
– They used colors brown, black, red, and yellow made from natural
materials.
– Animal hair is used to make brushes.
– They believed that painting gives good luck in hunting.

v NEOLITHIC AGE
§ The Neolithic Age began about 11,000 years ago. Groups human
beings started to live in villages. They practiced agriculture and
raised cattle.
§ The Neolithic Era (New Stone Age) begins around 10,000 B.C, when
humans invented agriculture and livestock raising
§ Neolithic people learned how to plant cereals and to farm and
domesticate animals
§ Neolithic people are not nomadic. They settle down in towns and
build houses because they have to farm and need to be close to their
fields.
§ People began building houses and living in towns, so life got easier.
They divide up the work: some people farm, some take care of
animals, some build houses, some make tools, some make clothing,
some made pottery, etc.
§ They begin to form villages around the fields they farm, and they learn
how to make many new things like jewelry, pottery, bigger houses,
better clothing, and stronger tools.
§ Trade began during the Neolithic Era. It is where people buy and sell
or exchange goods.
 § Tools
– People used stone tools, but they began to be more sophisticated,
specialized, and they are often polished to a fine finish.
– Pottery is made for the first time during the Neolithic Age.
§ Art
– Human figures became important in Neolithic art, which leads to
painted scenes with group of people hunting, farming or dancing.
Figures in these paintings were very schematic.

v METAL AGE

§ The Metal Ages began about 7,000 years ago. The Age of Metals began
when human beings to learn how to use metals to make objects
(5.000 years BC). First, they used copper, then bronze and finally
iron.

§ Copper and gold were the first metals ever used by humans
§ Copper was used for making tools and weapons. However, copper
tools bend easily, so they were not very effective.
§ Then came bronze. Bronze is an alloy (a mixture) of copper and tin.
§ Both were melted and mixed.
§ Bronze is much stronger than copper, so it was used primarily for
making weapons, tools for agriculture and domestic utensils
§ Iron is stronger than bronze.
§ Tools and Technology
– Metal tools are better than stone tools; they are stronger and can be
sharpened.
§ Metal is used for:
– Tools such as ploughs and knives
– Weapons such as swords.
– Jewelry such as necklace.
§ First Cities
– Agriculture, livestock and the new technical advances, improved
people’s lives. Because of this, population increased. Some villages
became small cities with hundreds of inhabitants.
– Cities are surrounded by walls, and inside there are buildings with
different functions: houses, stores, shops, or workshops.
– First cities houses are small, their walls are made of adobe or
stone and their ceilings were made of straw.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
§ Construction System
– Megalithic structures - large stones
§ Materials
– Animal skins, wooden frames, and bones
§ Orientation
– Faces toward cardinal points
§ Megalith Monuments
– In the late Neolithic Age, human beings built what we can call
the first monuments using big blocks of stone, called megaliths
(big stones). The main monuments are menhirs, dolmens, and
cromlechs (stone circles).
– The largest Megalith of the ancient world is found in Baalbek,
Lebanon, quarried during the Roman Empire.
§ Menhirs
– Menhirs are big, long stones vertically put into the ground.
– Menhirs are probably religious constructions dedicated to
worship the sun.
§ Dolmens
– Dolmens are collective burial places.
– They are made of big, long vertical stones covered by several
horizontal slabs of a great size.
§ Cromlechs
 – Cromlechs are wide several menhirs put in circles formed by
round. They were probably used as sanctuaries.
§ Tumulus or Passage Grave
– Dominant tomb type.
– Corridor inside leading to an underground chamber.
§ Primitive Dwellings
– Mostly had one room.
– The development of more complex civilizations led to division of
the room into smaller ones for eating, sleeping, socializing
– In places where no industrial revolution has occurred to
transform building methods and increase population density,
houses show little difference from primitive ones
§ Trullo
– Dry walled rough stone shelter with corbelled roof.
§ Beehive hut
– Made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof.
§ Wigwam or tepee
– Conical tent with wooden poles as frameworks
– Covered with rush mats and an animal skin door
§ Hogan
– Primitive Indian structure of joined logs
§ Igloo
– Innuit (Eskimo) house constructed of hard-packed snow blocks
built up spirally.
§ Nigerian hut
– Made with mud walls and roof palm leaves.
§ Sumatran House
– For several families, built of timber and palm leaves, the fenced
pen underneath is for livestock.
§ Iraqi Mud Hut
– Covered with split reed mats, built on a reed platform to prevent
settlement.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

INFLUENCES
1. GEOGRAPHICAL
- Egypt consist of sandy desert with a strip of fertile country on the banks of the Nile.
- Egypt is the only nation of ancient world which had easy access to the Northern, or
Mediterranean Sea, eastern or Arabian Sea.
- Due to their command to have an access to the highways, red sea, Egypt had outlets for
their own productions and inlets for those of foreign nations.
- The possession of Nile was an advantage because of the trade route, means of
communication, and its waters are fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful
fields.
2. GEOLOGICAL
- There existed an abundance of limestone in the north, sandstone in the central region,
and granite in the south.
- These hard and lasting building materials largely influence the architecture of Egypt.
3. CLIMATE
- Climate is equable and of warm temperature.
- Because snow and frosting are unknown in this country, and storm, fog, and rain are
rare, the temples were preserved.
- 2 seasons of Egypt: spring, summer.
4. RELIGION
- Priesthood was powerful.
- Religious rites were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious
- Tinge of mystery is one of the great characteristics of Egyptian architecture as well as
in its tombs and temples.
- Egyptians attained very high degree of learning in astronomy, mathematics, and
philosophy
- Papers were made from pith of papyrus plant
- Dwelling-house was looked upon as temporary lodging; the tomb is permanent
5. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
6. HISTORICAL
- Egyptian civilization is the most ancient of any of which there is a clear knowledge.
- History is partly derived from Holy Scripture and from Greek and roman authors.
- The pyramids are thought to be a thousand years older than any building which has
yet been discovered in western Asia
- The kings or Pharaohs (“Peraa” – “great house”) have been arranged in thirty
dynasties, extending down to B.C 332.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

In the valley of the Nile, the land which is the gift a great river, and the seat of the most
ancient civilization, a primitive architecture of mud or puddled clay and bundles of reeds changed
in later times to a style of stone and granite.
 The primitive structure was composed of bundles of reeds bound together and placed
vertically in the ground at intervals, the angle bundles being of greater strength. Joining these
reeds, at the top, were laid horizontally other bundles, which bound the heads of the uprights
together. The origin of the characteristic cornice (No. 10 J), is held to be due to the pressure of the
clay, of which the primitive roofs were constructed, on the upright reeds, which formed the
framework of the walls. This formed the slightly projecting cornice, the reeds keeping the rammed
clay in a projecting position and allowing the curve to be terminated by a flat fillet which gave the
level of the terrace. The jambs and lintels of the doors and windows were made of reeds in the
humbler dwellings and of palm trunks in those of more pretension. Here, then, is seen a fair and
likely prototype of the construc

tion of an Egyptian wall, the form of which is more suitable to a structure of rushes overlaid
with mud or puddled clay than to one consisting of large stones. Still, an important point remains
the batter or slope which is invariably given to the walls. Viollet-le-Duc's theories as to the origin
of this batter do not point to the influence of material, and this feature is alleged by him to have
been introduced at a later stage, having been promulgated by a royal decree. He infers the custom
to have been derived from the Pyramids, which were found to remain undisturbed during
earthquakes, while straight-sided houses were upset, owing to their walls being more easily over.
turned. It seems, however, more reasonable to attribute it to a mud origin, for nothing would be
more natural, in order to strengthen such buildings, than to slightly tilt the bundles of reeds towards
the interior, forming as it were an arch, a treatment which in any other material scarcely seems to
be feasible.

Proceeding to the internal architectural features of the style, a very distinct reminiscence
of the primitive reeds tied together at intervals, and crowned with the lotus bud, is found in the
later granite column and capital (No. 10 L, M). During the Theban kingdom especially (B.C. 3000-
B.C. 2100), examples in stone of capitals and columns derived from timber and reed originals are
frequent. At Beni-Hasân some pillars represent a bundle of four reeds or lotus stalks bound together
near the top and bulging above the ligature, so as to form a capital, in imitation of a lotus bud.
Such a pier must evidently have been originally employed in wooden architecture only, and the
roof which it supports, in this instance, represents a light wooden construction having the slight
slope necessary in the dry Egyptian climate.

This type of column was largely used in later Egyptian times in a more substantial lithic
form (No. 10 M), and in conjunction with the hollow-formed capital of the bell type (No. 10 L),
of which the earliest example appeared in the eighteenth dynasty.

In fact, throughout, although materials changed, the forms of the early reed and clay
construction were adhered to; and the endeavour of the conservative Egyptian was to reproduce in
stone and granite, superimposed in layers, the appearance assumed in the early reed and mud type.

The surface decoration executed on the later granite buildings (No. 10 P), apparently came
from the "sgraffito" (incised plaster) work on the earlier mud walls. The surfaces of such walls
could not be modelled or carved with projections of high relief, but their flat surfaces, when
plastered, provided an admirable field for decora tion and for instruction through the use of
hieroglyphics. The Egyptian system of decoration consisted in not contravening the form adopted,
but in clothing it with a kind of drapery more or less rich, which never presented a projecting
outline, contenting itself with enveloping the geometric form as would an embroidered stuff, or a
diapered covering.

Remarkable then as were the arts of Egypt, it is clear that the spirit of criticism and logical
method were wanting; and that traditional forms, hallowed by long use, were clung to and repro
duced when the method of building which suggested them had been replaced by other systems.
Egyptian art proceeded on an unin terrupted line or course of tradition, and when necessity dictated
a change in the methods of construction, or in the materials, the immutable form was not thereby
affected, but was perpetuated in spite of novel conditions.

The principal remains of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Pyramids, or royal tombs of
the kings, and the temples, a contrast in this respect with Assyria, where the palaces of the kings
are the chief remains. The Egyptian wall-paintings, sculptures, jewellery, bronze implements and
utensils, which have been unearthed from their temples or tombs, show that the race had attained
to a high degree in art. As regards the architec ture, the impression given to the mind of the
spectator is that these buildings were erected for eternity, all the remains having

a character of immense solidity, and usually of grand uniformity. The Pyramids (Nos. 4
and 5) are the most extravagant of all ancient buildings in many ways. The relative return in
impressiveness and the higher beauties of the art is small when compared with the amount of
labour, expense, and material used in their erection.

The finishing and fitting of such large masses of granite is remarkable, for many of the
blocks, perfectly squared, polished and fitted, are at least 20 feet long by 6 feet wide. The method
of quarrying and of transportation for long distances by land and water, and the raising of these
blocks of stone into position, is even now uncertain, although M. Choisy in his latest work (see
Reference Books, page 30) has produced many robable theories.

The Architectural Character of the temples is striking and characteristic (Nos. 5, 7 and 8.
The buildings decrease in height from front to back, presenting a disconnected collection of various
sized structures, often built at different times, and thus forming a direct contrast to the harmonious
whole of a Greek temple, which is all comprised within one "order" of columns, and which is
distinctly, both in appearance and reality, one building.

The character of the tombs consists in the planning of their mysterious chambers and
corridors, which, covered with paintings and hieroglyphics, produce an effect of gloom and
solemnity on the spectator.
EXAMPLES.
THE SPHINX

(No. 4), whose date is unknown, is situated near the great pyramids, in the centre of an ancient
stone quarry, and is a natural rock cut to resemble a Sphinx, with rough masonry added in parts.
An Egyptian Sphinx (No. 10 o) had the head of a king, a hawk, a ram, or more rarely a woman, on
the body of a lion. The dimensions of the Great Sphinx, which represents a recum bent lion with
the head of a man, are as follows: it is 65 feet high by 188 feet long, the face is 13 feet 6 inches
wide, and the mouth 8 feet 6 inches long. Greatly mutilated, it is still a marvel, as it has been
throughout the ages. The symbol for an insoluble problem, it is, and probably ever will be, a
mystery. It was excavated in 1816 by Captain Caviglia, who found a temple between the paws,
and it has since been examined by Mariette and Maspero...

THE PYRAMIDS

of Gizeh, near Cairo, all erected during the fourth dynasty (B.C. 3998-B.C. 3721), form one of
several groups within the necropolis of the ancient capital city of Memphis, and rank among the
oldest monuments of Egyptian architecture. The other groups are those of Abu-Roash, Zawiyet-
el-Aryân, Abusir, Sakkara, and Dashur.

These were built by the kings as their future tombs, the governing idea being to secure immortality
by the preservation of the mummy, till that time should have passed, when, according to their
belief, the souf would once more return to the body. Their construction has been described by
many writers, including Herodotus.

The Great Pyramid (Nos. 4 and 5 c, p), by Cheops (Khufu) (B.C. 3733-B.C. 3700); the Second
Pyramid (No. 4), by Cephron (Khafra) (B.c. 3666-B.c. 3633); the Third Pyramid by Mycerinos
(Menkhara) (B.c. 3633-B.C. 3600), are the best known examples.

The Great Pyramid of Cheops is square on plan, 760 feet each way, its area being about 13
acres, i.e., twice the extent of S. Peter, Rome, or equal to the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, London.
The faces of the pyramid are equilateral triangles laid sloping and meeting in a point. The sides
face directly north, south, east and west, as in all the pyramids, and they make an angle with the
ground of 51 degrees 50 minutes. The original height was 482 feet. The entrance (No. 5 c), which
is on the northern side, is 47 feet 6 inches above the base, and is now reached by means of an
earthen embankment. The passage to which it gives access first slopes downwards, and afterwards
re-ascends towards the heart of the pyramid, where the King's Chamber is situated. In this chamber,
which is 34 feet 6 inches by 17 feet and 19 feet high, was placed the sarcophagus of the king
contain ing his embalmed body. The upper part is elaborately con structed with stones one above
the other (No. 5 D), and the entrance is protected by a massive stone acting as a portcullis, fitting
into a rebate or recess, and weighing from 50 to 60 tons. Two air channels, each about 8 inches by
6 inches, led to the outer face of the pyramid for ventilation.

There were two other chambers in the Great Pyramid, one known as the Queen's Chamber,
connected with a passage leading off that to the King's Chamber, and the other below the ground.
 The exterior of this pyramid was originally cased with a sloping face of limestone, but this has
now disappeared, showing the original stepped surface in tiers of 4 feet, on which the casing was
placed, and which still exists in the Pyramid of Mycerinos.

TOMBS.

Besides the Pyramids or royal tombs are others for private individuals.

(a.) In the Ancient Empire the Mastabas, probably derived from rude heaps of stones piled up over
earlier mummy holes, were rectangular structures, with sides sloping at an angle of 75 degrees,
and having flat roofs. They were divided into three parts:

i. The outer chamber, in which were placed the offerings to the "Ka" or "double," having its
walls decorated with representations of festal and other scenes, which are valuable from an
historical standpoint.

ii. Inner secret chambers, known as the "serdabs," containing statues of the deceased, and
members of his family.

iii. A well of great depth, leading to the chamber containing the sarcophagus with its mummy.

The Mastaba of Thy, Sakkâra, is well preserved and has been restored. It dates from the
fifth dynasty, and was erected to Thy, who in his day held the position of royal architect and
manager of pyramids. It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court where offerings
to the deceased took place, and from which a mummy shaft led through a passage to a tomb
chamber. The masonry of this tomb is carefully jointed and covered with flat reliefs, which are
generally considered the best specimens of their kind. The principal reliefs are in a second tomb
chamber, 22 feet 9 inches by 23 feet 9 inches and 12 feet 6 inches high. These reliefs represent
harvest operations, ship building scenes, scenes representing the arts and crafts of the period, the
slaughtering of sacrificial animals, and Thy himself sailing through the marshes in a boat with a
surrounding papyrus thicket.

(b.) In the Middle Empire tombs were either of the Pyramidal form, as at Abydos, or were rock-
cut, as in the vertical cliffs bounding the Nile valley (No. 6).

The Tombs at Beni-Hasân, in Upper Egypt, form a remarkable group of these rock-cut
examples. There are 39 in all, arranged in a row in the rocks as shown (No. 6). They were made
during the twelfth dynasty (B.C. 2778-2565), a period which was particularly remarkable for the
progress of the arts of peace. The entrance to the Tomb of Khnemhotep, known as Tomb No. 3,
has two sixteen-sided columns, sometimes considered to be a prototype of the Greek Doric order.
These are slightly fluted and have an entasis, and the deeply projecting cornice has stone beams
carved out of the solid rock, indicating a derivation from a wooden origin.

(c.) During the New Empire.tombs were rock-cut and structural, and in many cases accompanied
by sepulchral temples.
 Thebes, which for a time was the necropolis of the Egyptian kings, has a large number of
tombs dating mostly from the New Empire, and forming a contrast to the pyramids which formed
the graves of the earlier kings. These tombs consist of a series of chambers connected with
passages hewn in the rock, and were intended only for the reception of the sarcophagi. Amongst
the most important of these are those of Rameses III., IV., and IX., and that of Sethos I., usually
known as Belzoni's tomb from its discoverer in 1817. The structure of all is very similar, consist
ing of three corridors cut in the rock leading into an ante-room, beyond which is the sepulchral
chamber, where the granite sarcophagus was placed in a hollow in the floor. The walls, from the
entrance to the sarcophagus chamber, were sculptured with hieroglyphics of pictures and texts
necessary to the deceased in the future life, and mostly representing him sailing through the under-
world accompanied by the sun god. The texts were mostly taken from various books relating to
the ceremonies which were essential for insuring the immortality of the departed.

The mortuary or sepulchral temples, such as those of Dêr-el bahri, Medinet-Habou, the
Ramesseum, and others, were utilized for offerings and other funereal rights for the dead.

TEMPLES.

The purposes for which they were used and their component parts are important. They were
sanctuaries where the king and priests penetrated, and in which mysteries and processions formed
a great part of the religious services. They differ, therefore, from the Greek temple, the Christian
church, and the Mahometan mosque, for they were not places for the meeting of the faithful or the
recital of common prayers, and no public ritual was celebrated within them. The priests and king
only were admitted beyond the hypostyle hall, and the temple, therefore, was a kind of royal
oratory reared by the king in token of his own piety and in order to purchase the favour of the gods.

The student is referred to Lockyer's theories as to the orienta tion of temples with regard to the
particular stars. The "mammeisi" were temples (dedicated to the mysterious accouchement of Isis)
each consisting of one small chamber with statue and altar as at Elephantine, approached by a
flight of steps. In this form they are generally considered to be the prototypes of the Greek temples.
The more usual type of temple, however, consisted of chambers for the priests, with courts,
colonnades, and halls, all surrounded by a high wall.

In order that the student may understand the general distribu tion of the parts of an Egyptian
temple, a plan is here given of the Temple of Khons, near the Great Temple of Ammon, at Karnac
(No. 5), on the eastern bank of the Nile, which may be taken as a fair example of the ordinary type
of plan.

The entrance to the temple was between "pylons," or massive sloping towers, on each side of
the central gateway (No. 7). In front of the entrance were placed obelisks, and front of these an
avenue of sphinxes, forming a splendid approach to the temple. This entrance gave access to the
large outer court yard, which was open to the sky in the centre, and therefore called "hypæthral"
(from two Greek words, meaning "under the air "). This courtyard was surrounded by a double
colonnade on three sides, and led up to the hypostyle hall, in which light was admitted by means
of a clerestory above, formed by the different height of the columns (No. 5 B. Beyond this is the
sanctuary, surrounded by a passage, and at the rear is a smaller hall; both the last chambers must
have been dark or only imperfectly lighted.

The whole collection of buildings forming the temple was surrounded by a great wall as high
as the buildings themselves. Thebes, the site of which occupied a large area on the east and west
banks of the Nile, was the capital of Egypt during the New Empire (Dynasties XVII.-XX.). The
eastern bank had an important group of Temples at Karnac, including the Great Temple of Ammon,
and the Temple of Khons (twentieth dynasty). At Luxor, also on the eastern bank, was another
Temple of Ammon (eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties). On the western bank lay the Necropolis
or Tombs of the Kings and Queens, and a large number of mortuary temples, which included those
of Dêr-el-bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habou.

The Great Temple of Ammon, Karnac, is the grandest, extending over an area of 1,200
feet by 360 feet, and originally was connected with the Temple of Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes.
It was not built on an original plan, but owes its size, disposition and magnificence to the additions
of many later kings, from the first monarchs of the twelfth dynasty down to the Ptolemaic period.
It has six pylons added in successive genera ions, a great court measuring 338 feet by 275 feet, the
great hypostyle hall, and other halls, courts and a sanctuary. The Hypostyle hall measures 338 feet
by 170 feet, covering about the same area as Nôtre Dame, Paris. The roof is supported by 134
columns in sixteen rows. The central avenues are about So feet in height as compared with 140
feet at Amiens Cathedral, and have columns 69 feet high and 11 feet in diameter, the capitals of
which are of the lotus blossom type (No. 10 L) so as to receive the light from the clerestory. The
side avenues are about 46 feet high and have columns 42 feet 6 inches in height and 9 feet in
diameter, the Capitals being of the lotus bud type, on which the clerestory light would fall. The
impression produced on the spectator by the forest of columns is most awe inspiring, and the eye
is led from the smaller columns of the side avenues, which gradually vanish into semi-darkness,
giving an idea of unlimited size, to the larger columns of the central avenues lighted by the
clerestory, which is formed in the difference of height between the central and side avenues, a form
of lighting more fully developed in the Gothic period. The walls of the hall, the column shafts, and
the architraves are covered with incised inscriptions, still retaining their original colored
decorations relating to the gods and personages concerned in the erection of the structure.

The Temple of Sethos I., Abydos, was dedicated to Osiris and other deities of Abydos.
It was built by Sethos I. (B.C. 1366-1333), and completed by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300). The
walls are of fine grained limestone, and the reliefs on them are among the finest Egyptian
sculptures. In common with other temples it has pylons, a first and second fore-court and two
hypostyle halls, but instead of one sanctuary it has seven arranged side by side, dedicated to six
deities and a deified king; hence the front of this temple was divided into seven parts, each with
its separate gateway and portal. The seven sanctuaries are each roofed by means of horizontal
courses, every course project ing beyond that immediately below, and the undersides afterwards
rounded off in the form of a vault by the chisel. It further differs from others in having a wing at
right angles to the main structure in consequence of a hill immediately behind the temple.

The Great Temple of Abu-Simbel, built by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300), is one of the
most stupendous creations of Egyptian architecture, and was entirely excavated out of the solid
rock. It has a forecourt, at the back of which is the imposing façade, 119 feet wide and over 100
feet high, formed as a pylon, and having four seated colossi of Rameses II., each over 65 feet in
height. The entrance leads to a vestibule, the ceiling of which is supported by eight pillars, the
walls having vividly colored reliefs. Eight smaller chambers, probably used to store. the temple
utensils and furniture, adjoin this vestibule, and in the rear is a small hypostyle hall, 36 feet by 25
feet, having four pillars. Behind this is a long narrow chamber out of which are three apartments,
the centre and largest one being the sanctuary, with an altar and four seated figures of the deities
worshipped.

The Temple of Isis, Island of Philæ, is an interesting example of the Ptolemaic period, and,
like earlier examples, was the work of several generations. The fore-court, entered through a
massive pylon, 150 feet broad and 60 feet high, has on the west side the Birth House, a small
colonnaded. temple dedicated to Hathor-Isis and to the memory of the birth of her son Horus, and
on the east a colonnaded building used by the priests. On the fourth side of the court is the second
pylon, which is 105 feet broad and 40 feet high. Beyond is the temple proper, consisting of courts,
a hypostyle hall with eight columns, two small vesti bules, a sanctuary, and other adjoining
chambers, all nearly in total darkness. This group, including the second pylon, has its axis at an
angle to that of the first pylon and courtyard. The entire structure has the walls, both inside and
out, covered with inscriptions.

The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (A.D. first century), is another Ptolemaic example, but
was not completed till the reign of Augustus. It has no pylons, fore-court, or enclosing outer walls,
but has a great vestibule with twenty-four columns, six of which form the façade, having low
screen walls between them on either side of the central entrance. Behind this is the hypostyle hall,
having six columns with elaborate Hathor-headed capitals. On each side of this hall and beyond
are chambers, used as lavatory, treasury, store-rooms; and behind are two ante-chambers with a
sanctuary beyond. Staircases on either side lead to the roof of the temple.

During the Græco-Roman period many temples were erected, of which the Temple of
Edfou, commenced by Ptolemy III. (B.C. 237), is the best preserved example. A massive pylon,
faced with reliefs and inscriptions, gave access to a great court, surrounded by a colonnade. The
back of this court was formed by the front of the great hypostyle hall, the portal of which was the
centre intercolumniation of a row of six columns, the narrower spaces between the side columns
having low screen walls (No. 8. Twelve larger columns with elaborate capitals support the roof
over this hall, beyond which was a smaller hypostyle hall, the roof of which was carried by twelve
columns, having rich floral capitals, embellished by so-called heads of Hathor. Behind this were
vestibules, smaller chambers, and the sanctuary.
OBELISKS

are monumental pillars, originally employed in pairs before the principal entrances of temples.
They are monoliths, i.e., single upright stones, square on plan with slightly rounded faces, and
tapering sides, with a pyramidal summit. The height is usually about nine to ten times as great as
the diameter, and the four faces were cut with hieroglyphics. The capping was of metal, for the
groove into which it was fitted is in some cases still visible. The quarrying and transport of such a
mass of stone without the power of a steam-engine was an engineering feat of considerable skill.

Many obelisks were removed from Egypt by the Roman emperors, and at least twelve are in
Rome itself. That in the centre of the Piazza of S. John Lateran is the largest in existence. It is of
red granite from Syene, and is 104 feet high, or with the pedestal 153 feet, 9 feet square at the base,
6 feet 2 inches at the top, and altogether weighs about 600 tons.

Cleopatra's Needle on the Thames Embankment, another example, brought to London from
Alexandria, although originally erected at Heliopolis (B.C. 1500), is 68 feet 6 inches high, 8 feet
square at the base, and weighs 180 tons.

DWELLINGS.

All these have disappeared, being only built of wood or of sun-drieD bricks. Houses are shown
on paintings and sculptures which have come down to us, from which they appear to have had one,
two, or three stories.

In the absence of any authentic remains, an illustration of the Egyptian House is given (No.
9), conjecturally restored, and erected at the Paris Exhibition, 1889, by M. Charles Garnier. The
design was founded on an ancient painting, and had a garden in front, laid out in a formal style,
with fish-ponds. The house was divided by a corridor in the centre, giving access to the rooms.
The staircase at the back led to a verandah, and also to a flat roof, extending over the whole length
of the structure. The whole building was treated with color, the upper part of the house being
painted a bright yellow, and the long external wooden columns blue.

COMPARATIVE.

A. Plans. The temples have already been slightly compared with Greek examples (pages 15 and
22), and as already noticed they were especially planned for internal effect. The hypostyle hall
seemingly unlimited in size, crowded with pillars, and mysteriously illuminated from above,
realized the grandest conceptions of Egyptian planning (No. 5). Externally the massive pylons
ornamented with incised decorations formed the chief façade, a contrast being obtained by the
slender obelisks which usually stood in front of them, while the approach was through an
impressive avenue of innumerable sphinxes.

The erection of these temples was in progress during many centuries by means of continual
additions. In this respect they resemble the growth of English cathedrals; as also in the disregard
for symmetry in the planning of one part in relation to another. This may be seen in many of the
later temples erected under the Ptolemys, the temple on the island of Phile being a notable instance.
The walls, the pylons, and other features are placed on different axes, free from any pretence of
regularity. The freedom and picturesqueness of grouping thus obtained is remarkable.

B. Walls. These were immensely thick, and in important buildings were of granite, while in the
less important they were of brick faced with granite.

The faces of the temple walls slope inwards or batter towards the top, giving them a massive
appearance (No. 7). Viollet-le Duc traces this inclination to the employment of mud for the walls
of early buildings. I Columns which form the leading features of Greek external architecture are
not found on the exterior of Egyptian buildings, which have normally a massive blank wall
crowned with a characteristic cornice, consisting of a large hollow and roll moulding (No. 10 J,
M). For the purposes of decoration, the walls, even when of granite, were generally covered with
a fine plaster, in which were executed low reliefs, treated with bright color (Nos. 7 and 10 P).
Simplicity, solidity, and grandeur, qualities obtained by broad masses of unbroken walling, are the
chief characteristics of the style.

C. Openings. These were all square-headed and covered with massive lintels, for the style being
essentially trabeated, the arch appears to have been but little used. Window openings are seldom
found in temples, light being admitted by the clerestories in the earlier examples at Thebes, or over
the low dwarf walls between the columns of the front row, as at Luxor, Edfou (No. 8, Dendera, or
Phila, a method peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

D. Roofs. These were composed of massive blocks of stone supported by the enclosing walls and
the closely spaced columns (No. 5 F). Being flat, they could be used in dwelling-houses (No. 9) as
a pleasant rendezvous for the family in the evening for the enjoyment of the view and the fresh
breezes which spring up at sunset, and at certain seasons may have been used for repose. They
may also have been used in the daytime, if protected from the sun by temporary awnings. The flat
roofs of the temples seem to have been used in the priestly processions. In the rock cut temples the
ceilings are sometimes slightly arched in form, and as at the tombs at Beni-Hasân, the roofing is
made to represent timber construction (No. 6).

E. Columns. The papyrus, a tall, smooth reed, and the lotus, a large white water-lily of exquisite
beauty, offered many sugges tions. The columns, seldom over six diameters in height, were made
to represent the stalks, and at intervals appear to be tied by bands (No. 10). The capitals were
mostly derived from the lotus plant (No. 10 D, E, F), as follows:

(a.) The lotus bud, conventionalized, tied round by stalks (No. 10 M).
(b.) The fully-grown lotus flower, which formed a bell-shaped capital, sculptured of ornamented
with color decoration (No. 10 L).
(c.) The "palm" capital, the main outline of the palms being painted or sculptured (No. 10 K).

In addition, the Isis or Hathor-headed capital, as at Dendera and Philæ, is formed of heads of
the goddess Isis, supporting the model of a pylon (No. 10 G).
F. Mouldings. These were few, viz., the hollow and bead generally used in conjunction, but the
bead was also used by itself. The two combined invariably crowned the upper part of the pylons
(Nos. 7 and 10 J, M), and walls.

G. Ornament (No. 10). This was symbolical, and was an important element in the style, including
such features as the solar disc or globe and the vulture with outspread wings (No. 10 N), as a
symbol of protection, while diaper patterns, spirals (No. 10 A, B and the feather ornament (No. 10
c) were largely used. The scarab, or sacred beetle, was considered by the Egyptians as the sign of
their religion, much in the same way as the cross became the symbol of Christianity. It probably
attained its sacred character as the emblem of resurrection because of its habit of allowing the sun
to hatch its eggs from a pellet of refuse. It must be remembered that the decoration of the walls of
a temple consisted largely in acts of adoration on the part of the monarch to his gods, to whose
protection he ascribed all his warlike successes. The Egyptians were masters in the use of color,
chiefly using the primary ones-blue, red, and yellow. The wall to be decorated was prepared as
follows: (a) It was first chiselled smooth and covered with a thin layer of plaster or cement, after
which a colored wash was put over the whole. (b) The figures or hieroglyphics were then drawn
on with a red line by an artist, being corrected with a black line by the chief artist; (c) the sculptor
next incised the outline, rounding slightly the inclosed form towards its boundaries; (d) the painter
then executed his work in the strong hues of the primary colors. (See the Egyptian Court at the
Crystal Palace.) The hieroglyphics were often, however, incised direct on the granite and then
colored, as may be seen on the sculptures at the British Museum. They are instructive as well as
decorative, and from them is learnt most of what is known of Egyptian history (No. 10 P).

The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus
plant, the symbol of fertility and abundance, produced by the overflowing Nile, the palm, the
papyrus, and others, each being copied as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a
way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, feature
of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for
ornamentation.
 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT

Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest
civilizations on earth. The name 'Egypt' comes from the Greek Aegyptos which was the Greek
pronunciation of the ancient Egyptian name 'Hwt-Ka-Ptah' ("Mansion of the Spirit of Ptah"),
originally the name of the city of Memphis.

Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and a famous religious and trade center; its high status is
attested to by the Greeks alluding to the entire country by that name. To the ancient Egyptians
themselves, their country was simply known as Kemet, which means 'Black Land', so named for
the rich, dark soil along the Nile River where the first settlements began. Later, the country was
known as Misr which means 'country', a name still in use by Egyptians for their nation in the
present day. Egypt thrived for thousands of years (from c. 8000 BCE to c. 30 BCE) as an
independent nation whose culture was famous for great cultural advances in every area of human
knowledge, from the arts to science to technology and religion. The great monuments which
ancient Egypt is still celebrated for reflect the depth and grandeur of Egyptian culture which
influenced so many ancient civilizations, among them Greece and Rome.

One of the reasons for the enduring popularity of Egyptian culture is its emphasis on the grandeur
of the human experience. Their great monuments, tombs, temples, and artwork all celebrate life
and stand as reminders of what once was and what human beings, at their best, are capable of
achieving. Although ancient Egypt in popular culture is often associated with death and mortuary
rites, something even in these speaks to people across the ages of what it means to be a human
being and the power and purpose of remembrance.

THE WRITTEN HISTORY OF EGYPT BEGINS BETWEEN 3400 AND 3200 BCE WHEN
HIEROGLYPHIC SCRIPT IS DEVELOPED BY THE NAQADA CULTURE III.

To the Egyptians, life on earth was only one aspect of an eternal journey. The soul was immortal
and was only inhabiting a body on this physical plane for a short time. At death, one would meet
with judgment in the Hall of Truth and, if justified, would move on to an eternal paradise known
as The Field of Reeds which was a mirror image of one's life on earth. Once one had reached
paradise one could live peacefully in the company of those one had loved while on earth, including
one's pets, in the same neighborhood by the same stream, beneath the very same trees one thought
had been lost at death.

This eternal life, however, was only available to those who had lived well and in accordance with
the will of the gods in the most perfect place conducive to such a goal: the land of Egypt.
Egypt has a long history which goes back far beyond the written word, the stories of the gods, or
the monuments which have made the culture famous. Evidence of overgrazing of cattle, on the
land which is now the Sahara Desert, has been dated to about 8000 BCE. This evidence, along
with artifacts discovered, points to a thriving agricultural civilization in the region at that time. As
the land was mostly arid even then, hunter-gatherer nomads sought the cool of the water source of
the Nile River Valley and began to settle there sometime prior to 6000 BCE.
Organized farming began in the region c. 6000 BCE and communities known as the Badarian
Culture began to flourish alongside the river. Industry developed at about this same time as
evidenced by faience workshops discovered at Abydos dating to c. 5500 BCE. The Badarian were
followed by the Amratian, the Gerzean, and the Naqada cultures (also known as Naqada I, Naqada
II, and Naqada III), all of which contributed significantly to the development of what became
Egyptian civilization. The written history of the land begins at some point between 3400 and 3200
BCE when hieroglyphic script is developed by the Naqada Culture III. By 3500 BCE
mummification of the dead was in practice at the city of Hierakonpolis and large stone tombs built
at Abydos. The city of Xois is recorded as being already ancient by 3100-2181 BCE as inscribed
on the famous Palermo Stone. As in other cultures worldwide, the small agrarian communities
became centralized and grew into larger urban centers.

Early History of Egypt

The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE) saw the unification of the north and
south kingdoms under the king Menes (also known as Meni or Manes) of Upper Egypt who
conquered Lower Egypt in c. 3118 BCE or c. 3150 BCE. This version of the early history comes
from the Aegyptica (History of Egypt) by the ancient historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd
century BCE under the Ptolemaic

Dynasty (323-30 BCE). Although his chronology has been disputed by later historians, it is still
regularly consulted on dynastic succession and the early history of ancient Egypt.

Manetho's work is the only source which cites Menes and the conquest, and it is now thought that
the man referred to by Manetho as 'Menes' was the king Narmer who peacefully united Upper and
Lower Egypt under one rule. Identification of Menes with Narmer is far from universally accepted,
however, and Menes has been as credibly linked to the king Hor-Aha (c. 3100-3050 BCE) who
succeeded him. An explanation for Menes' association with his predecessor and successor is that
'Menes' is an honorific title meaning "he who endures" and not a personal name and so could have
been used to refer to more than one king. The claim that the land was unified by military campaign
is also disputed as the famous Narmer Palette, depicting a military victory, is considered by some
scholars to be royal propaganda. The country may have first been united peacefully, but this seems
unlikely.

Geographical designation in ancient Egypt follows the direction of the Nile River and so Upper
Egypt is the southern region and Lower Egypt the northern area closer to the Mediterranean Sea.
Narmer ruled
from the city of Heirakonopolis and then from Memphis and Abydos. Trade increased significantly
under the rulers of the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt and elaborate mastaba tombs, precursors to
the later pyramids, developed in Egyptian burial practices which included increasingly elaborate
mummification techniques.

The Gods
From the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) a belief in the gods defined the
Egyptian culture. An early Egyptian creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in the midst
of swirling chaos before the beginning of time and spoke creation into existence. Atum was
accompanied by the eternal force of heka (magic), personified in the god Heka and by other
spiritual forces which would animate the world. Heka was the primal force which infused the
universe and caused all things to operate as they did; it also allowed for the central value of the
Egyptian culture: ma'at, harmony and balance.

All of the gods and all of their responsibilities went back to ma'at and heka. The sun rose and set
as it did and the moon traveled its course across the sky and the seasons came and went in
accordance with balance and order which was possible because of these two agencies. Ma'at was
also personified as a deity, the goddess of the ostrich feather, to whom every king promised his
full abilities and devotion. The king was associated with the god Horus in life and Osiris in death
based upon a myth which became the most popular in Egyptian history.

Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who governed the world and gave the
people the gifts of civilization. Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and murdered him but he
was brought back to life by Isis who then bore his son Horus. Osiris was incomplete, however, and
so descended to rule the underworld while Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and
defeated Set. This myth illustrated how order triumphed over chaos and would become a persistent
motif in Egyptian religion, mortuary rituals, and religious texts, and art. There was no period in
which the gods did not play an integral role in the daily lives of the Egyptians and this is clearly
seen from the earliest times in the country's history.

The Old Kingdom

During the period known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BCE), architecture honoring
the gods developed at an increased rate and some of the most famous monuments in Egypt, such
as the pyramids and the Great Sphinx of Giza, were constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c.
2670 BCE, built the first Step Pyramid at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief architect and
physician Imhotep (c.

2667-2600 BCE) who also wrote one of the first medical texts describing the treatment of over
200 different diseases and arguing that the cause of disease could be natural, not the will of the
gods. The Great Pyramid of Khufu (last of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world) was
constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE) with the pyramids of Khafre (2558-2532 BCE) and
Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE) following.

The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they originally would have appeared,
sheathed in gleaming white limestone, is a testament to the power and wealth of the rulers during
this period. Many theories abound regarding how these monuments and tombs were constructed,
but modern architects and scholars are far from agreement on any single one. Considering the
technology of the day, some have argued, a monument such as the Great Pyramid of Giza should
not exist. Others claim, however, that the existence of such buildings and tombs suggest superior
technology which has been lost to time.
There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza plateau - or any others in Egypt -
were built by slave labor nor is there any evidence to support a historical reading of the biblical
Book of Exodus. Most reputable scholars today reject the claim that the pyramids and other
monuments were built by slave labor, although slaves of different nationalities certainly did exist
in Egypt and were employed regularly in the mines. Egyptian monuments were considered public
works created for the state and used both skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in construction,
all of whom were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only one of many, were
given a ration of beer three times a day and their housing, tools, and even their level of health care
have all been clearly established.

The First Intermediate Period & the Hyksos

The era known as the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) saw a decline in the
power of the central government following its collapse. Largely independent districts with their
own governors developed throughout Egypt until two great centers emerged: Hierakonpolis in
Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These centers founded their own dynasties which ruled
their regions independently and intermittently fought with each other for supreme control until c.
2040 BCE when the Theban king Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) defeated the forces of
Hierakonpolis and united Egypt under the rule of Thebes.

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT IS CONSIDERED ITS 'CLASSICAL AGE' WHEN

ART & CULTURE REACHED GREAT HEIGHTS & THEBES BECAME THE MOST
IMPORTANT & WEALTHIEST CITY.

The stability provided by Theban rule allowed for the flourishing of what is known as the Middle
Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). The Middle Kingdom is considered Egypt's 'Classical Age' when art
and culture reached great heights and Thebes became the most important and wealthiest city in the
country. According to the historians Oakes and Gahlin, "the Twelfth Dynasty kings were strong
rulers who established control not only over the whole of Egypt but also over Nubia to the south,
where several fortresses were built to protect Egyptian trading interests" (11). The first standing
army was created during the Middle Kingdom by the king Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) the
temple of Karnak was begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-1926 BCE), and some of the greatest and
Egyptian literature and art was produced. The 13th Dynasty, however, was weaker than the 12th
and distracted by internal problems which allowed for a foreign people known as the Hyksos to
gain power in Lower Egypt around the Nile Delta.

The Hyksos are a mysterious people, most likely from the area of Syria/Palestine, who first
appeared in Egypt c. 1800 and settled in the town of Avaris. While the names of the Hyksos kings
are Semitic in origin, no definite ethnicity has been established for them. The Hyksos grew in
power until they were able to take control of a significant portion of Lower Egypt by c. 1720 BCE,
rendering the Theban Dynasty of Upper Egypt almost a vassal state.

This era is known as The Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE). While the
Hyksos (whose name simply means 'foreign rulers') were hated by the Egyptians, they introduced
a great many improvements to the culture such as the composite bow, the horse, and the chariot
along with crop rotation and developments in bronze and ceramic works. At the same time the
Hyksos controlled the ports of Lower Egypt, by 1700 BCE the Kingdom of Kush had risen to the
south of Thebes in Nubia and now held that border. The Egyptians mounted a number of
campaigns to drive the Hyksos out and subdue the Nubians, but all failed until prince Ahmose I of
Thebes (c. 1570-1544 BCE) succeeded and unified the country under Theban rule.
The New Kingdom & the Amarna Period

Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570 - c. 1069
BCE) which again saw great prosperity in the land under a strong central government. The title of
pharaoh for the ruler of Egypt comes from the period of the New Kingdom; earlier monarchs were
simply known as kings. Many of the Egyptian sovereigns best known today ruled during this
period and the majority of the great structures of Egyptian architecture such as the Ramesseum,
Abu Simbel, the temples of Karnak and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley
of the Queens were either created or greatly enhanced during this time.

Between 1504-1492 BCE the pharaoh Thutmose I (Tuthmosis I) consolidated his power and
expanded the boundaries of Egypt to the Euphrates River in the north, Syria and Palestine to the
west, and Nubia to the south. His reign was followed by Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) who
greatly expanded trade with other nations, most notably the Land of Punt. Her 22-year reign was
one of peace and prosperity for Egypt.

Her successor, Thutmose III (Tuthmosis III), carried on her policies (although he tried to eradicate
all memory of her as, it is thought, he did not want her to serve as a role model for other women
since only males were considered worthy to rule) and, by the time of his death in 1425 BCE, Egypt
was a great and powerful nation. The prosperity led to, among other things, an increase in the
brewing of beer in many different varieties and more leisure time for sports. Advances in medicine
led to improvements in health.

Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian's regimen as it was encouraged by
their religion and modeled by their clergy. At this time, however, more elaborate baths were
produced, presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The Kahun Gynecological Papyrus,
concerning women's health and contraceptives, had been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this
period, seems to have been made extensive use of by doctors. Surgery and dentistry were both
practiced widely and with great skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms
of over 200 different maladies.

In 1353 BCE the pharaoh Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne and, shortly after, changed his
name to Akhenaten (`living spirit of Aten') to reflect his belief in a single god, Aten. The Egyptians,
as noted above, traditionally believed in many gods whose importance influenced every aspect of
their daily lives. Among the most popular of these deities were Amun, Osiris, Isis, and Hathor.
The cult of Amun, at this time, had grown so wealthy that the priests were almost as powerful as
the pharaoh. Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, renounced the traditional religious beliefs and
customs of Egypt and instituted a new religion based upon the recognition of one god.

AKHENATEN WAS THE FIRST RULER TO DECREE STATUARY & A TEMPLE IN

HONOR OF HIS QUEEN INSTEAD OF ONLY FOR HIMSELF OR THE GODS.

His religious reforms effectively cut the power of the priests of Amun and placed it in his hands.
He moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna to further distance his rule from that of his
predecessors. This is known as The Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE) during which Amarna grew
as the capital of the country and polytheistic religious customs were banned.

Among his many accomplishments, Akhenaten was the first ruler to decree statuary and a temple
in honor of his queen instead of only for himself or the gods and used the money which once went
to the temples for public works and parks. The power of the clergy declined sharply as that of the
central government grew, which seemed to be Akhenaten's goal, but he failed to use his power for
the best interest of his people. The Amarna Letters make clear that he was more concerned with
his religious reforms than with foreign policy or the needs of the people of Egypt.

His reign was followed by his son, the most recognizable Egyptian ruler in the modern day,
Tutankhamun, who reigned from c. 1336 - c. 1327 BCE. He was originally named Tutankhaten to
reflect the religious beliefs of his father but, upon assuming the throne, changed his name to
Tutankhamun to honor the ancient god Amun. He restored the ancient temples, removed all
references to his father's single deity, and returned the capital to Thebes. His reign was cut short
by his death and, today, he is most famous for the intact grandeur of his tomb, discovered in 1922
CE, which became an international sensation at the time.

The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses II (also known as Ramesses the
Great, 1279-1213 BCE) who commenced the most elaborate building projects of any Egyptian
ruler and who reigned so efficiently that he had the means to do so. Although the famous Battle of
Kadesh of 1274 BCE (between Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli II of the Hittites) is today
regarded as a draw, Ramesses considered it a great Egyptian victory and celebrated himself as a
champion of the people, and finally as a god, in his many public works.

His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen Nefertari) depicts the battle of Kadesh and the
smaller temple at the site, following Akhenaten's example, is dedicated to Ramesses' favorite
queen Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II, the first peace treaty in the world (The Treaty of
Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and Egypt enjoyed almost unprecedented affluence as evidenced
by the number of monuments built or restored during his reign.

Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c. 1281 - c. 1225 BCE), is known as the "First
Egyptologist" for his efforts in preserving and recording old monuments, temples, and their
original owner's names. It is largely due to Khaemweset's initiative that Ramesses II's name is so
prominent at so many ancient sites in Egypt. Khaemweset left a record of his own efforts, the
original builder/owner of the monument or temple, and his father's name as well.

Ramesses II became known to later generations as 'The Great Ancestor' and reigned for so long
that he outlived most of his children and his wives. In time, all of his subjects had been born
knowing only Ramesses II as their ruler and had no memory of another. He enjoyed an
exceptionally long life of 96 years, over double the average lifespan of an ancient Egyptian. Upon
his death, it is recorded that many feared the end of the world had come as they had known no
other pharaoh and no other kind of Egypt.
The Decline of Egypt & the Coming of Alexander the Great
One of his successors, Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE), followed his policies but, by this time,
Egypt's great wealth had attracted the attention of the Sea Peoples who began to make regular
incursions along
the coast. The Sea Peoples, like the Hyksos, are of unknown origin but are thought to have come
from the southern Aegean area. Between 1276-1178 BCE the Sea Peoples were a threat to Egyptian
security.

Ramesses II had defeated them in a naval battle early in his reign as had his successor Merenptah
(1213- 1203 BCE). After Merenptah's death, however, they increased their efforts, sacking
Kadesh, which was then under Egyptian control, and ravaging the coast. Between 1180-1178 BCE
Ramesses III fought them off, finally defeating them at the Battle of Xois in 1178 BCE.

Following the reign of Ramesses III, his successors attempted to maintain his policies but
increasingly met with resistance from the people of Egypt, those in the conquered territories, and,
especially, the priestly class. In the years after Tutankhamun had restored the old religion of Amun,
and especially during the great time of prosperity under Ramesses II, the priests of Amun had
acquired large tracts of land and amassed great wealth which now threatened the central
government and disrupted the unity of Egypt. By the time of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the
end of the 20th Dynasty, the Egyptian government had become so weakened by the power and
corruption of the clergy that the country again fractured and central administration collapsed,
initiating the so-called Third Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 1069-525 BCE.

Under the Kushite King Piye (752-722 BCE), Egypt was again unified and the culture flourished,
but beginning in 671 BCE, the Assyrians under Esarhaddon began their invasion of Egypt,
conquering it by 666 BCE under his successor Ashurbanipal. Having made no long-term plans for
control of the country, the Assyrians left it in ruin in the hands of local rulers and abandoned Egypt
to its fate.

Egypt rebuilt and refortified, however, and this is the state the country was in when Cambyses II
of Persia struck at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Knowing the reverence the Egyptians held
for cats (who were thought living representations of the popular goddess Bastet), Cambyses II
ordered his men to paint cats on their shields and to drive cats, and other animals sacred to the
Egyptians, in front of the army toward Pelusium. The Egyptian forces surrendered and the country
fell to the Persians. It would remain under Persian occupation until the coming of Alexander the
Great in 332 BCE.

Alexander was welcomed as a liberator and conquered Egypt without a fight. He established the
city of Alexandria and moved on to conquer Phoenicia and the rest of the Persian Empire. After
his death in 323 BCE his general, Ptolemy I Soter, brought his body back to Alexandria and
founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE). The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra VII who
committed suicide in 30 BCE after the defeat of her forces (and those of her consort Mark Antony)
by the Romans under Octavian Caesar at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Egypt then became a
province of the Roman Empire (30 BCE-476 CE) then of the Byzantine Empire (c. 527-646 CE)
until it was conquered by the Arab Muslims under Caliph Umar in 646 CE and fell under Islamic
rule.
The glory of Egypt's past, however, was rediscovered during the 18th and 19th centuries CE and
has had a profound impact on the present-day's understanding of ancient history and the world.
Historian Will Durant expresses a sentiment felt by many:
The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the very dawn of history has influence
in every nation and every age. 'It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through the
solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined variety of its artistic products, through the enormous
duration and the sustained power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest civilization that
has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do
well to equal it.

Egyptian Culture and history has long held a universal fascination for people; whether through the
work of early archeologists in the 19th century CE (such as Champollion who deciphered the
Rosetta Stone in 1822 CE) or the famous discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard
Carter in 1922 CE. The ancient Egyptian belief in life as an eternal journey, created and maintained
by divine magic, inspired later cultures and later religious beliefs. Much of the iconography and
the beliefs of Egyptian religion found their way into the new religion of Christianity and many of
their symbols are recognizable today with largely the same meaning. It is an important testimony
to the power of the Egyptian civilization that so many works of the imagination, from films to
books to paintings even to religious belief, have been and continue to be inspired by its elevating
and profound vision of the universe and humanity's place in it.
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HISTORY

Ancient Egyptian architecture is often associated closely with the pyramids of Giza but was
actually quite diverse, taking a number of forms in the construction of administrative buildings,
temples, tombs, palaces, and the private homes of nobility and commoner. Ornamentation of
these various structures also varied according to their purpose and the resources of the builder.
Even so, the pyramids are the most recognizable symbol of ancient Egypt. Even though other
civilizations, such as the Maya or the Chinese, also employed this form, the pyramid in the modern
day is synonymous in most people's minds with Egypt. The pyramids at Giza remain impressive
monuments thousands of years after they were built and the knowledge and skill required to
construct them was gathered over the many centuries prior to their construction.

Yet the pyramids are not the apex of ancient Egyptian architecture; they are only among the earliest
and best known expressions of a culture which would go on to create buildings, monuments, and
temples just as intriguing.

6,000 Years of History

Ancient Egyptian history begins prior to the Predynastic Period (c. 6000 - 3150 BCE) and
continues through the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323 - 30 BCE). Artifacts and evidence of
overgrazing of cattle, in the area now known as the Sahara Desert, date human habitation in the
area to c. 8000 BCE. The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - 2613 BCE) built upon the
knowledge of those who had gone before and Predynastic art and architecture was improved on.
The first pyramid in Egypt, Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara, comes from the end of this Early
Dynastic Period and a comparison of this monument and its surrounding complex with the mastaba
tombs of earlier centuries show how far the Egyptians had advanced in their understanding of
architectural design and construction. Equally impressive, however, is the link between these great
monuments and those which came after them.

The pyramids at Giza date from the Old Kingdom (c. 2613 - 2181 BCE) and represent the
pinnacle of talent and skill acquired at that time. Ancient Egyptian history, however, still had a
long and illustrious path before it and as the pyramid form was abandoned the Egyptians focused
their attention on temples. Many of these whose ruins are still extant, such as the temple complex
of Amun-Ra at Karnak, inspire as much genuine awe as the pyramids at Giza but all of them,
however great or modest, show an attention to detail and an awareness of aesthetic beauty and
practical functionality which makes them masterpieces of architecture. These structures still
resonate in the present day because they were conceived, designed, and raised to tell an eternal
story which they still relate to everyone who visits the sites.

EGYPTIAN STRUCTURES STILL RESONATE IN THE PRESENT DAY BECAUSE

THEY WERE CONCEIVED, DESIGNED, & RAISED TO TELL AN ETERNAL STORY
WHICH THEY STILL RELATE TO EVERYONE WHO VISITS THE SITES.

Egyptian Architecture & the Creation of the World

At the beginning of time, according to the Egyptian religion, there was nothing but swirling waters
of dark chaos. From these primordial waters rose a mound of dry land, known as the ben-ben,
around which the waters rolled. Upon the mound lighted the god Atum who looked out over the
darkness and felt lonely; so he mated with himself and creation began.

Atum was responsible for the unknowable universe, the sky above, and the earth below. Through
his children he was also the creator of human beings (though in some versions the goddess Neith
plays a part in this). The world and all that human beings knew came from water, from dampness,
moistness, from the kind of environment familiar to the Egyptians from the Nile Delta. Everything
had been created by the gods and these gods were ever-present in one's life through nature.

When the Nile River overflowed its banks and deposited the life-giving soil the people depended
upon for their crops it was the work of the god Osiris. When the sun set in the evening it was the
god Ra in his barge going down into the underworld and the people gladly participated in rituals
to make sure he would survive attacks from his nemesis Apophis and rise again the next morning.
The goddess Hathor was present in the trees, Bastet kept women's secrets and protected the home,
Thoth gave people the gift of literacy, Isis, although a great and powerful goddess, had also been
a single mother who raised her young son Horus in the swamps of the Delta and watched over
mothers on earth.

The lives of the gods mirrored those of the people and the Egyptians honoured them in their lives
and through their works. The gods were thought to have provided the most perfect of worlds for
the people of ancient Egypt; so perfect, in fact, that it would last forever. The afterlife was simply
a continuation of the life one had been living. It is not surprising, then, that when these people
constructed their great monuments they would reflect this belief system. The architecture of
ancient Egypt tells this story of the people's relationship with their land and their gods. The
symmetry of the structures, the inscriptions, the interior design, all reflect the concept of harmony
(ma'at) which was central to the ancient Egyptian value system.

The Predynastic & Early Dynastic Periods

In the Predynastic Period in Egypt images of the gods and goddesses appear in sculpture and
ceramics but the people did not yet have the technical skill to raise massive structures to honor
their leaders or deities. Some form of government is evident during this period but it seems to have
been regional and tribal, nothing like the central government which would appear in the Old
Kingdom of Egypt.

The homes and tombs of the Predynastic Period were built of mud-brick which was dried in the
sun (a practice which would continue throughout Egypt's history). Homes were thatched structures
of reeds which were daubed with mud for walls prior to the discovery of brick making. These early
buildings were circular or oval before bricks were used and, after, became square or rectangular.
Communities gathered together for protection from the elements, wild animals, and strangers and
grew into cities which encircled themselves with walls.

As civilization advanced, so did the architecture with the appearance of windows and doors braced
and adorned by wooden frames. Wood was more plentiful in Egypt at this time but still not in the
quantity to suggest itself as a building material on any large scale. The mud brick oval home
became the rectangular house with a vaulted roof, a garden, and courtyard. Work in mud brick is
also evidenced in the construction of tombs which, during the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt,
become more elaborate and intricate in design. These early oblong tombs (mastabas) continued to
be built of mud brick but already at this time people were working in stone to create temples to
their gods. Stone monuments (stelae) begin to appear, along with these temples, by the Second
Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2890 - c. 2670 BCE).

Obelisks, large upright stone monuments with four sides and a tapered top, began to appear in the
city of Heliopolis at about this time. The Egyptian obelisk (known to them as tekhenu, "obelisk"
being the Greek name) is among the most perfect examples of Egyptian architecture reflecting the
relationship between the gods and the people as they were always raised in pairs and it was thought
that the two created on earth were mirrored by two identical pieces raised in the heavens at the
same time. Quarrying, carving, transporting, and raising the obelisks required enormous skill and
labor and taught the Egyptians well how to work in stone and move immensely heavy objects over
many miles. Mastering stonework set the stage for the next great leap in Egyptian architecture: the
pyramid.

Djoser's mortuary complex at Saqqara was conceived by his vizier and chief architect Imhotep (c.
2667 - c. 2600 BCE) who imagined a great mastaba tomb for his king built of stone. Djoser's
pyramid is not a "true pyramid" but a series of stacked mastabas known as a "step pyramid". Even
so, it was an incredibly impressive feat which had never been achieved before. Historian Desmond
Stewart comments on this:
Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara marks one of those developments that afterward seem inevitable
but that would have been impossible without an experimenting genius. That the royal official
Imhotep was such a genius we know, not from Greek legend, which identified him with
Aesculapius, the god of medicine, but from what archaeologists have discovered from his still
impressive pyramid. Investigation has shown that, at every stage, he was prepared to experiment
along new lines. His first innovation was to construct a mastaba that was not oblong, but square.
His second concerned the material from which it was built. (cited in Nardo, 125)

Temple construction, albeit on a modest level, had already acquainted the Egyptians with
stonework. Imhotep imagined the same on a grand scale. The early mastabas had been decorated
with inscriptions and engravings of reeds, flowers, and other nature imagery; Imhotep wanted to
continue that tradition in a more durable material. His great, towering mastaba pyramid would
have the same delicate touches and symbolism as the more modest tombs which had preceded it
and, better yet, these would all be worked in stone instead of dried mud.
Historian Mark van de Mieroop comments on this:
Imhotep reproduced in stone what had been previously built of other materials. The facade of the
enclosure wall had the same niches as the tombs of mud brick, the columns resembled bundles of
reed and papyrus, and stone cylinders at the lintels of doorways represented rolled-up reed screens.
Much experimentation was involved, which is especially clear in the construction of the pyramid
in the center of the complex. It had several plans with mastaba forms before it became the first Step
Pyramid in history, piling six mastaba-like levels on top of one another...The weight of the
enormous mass was a challenge to the builders, who placed the stones at an inward incline in order
to prevent the monument breaking up. (56)
When completed, the Step Pyramid rose 204 feet (62 meters) high and was the tallest structure of
its time. The surrounding complex included a temple, courtyards, shrines, and living quarters for
the priests covering an area of 40 acres (16 hectares) and surrounded by a wall 30 feet (10.5 meters)
high. The wall had 13 false doors cut into it with only one true entrance cut in the south- east
corner; the entire wall was then ringed by a trench 2,460 feet (750 meters) long and 131 feet (40
meters) wide.
The actual tomb of Djoser was located beneath the pyramid at the bottom of a shaft 92 feet (28
meters) long. The tomb chamber itself was encased in granite but, to reach it, one had to traverse
a maze of hallways, all brightly painted with reliefs and inlaid with tiles, leading to other rooms or
dead ends filled with stone vessels carved with the names of earlier kings. This labyrinth was
created, of course, to protect the tomb and grave goods of the king but, unfortunately, it failed to
keep out ancient grave robbers and the tomb was looted at some point in antiquity.

Djoser's Step Pyramid incorporates all of the elements most resonant in Egyptian architecture:
symmetry, balance, and grandeur which reflected the core values of the culture. Egyptian
civilization was based upon the concept of ma'at (harmony, balance) which was decreed by their
gods. The architecture of ancient Egypt, whether on a small or large scale, always represented
these ideals. Palaces were even built with two entrances, two throne rooms, and two receiving halls
in order to maintain symmetry and balance in representing both Upper and Lower Egypt in the
design.

The Old Kingdom & the Pyramids

The innovations of Imhotep were carried further by the kings of the 4th Dynasty in the Old
Kingdom. The last king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, Huni (c. 2630 - 2613 BCE), was long
thought to have initiated the massive building projects of the Old Kingdom in constructing the
pyramid at Meidum but that honor is due the first king of the 4th Dynasty, Sneferu (c. 2613 - 2589
BCE). Egyptologist Barbara Watterson writes, "Sneferu initiated the golden age of the Old
Kingdom, his most notable achievements being the two pyramids built for him at Dahshur" (50-
51). Sneferu began his work with the pyramid at Meidum now referred to as the "collapsed
pyramid" or, locally, as the "false pyramid" because of its shape: it resembles a tower more than a
pyramid and its outer casing rests around it in a gigantic heap of gravel.

The pyramid of Meidum is the first true pyramid constructed in Egypt. A "true pyramid" is defined
as a perfectly symmetrical monument whose steps have been filled in to create seamless sides
tapering toward a point at the top. Originally, any pyramid began as a step pyramid. The Meidum
pyramid did not last, however, because modifications were made to Imhotep's original pyramid
design which resulted in the outer casing resting on a sand foundation rather than rock, causing it
to collapse. Scholars are divided on whether the collapse occurred during construction or over a
longer period of time.

Sneferu's experiments with the stone pyramid form served his successor well. Khufu (2589 - 2566
BCE) learned from his father's experiments and directed his administration in constructing the
Great Pyramid of Giza, the last of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Contrary to
the popular belief that his monument was built by Hebrew slaves, Egyptian workers on the Great
Pyramid were well cared for and performed their duties as part of a community service, as paid
laborers, or during the time when the Nile's flood made farming impossible. Scholars Bob Brier
and Hoyt Hobbs note:

Were it not for the two months every year when the Nile's water covered Egypt's farmland, idling
virtually the entire workforce, none of this construction would have been possible. During such
times, a pharaoh offered food for work and the promise of a favored treatment in the afterworld
where he would rule just as he did in this world. For two months annually, workmen gathered by
the tens of thousands from all over the country to transport the blocks a permanent crew had
quarried during the rest of the year. Overseers organized the men into teams to transport the stones
on sleds, devices better suited than wheeled vehicles to moving weighty objects over shifting sand.
A causeway, lubricated by water, smoothed the uphill pull. No mortar was used to hold the blocks
in place, only a fit so exact that these towering structures have survived for 4,000 years - the only
Wonders of the Ancient World still standing today. (17-18)

There is no evidence whatsoever that Hebrew slaves, or any kind of slave labor, went into the
construction of the pyramids at Giza, the city of Per-Ramesses, or any other important site in
Egypt. The practice of slavery certainly existed in Egypt throughout its history, as it did in every
ancient culture, but it was not the kind of slavery popularly depicted in fiction and film based on
the biblical Book of Exodus. Slaves in the ancient world could be tutors and teachers of the young,
accountants, nursemaids, dance instructors, brewers, even philosophers. Slaves in Egypt were
either captives from military campaigns or those who could not pay their debts and these people
usually worked in the mines and quarries.

The men and women who worked on the Great Pyramid lived in state-provided housing on the site
(as discovered by Lehner and Hawass in 1979 CE) and were well compensated for their efforts.
The more skilled a worker was, the higher their compensation. The result of their work still amazes
people in the modern day. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only wonder left of the Seven Wonders
of the ancient world and justifiably so: until the Eifel Tower was completed in 1889 CE, the Great
Pyramid was the tallest structure on earth built by human hands. Historian Marc van de Mieroop
writes:

The size boggles the mind: it was 146 meters high (479 feet) by 230 meters at the base (754 feet).
We estimate that it contained 2,300,000 blocks of stone with an average weight of 2 and 3/4 tons
some weighing up to 16 tons. Khufu ruled 23 years according to the Turin Royal Canon, which
would mean that throughout his reign annually 100,000 blocks - daily about 285 blocks or one
every two minutes of daylight - had to be quarried, transported, dressed, and put in place...The
construction was almost faultless in design. The sides were oriented exactly toward the cardinal
points and were at precise 90-degree angles. (58)

The second pyramid constructed at Giza belongs to Khufu's successor Khafre (2558 - 2532 BCE)
who is also credited with creating the Great Sphinx of Giza. The third pyramid belongs to his
successor Menkaure (2532 - 2503 BCE). An inscription from c. 2520 BCE relates how Menkaure
came to inspect his pyramid and assigned 50 of the workers to the new task of building a tomb for
his official, Debhen. Part of the inscription reads, "His majesty commanded that no man should be
taken for any forced labour" and that rubbish should be cleared from the site for construction
(Lewis, 9). This was a fairly common practice at Giza where the kings would commission tombs
for their friends and favored officials.
The Giza plateau today presents a very different image from what it would have looked like in the
time of the Old Kingdom. It was not the lonely site at the edge of the desert it is today but a sizeable
necropolis which had shops, factories, markets, temples, housing, public gardens, and numerous
monuments. The Great Pyramid was sheathed in an outer casing of gleaming white limestone and
rose from the center of the small city, visible from miles around.

Giza was a self-sustaining community whose people were government workers but the
construction of the enormous monuments there in the 4th Dynasty was very costly. Khafre's
pyramid and complex are a little smaller than Khufu's and Menkaure's smaller than Khafre's and
this is because, as 4th Dynasty pyramid building continued, resources dwindled. Menkaure's
successor, Shepsekhaf (2503 - 2498 BCE) was buried in a modest mastaba at Saqqara.
The cost of the pyramids was not only financial but political. Giza was not the only necropolis in
Egypt at the time and all of these sites required maintenance and administration which was carried
out by priests. As these sites grew, so did the wealth and power of the priests and the regional
governors (nomarchs) who presided over the different districts the sites were in.

The later rulers of the Old Kingdom built temples (or pyramids on a much smaller scale) as these
were more affordable. The shift from the pyramid monument to the temple signaled a deeper shift
in sensibilities which had to do with the growing power of the priesthood: monuments were no
longer being built to honor a certain king but for a specific god.

First Intermediate Period & Middle Kingdom

The power of the priests and nomarchs, along with other factors, brought about the collapse of the
Old Kingdom. Egypt then entered the era known as the First Intermediate Period (2181 - 2040
BCE) in which individual regions essentially governed themselves. The kings still ruled from
Memphis but they were ineffectual.

The First Intermediate Period of Egypt has traditionally been depicted as a time of decline because
no great monuments were raised and the quality of the art is considered inferior to that of the Old
Kingdom. Actually, though, the artwork and architecture is simply different, not sub-par. In the
Old Kingdom, architectural works were state-sponsored, as was artwork, and so was more or less
uniform to reflect the tastes of royalty. In the First Intermediate Period, regional artists and
architects were free to explore different forms and styles. Historian Margaret Bunson writes:
Under the nomarchs, architecture survived the collapse of the Old Kingdom. Their patronage
continued into the Middle Kingdom, resulting in such remarkable sites as Beni Hassan (c. 1900
BC) with its rock carved tombs and large chapels complete with columned porticos and painted
walls. (32)

When Mentuhotep II (c. 2061 - 2010 BCE) united Egypt under Theban rule, royal commissioning
of art and architecture resumed but, unlike in the Old Kingdom, variety and personal expression
was encouraged. Middle Kingdom architecture, beginning with Mentuhotep's grand mortuary
complex at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes, is at once grand and personal in scope.

Under the reign of king Senusret I (c. 1971 - 1926 BCE), the great Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak
was begun when this monarch erected a modest structure at the site. This temple, like all Middle
Kingdom temples, was constructed with an outer courtyard, columned courts which led to halls
and ritual chambers, and an inner sanctum which housed a god's statue. Sacred lakes were created
at these sites and the entire effect was a symbolic representation of the beginning of the world and
the harmonious operation of the universe. Bunson writes:
Temples were religious structures considered the "horizon" of a divine being, the point at
which the god came into existence during creation. Thus, each temple had a link to the past, and
the rituals conducted within its court were formulas handed down for generations. The temple was
also a mirror of the universe and a representation of the Primeval Mound where creation began.
(258)

Columns were an important aspect of the symbolism of a temple complex. They were not designed
only to support a roof but to contribute their own meaning to the whole work. Some of the many
different designs were the papyrus bundle (a tighly carved column resembling papyrus reeds); the
lotus design, popular in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, with a capital opening like a lotus flower;
the bud column whose capital appears to be an unopened flower, and the Djed column which is
probably most famous from the Heb Sed Court at Djoser's pyramid complex but was so widely
used in Egyptian architecture it can be found from one end of the country to the other. The Djed
was an ancient symbol for stability and frequently used in columns either at the base, at the capital
(so it appears the Djed is holding up the sky), or as an entire column.

Homes and other buildings continued to be made from mud brick during the Middle Kingdom;
stone was only used for temples and monuments and this was usually limestone, sandstone or, in
some cases, granite which required the greatest skill to work in. A little known masterpiece of the
Middle Kingdom, long ago lost, was the pyramid complex of Amenemhat III (c. 1860 - 1815 BCE)
at the city of Hawara.

This complex was enormous, featuring twelve great separate courts which faced one another across
an expanse of columned halls and interior hallways so intricate that it was called "the labyrinth"
by Herodotus. The courts and hallways were further connected by corridors and colonnades and
shafts so that a visitor might walk down a familiar hall but take an unfamiliar turn and wind up in
a completely different area of the complex than the one they had intended.

Criss-crossing alleys and false doors sealed by stone plugs served to confuse and disorient a visitor
to protect the central burial chamber of the pyramid of the king. This chamber is said to have been
cut from a single block of granite and to have weighed 110 tons. Herodotus claimed it was more
impressive than any of the wonders he had ever seen.

Second Intermediate Period & New Kingdom

Kings like Amenemhat III of the 12th Dynasty made great contributions to Egyptiaart and
architecture and their policies were continued by the 13th Dynasty. The 13th Dynasty, however,
was weaker and ruled poorly so that, eventually, the power of the central government declined to
the point where a foreign people, the Hyksos, rose in Lower Egypt while the Nubians took portions
of land to the south. This era is known as the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - 1570
BCE) in which there was little advancement in the arts.

The Hyksos were driven from Egypt by Ahmose I of Thebes (c. 1570 - 1544 BCE) who then
secured the southern borders from the Nubians and initiated the era known as the New Kingdom
of Egypt (1570 - 1069 BCE). This period saw some of the most magnificent architectural feats
since the Old Kingdom. In the same way that modern visitors are awed and intrigued by the
mystery of how the pyramids at Giza were built, so are they by Hatshepsut's funerary complex, the
Temple of Amun at Karnak, the many works of Amenhotep III, and the magnificent constructs of
Ramesses II such as Abu Simbel.

The rulers of the New Kingdom built on a grand scale in keeping with Egypt's new elevated status
as an empire. Egypt had never known a foreign power like the Hyksos taking control of their land
and, after Ahmose I drove them out, he initiated military campaigns to create buffer zones around
Egypt's borders. These areas were expanded by his successors, most notably Thutmose III (1458 -
1425 BCE), until Egypt ruled an empire which stretched from Syria, down the Levant, across to
Libya, and down through Nubia. Egypt became immensely wealthy during this time and that
wealth was lavished on temples, mortuary complexes, and monuments.

The greatest of these is the Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak. As with all the other temples in Egypt,
this one told the story of the past, the people's lives, and honored the gods but was an immense
work-in-progress with every ruler of the New Kingdom adding to it. The site covers over 200 acres
and is comprised of a series of pylons (monumental gateways which taper towards the top to
cornices), leading into courtyards, halls, and smaller temples.

The first pylon opens onto a wide court which invites the visitor further. The second pylon opens
onto the Hypostyle Court which measures 337 feet (103 meters) by 170 feet (52 meters). The hall
is supported by 134 columns 72 feet (22 meters) tall and 11 feet (3.5 meters) around in diameter.
Scholars estimate one could fit three structures the size of Notre Dame Cathedral inside the main
temple alone. Bunson comments:
Karnak remains the most remarkable religious complex ever built on earth. Its 250 acres of temples
and chapels, obelisks, columns, and statues built over 2,000 years incorporate the finest aspects of
Egyptian art and architecture into a great historical monument of stone. (133)

As with all other temples, Karnak is a paragon of symmetrical architecture which seems to rise
organically from the earth toward the sky. The great difference between this structure and any
other is its grand scale and the scope of the vision. Each ruler who contributed to the building made
greater advances than their predecessors but acknowledged those who had gone before.
When Thutmose III built his festival hall there he may have removed monuments and buildings of
earlier kings whom he then acknowledged with an inscription. Every temple symbolizes Egyptian
culture and belief but Karnak does so in large letters and, quite literally, through inscriptions.
Thousands of years of history may be read on the walls and columns of the Karnak temple.

Hatshepsut (1479 - 1458 BCE) contributed to Karnak like every other ruler but also commissioned
buildings of such beauty and splendor that later kings claimed them as their own. Among her
grandest is her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Luxor which incorporates every aspect of
New Kingdom temple architecture on a grand scale: a landing stage at the water's edge, flagstaffs
(relics of the past), pylons, forecourts, hypostyle halls, and a sanctuary. The temple is constructed
in three tiers reaching 97 feet (29.5 meters) and visitors are still amazed by the building in the
present day.

Amenhotep III (1386 - 1353 BCE) built so many monuments throughout Egypt that early scholars
credited him with an exceptionally long reign. Amenhotep III commissioned over 250 buildings,
monuments, stele, and temples. His mortuary complex was guarded by the Colossi of Memnon,
two figures 70 feet (21.3 m) high and each weighing 700 tons. His palace, now known as Malkata,
covered 30,000 square meters (30 hectares) and was elaborately decorated and furnished
throughout the throne rooms, apartments, kitchens, libraries, conference rooms, festival halls, and
all the other rooms.

Although Amenhotep III is famous for his opulent reign and monumental building projects, the
later pharaoh Ramesses II (1279 - 1213 BCE) is even better known. Unfortunately this is largely
because he is so often equated with the unnamed pharaoh in the biblical Book of Exodus and his
name has become recognizable through film adaptations of the story and the incessant repetition
of the line from Exodus 1:11 that Hebrew slaves built his cities of Pithom and Per-Ramesses.

Long before the author of Exodus ever came up with his story, however, Ramesses II was famous
for his military exploits, efficient rule, and magnificent building projects. His city of Per-Ramesses
("City of Ramesses") in Lower Egypt was widely praised by Egyptian scribes and foreign visitors
but his temple at Abu Simbel is his masterpiece. The temple, cut from solid rock cliffs, stands 98
feet (30 meters) high and 115 feet (35 meters) long with four seated colossi flanking the entrance,
two to each side, depicting Ramesses II on his throne; each one 65 feet (20 meters) tall.

Beneath these giant figures are smaller statues (still larger than life) depicting Ramesses' conquered
enemies, the Nubians, Libyans, and Hittites. Further statues represent his family members and
various protecting gods and symbols of power. Passing between the colossi, through the central
entrance, the interior of the temple is decorated with engravings showing Ramesses and Nefertari
paying homage to the gods.

Abu Simbel is perfectly aligned with the east so that, twice a year on 21 February and 21 October,
the sun shines directly into the inner sanctum to illuminate statues of Ramesses II and the god
Amun. This is another aspect of ancient Egyptian architecture which characterizes most, if not all,
of the great temples and monuments: celestial alignment. From the pyramids at Giza to the Temple
of Amun at Karnak, the Egyptians oriented their buildings according to the cardinal points and in
keeping with celestial events.

The Egyptian name for a pyramid was Mer, meaning "Place of Ascension" (the name "pyramid"
comes from the Greek word pyramis meaning "wheat cake" which is what they thought the
structures looked like) as it was believed that the shape of the structure itself would enable the
dead king to rise toward the horizon and more easily begin the next phase of his existence in the
afterlife. In this same way, temples were oriented to invite the god to the inner sanctum and also,
of course, provide access for when they wanted to ascend back to their own higher realms.

Late Period & Ptolemaic Dynasty

The New Kingdom declined as the priests of Amun at Thebes acquired greater power and wealth
than the pharaoh while, at the same time, Egypt came to be ruled by weaker and weaker kings. By
the time of the reign of Ramesses XI (c. 1107 - 1077 BCE) the central government at Per-
Ramesses was completely ineffective and the high priests at Thebes held all the real power.

The Late Period of Ancient Egypt is characterized by invasions by the Assyrians and the Persians
prior to the arrival of Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. Alexander is said to have designed the city
of Alexandria himself and then left it to his subordinates to build while he continued on with his
conquests. Alexandria became the jewel of Egypt for its magnificent architecture and grew into a
great center of culture and learning. The historian Strabo (63 BCE - 21CE) praised it on one of his
visits, writing:
The city has magnificent public precincts and royal palaces which cover a fourth or even a third of
the entire area. For just as each of the kings would, from a love of splendour, add some ornament
to the public monuments, so he would provide himself at his own expense with a residence in
addition to those already standing. (1)

Alexandria became the impressive city Strabo praises during the time of the Ptolemaic Dynasty
(323 - 30 BCE). Ptolemy I (323 - 285 BCE) began the great Library of Alexandria and the temple
known as the Serapeum which was completed by Ptolemy II (285 - 246 BCE) who also built the
famous Pharos of Alexandria, the great lighthouse which was one of the Seven Wonders of the
World.

The early rulers of the Ptolemaic Dynasty continued the traditions of Egyptian architecture,
blending them with their own Greek practices, to create impressive buildings, monuments, and
temples. The dynasty ended with the death of the last queen, Cleopatra VII (69 - 30 BCE), and the
country was annexed by Rome.
The legacy of the Egyptian architects lives on, however, through the monuments they left behind.

The imposing pyramids, temples, and monuments of Egypt continue to inspire and intrigue visitors
in the present day. Imhotep and those who followed after him envisioned monuments in stone
which would defy the passage of time and keep their memory alive. The enduring popularity of
these structures today rewards that early vision and accomplishes their goal.
EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

INFLUENCES
1. GEOGRAPHICAL
- Egypt consist of sandy desert with a strip of fertile country on the banks of the Nile.
- Egypt is the only nation of ancient world which had easy access to the Northern, or
Mediterranean Sea, eastern or Arabian Sea.
- Due to their command to have an access to the highways, red sea, Egypt had outlets for
their own productions and inlets for those of foreign nations.
- The possession of Nile was an advantage because of the trade route, means of
communication, and its waters are fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful
fields.
2. GEOLOGICAL
- There existed an abundance of limestone in the north, sandstone in the central region,
and granite in the south.
- These hard and lasting building materials largely influence the architecture of Egypt.
3. CLIMATE
- Climate is equable and of warm temperature.
- Because snow and frosting are unknown in this country, and storm, fog, and rain are
rare, the temples were preserved.
- 2 seasons of Egypt: spring, summer.
4. RELIGION
- Priesthood was powerful.
- Religious rites were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious
- Tinge of mystery is one of the great characteristics of Egyptian architecture as well as
in its tombs and temples.
- Egyptians attained very high degree of learning in astronomy, mathematics, and
philosophy
- Papers were made from pith of papyrus plant
- Dwelling-house was looked upon as temporary lodging; the tomb is permanent
5. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
6. HISTORICAL
- Egyptian civilization is the most ancient of any of which there is a clear knowledge.
- History is partly derived from Holy Scripture and from Greek and roman authors.
- The pyramids are thought to be a thousand years older than any building which has
yet been discovered in western Asia
- The kings or Pharaohs (“Peraa” – “great house”) have been arranged in thirty
dynasties, extending down to B.C 332.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

In the valley of the Nile, the land which is the gift a great river, and the seat of the most
ancient civilization, a primitive architecture of mud or puddled clay and bundles of reeds changed
in later times to a style of stone and granite.
 The primitive structure was composed of bundles of reeds bound together and placed
vertically in the ground at intervals, the angle bundles being of greater strength. Joining these
reeds, at the top, were laid horizontally other bundles, which bound the heads of the uprights
together. The origin of the characteristic cornice (No. 10 J), is held to be due to the pressure of the
clay, of which the primitive roofs were constructed, on the upright reeds, which formed the
framework of the walls. This formed the slightly projecting cornice, the reeds keeping the rammed
clay in a projecting position and allowing the curve to be terminated by a flat fillet which gave the
level of the terrace. The jambs and lintels of the doors and windows were made of reeds in the
humbler dwellings and of palm trunks in those of more pretension. Here, then, is seen a fair and
likely prototype of the construc

tion of an Egyptian wall, the form of which is more suitable to a structure of rushes overlaid
with mud or puddled clay than to one consisting of large stones. Still, an important point remains
the batter or slope which is invariably given to the walls. Viollet-le-Duc's theories as to the origin
of this batter do not point to the influence of material, and this feature is alleged by him to have
been introduced at a later stage, having been promulgated by a royal decree. He infers the custom
to have been derived from the Pyramids, which were found to remain undisturbed during
earthquakes, while straight-sided houses were upset, owing to their walls being more easily over.
turned. It seems, however, more reasonable to attribute it to a mud origin, for nothing would be
more natural, in order to strengthen such buildings, than to slightly tilt the bundles of reeds towards
the interior, forming as it were an arch, a treatment which in any other material scarcely seems to
be feasible.

Proceeding to the internal architectural features of the style, a very distinct reminiscence
of the primitive reeds tied together at intervals, and crowned with the lotus bud, is found in the
later granite column and capital (No. 10 L, M). During the Theban kingdom especially (B.C. 3000-
B.C. 2100), examples in stone of capitals and columns derived from timber and reed originals are
frequent. At Beni-Hasân some pillars represent a bundle of four reeds or lotus stalks bound together
near the top and bulging above the ligature, so as to form a capital, in imitation of a lotus bud.
Such a pier must evidently have been originally employed in wooden architecture only, and the
roof which it supports, in this instance, represents a light wooden construction having the slight
slope necessary in the dry Egyptian climate.

This type of column was largely used in later Egyptian times in a more substantial lithic
form (No. 10 M), and in conjunction with the hollow-formed capital of the bell type (No. 10 L),
of which the earliest example appeared in the eighteenth dynasty.

In fact, throughout, although materials changed, the forms of the early reed and clay
construction were adhered to; and the endeavour of the conservative Egyptian was to reproduce in
stone and granite, superimposed in layers, the appearance assumed in the early reed and mud type.

The surface decoration executed on the later granite buildings (No. 10 P), apparently came
from the "sgraffito" (incised plaster) work on the earlier mud walls. The surfaces of such walls
could not be modelled or carved with projections of high relief, but their flat surfaces, when
plastered, provided an admirable field for decora tion and for instruction through the use of
hieroglyphics. The Egyptian system of decoration consisted in not contravening the form adopted,
but in clothing it with a kind of drapery more or less rich, which never presented a projecting
outline, contenting itself with enveloping the geometric form as would an embroidered stuff, or a
diapered covering.

Remarkable then as were the arts of Egypt, it is clear that the spirit of criticism and logical
method were wanting; and that traditional forms, hallowed by long use, were clung to and repro
duced when the method of building which suggested them had been replaced by other systems.
Egyptian art proceeded on an unin terrupted line or course of tradition, and when necessity dictated
a change in the methods of construction, or in the materials, the immutable form was not thereby
affected, but was perpetuated in spite of novel conditions.

The principal remains of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Pyramids, or royal tombs of
the kings, and the temples, a contrast in this respect with Assyria, where the palaces of the kings
are the chief remains. The Egyptian wall-paintings, sculptures, jewellery, bronze implements and
utensils, which have been unearthed from their temples or tombs, show that the race had attained
to a high degree in art. As regards the architec ture, the impression given to the mind of the
spectator is that these buildings were erected for eternity, all the remains having

a character of immense solidity, and usually of grand uniformity. The Pyramids (Nos. 4
and 5) are the most extravagant of all ancient buildings in many ways. The relative return in
impressiveness and the higher beauties of the art is small when compared with the amount of
labour, expense, and material used in their erection.

The finishing and fitting of such large masses of granite is remarkable, for many of the
blocks, perfectly squared, polished and fitted, are at least 20 feet long by 6 feet wide. The method
of quarrying and of transportation for long distances by land and water, and the raising of these
blocks of stone into position, is even now uncertain, although M. Choisy in his latest work (see
Reference Books, page 30) has produced many robable theories.

The Architectural Character of the temples is striking and characteristic (Nos. 5, 7 and 8.
The buildings decrease in height from front to back, presenting a disconnected collection of various
sized structures, often built at different times, and thus forming a direct contrast to the harmonious
whole of a Greek temple, which is all comprised within one "order" of columns, and which is
distinctly, both in appearance and reality, one building.

The character of the tombs consists in the planning of their mysterious chambers and
corridors, which, covered with paintings and hieroglyphics, produce an effect of gloom and
solemnity on the spectator.
EXAMPLES.
THE SPHINX

(No. 4), whose date is unknown, is situated near the great pyramids, in the centre of an ancient
stone quarry, and is a natural rock cut to resemble a Sphinx, with rough masonry added in parts.
An Egyptian Sphinx (No. 10 o) had the head of a king, a hawk, a ram, or more rarely a woman, on
the body of a lion. The dimensions of the Great Sphinx, which represents a recum bent lion with
the head of a man, are as follows: it is 65 feet high by 188 feet long, the face is 13 feet 6 inches
wide, and the mouth 8 feet 6 inches long. Greatly mutilated, it is still a marvel, as it has been
throughout the ages. The symbol for an insoluble problem, it is, and probably ever will be, a
mystery. It was excavated in 1816 by Captain Caviglia, who found a temple between the paws,
and it has since been examined by Mariette and Maspero...

THE PYRAMIDS

of Gizeh, near Cairo, all erected during the fourth dynasty (B.C. 3998-B.C. 3721), form one of
several groups within the necropolis of the ancient capital city of Memphis, and rank among the
oldest monuments of Egyptian architecture. The other groups are those of Abu-Roash, Zawiyet-
el-Aryân, Abusir, Sakkara, and Dashur.

These were built by the kings as their future tombs, the governing idea being to secure immortality
by the preservation of the mummy, till that time should have passed, when, according to their
belief, the souf would once more return to the body. Their construction has been described by
many writers, including Herodotus.

The Great Pyramid (Nos. 4 and 5 c, p), by Cheops (Khufu) (B.C. 3733-B.C. 3700); the Second
Pyramid (No. 4), by Cephron (Khafra) (B.c. 3666-B.c. 3633); the Third Pyramid by Mycerinos
(Menkhara) (B.c. 3633-B.C. 3600), are the best known examples.

The Great Pyramid of Cheops is square on plan, 760 feet each way, its area being about 13
acres, i.e., twice the extent of S. Peter, Rome, or equal to the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, London.
The faces of the pyramid are equilateral triangles laid sloping and meeting in a point. The sides
face directly north, south, east and west, as in all the pyramids, and they make an angle with the
ground of 51 degrees 50 minutes. The original height was 482 feet. The entrance (No. 5 c), which
is on the northern side, is 47 feet 6 inches above the base, and is now reached by means of an
earthen embankment. The passage to which it gives access first slopes downwards, and afterwards
re-ascends towards the heart of the pyramid, where the King's Chamber is situated. In this chamber,
which is 34 feet 6 inches by 17 feet and 19 feet high, was placed the sarcophagus of the king
contain ing his embalmed body. The upper part is elaborately con structed with stones one above
the other (No. 5 D), and the entrance is protected by a massive stone acting as a portcullis, fitting
into a rebate or recess, and weighing from 50 to 60 tons. Two air channels, each about 8 inches by
6 inches, led to the outer face of the pyramid for ventilation.

There were two other chambers in the Great Pyramid, one known as the Queen's Chamber,
connected with a passage leading off that to the King's Chamber, and the other below the ground.
 The exterior of this pyramid was originally cased with a sloping face of limestone, but this has
now disappeared, showing the original stepped surface in tiers of 4 feet, on which the casing was
placed, and which still exists in the Pyramid of Mycerinos.

TOMBS.

Besides the Pyramids or royal tombs are others for private individuals.

(a.) In the Ancient Empire the Mastabas, probably derived from rude heaps of stones piled up over
earlier mummy holes, were rectangular structures, with sides sloping at an angle of 75 degrees,
and having flat roofs. They were divided into three parts:

i. The outer chamber, in which were placed the offerings to the "Ka" or "double," having its
walls decorated with representations of festal and other scenes, which are valuable from an
historical standpoint.

ii. Inner secret chambers, known as the "serdabs," containing statues of the deceased, and
members of his family.

iii. A well of great depth, leading to the chamber containing the sarcophagus with its mummy.

The Mastaba of Thy, Sakkâra, is well preserved and has been restored. It dates from the
fifth dynasty, and was erected to Thy, who in his day held the position of royal architect and
manager of pyramids. It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court where offerings
to the deceased took place, and from which a mummy shaft led through a passage to a tomb
chamber. The masonry of this tomb is carefully jointed and covered with flat reliefs, which are
generally considered the best specimens of their kind. The principal reliefs are in a second tomb
chamber, 22 feet 9 inches by 23 feet 9 inches and 12 feet 6 inches high. These reliefs represent
harvest operations, ship building scenes, scenes representing the arts and crafts of the period, the
slaughtering of sacrificial animals, and Thy himself sailing through the marshes in a boat with a
surrounding papyrus thicket.

(b.) In the Middle Empire tombs were either of the Pyramidal form, as at Abydos, or were rock-
cut, as in the vertical cliffs bounding the Nile valley (No. 6).

The Tombs at Beni-Hasân, in Upper Egypt, form a remarkable group of these rock-cut
examples. There are 39 in all, arranged in a row in the rocks as shown (No. 6). They were made
during the twelfth dynasty (B.C. 2778-2565), a period which was particularly remarkable for the
progress of the arts of peace. The entrance to the Tomb of Khnemhotep, known as Tomb No. 3,
has two sixteen-sided columns, sometimes considered to be a prototype of the Greek Doric order.
These are slightly fluted and have an entasis, and the deeply projecting cornice has stone beams
carved out of the solid rock, indicating a derivation from a wooden origin.

(c.) During the New Empire.tombs were rock-cut and structural, and in many cases accompanied
by sepulchral temples.
 Thebes, which for a time was the necropolis of the Egyptian kings, has a large number of
tombs dating mostly from the New Empire, and forming a contrast to the pyramids which formed
the graves of the earlier kings. These tombs consist of a series of chambers connected with
passages hewn in the rock, and were intended only for the reception of the sarcophagi. Amongst
the most important of these are those of Rameses III., IV., and IX., and that of Sethos I., usually
known as Belzoni's tomb from its discoverer in 1817. The structure of all is very similar, consist
ing of three corridors cut in the rock leading into an ante-room, beyond which is the sepulchral
chamber, where the granite sarcophagus was placed in a hollow in the floor. The walls, from the
entrance to the sarcophagus chamber, were sculptured with hieroglyphics of pictures and texts
necessary to the deceased in the future life, and mostly representing him sailing through the under-
world accompanied by the sun god. The texts were mostly taken from various books relating to
the ceremonies which were essential for insuring the immortality of the departed.

The mortuary or sepulchral temples, such as those of Dêr-el bahri, Medinet-Habou, the
Ramesseum, and others, were utilized for offerings and other funereal rights for the dead.

TEMPLES.

The purposes for which they were used and their component parts are important. They were
sanctuaries where the king and priests penetrated, and in which mysteries and processions formed
a great part of the religious services. They differ, therefore, from the Greek temple, the Christian
church, and the Mahometan mosque, for they were not places for the meeting of the faithful or the
recital of common prayers, and no public ritual was celebrated within them. The priests and king
only were admitted beyond the hypostyle hall, and the temple, therefore, was a kind of royal
oratory reared by the king in token of his own piety and in order to purchase the favour of the gods.

The student is referred to Lockyer's theories as to the orienta tion of temples with regard to the
particular stars. The "mammeisi" were temples (dedicated to the mysterious accouchement of Isis)
each consisting of one small chamber with statue and altar as at Elephantine, approached by a
flight of steps. In this form they are generally considered to be the prototypes of the Greek temples.
The more usual type of temple, however, consisted of chambers for the priests, with courts,
colonnades, and halls, all surrounded by a high wall.

In order that the student may understand the general distribu tion of the parts of an Egyptian
temple, a plan is here given of the Temple of Khons, near the Great Temple of Ammon, at Karnac
(No. 5), on the eastern bank of the Nile, which may be taken as a fair example of the ordinary type
of plan.

The entrance to the temple was between "pylons," or massive sloping towers, on each side of
the central gateway (No. 7). In front of the entrance were placed obelisks, and front of these an
avenue of sphinxes, forming a splendid approach to the temple. This entrance gave access to the
large outer court yard, which was open to the sky in the centre, and therefore called "hypæthral"
(from two Greek words, meaning "under the air "). This courtyard was surrounded by a double
colonnade on three sides, and led up to the hypostyle hall, in which light was admitted by means
of a clerestory above, formed by the different height of the columns (No. 5 B. Beyond this is the
sanctuary, surrounded by a passage, and at the rear is a smaller hall; both the last chambers must
have been dark or only imperfectly lighted.

The whole collection of buildings forming the temple was surrounded by a great wall as high
as the buildings themselves. Thebes, the site of which occupied a large area on the east and west
banks of the Nile, was the capital of Egypt during the New Empire (Dynasties XVII.-XX.). The
eastern bank had an important group of Temples at Karnac, including the Great Temple of Ammon,
and the Temple of Khons (twentieth dynasty). At Luxor, also on the eastern bank, was another
Temple of Ammon (eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties). On the western bank lay the Necropolis
or Tombs of the Kings and Queens, and a large number of mortuary temples, which included those
of Dêr-el-bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habou.

The Great Temple of Ammon, Karnac, is the grandest, extending over an area of 1,200
feet by 360 feet, and originally was connected with the Temple of Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes.
It was not built on an original plan, but owes its size, disposition and magnificence to the additions
of many later kings, from the first monarchs of the twelfth dynasty down to the Ptolemaic period.
It has six pylons added in successive genera ions, a great court measuring 338 feet by 275 feet, the
great hypostyle hall, and other halls, courts and a sanctuary. The Hypostyle hall measures 338 feet
by 170 feet, covering about the same area as Nôtre Dame, Paris. The roof is supported by 134
columns in sixteen rows. The central avenues are about So feet in height as compared with 140
feet at Amiens Cathedral, and have columns 69 feet high and 11 feet in diameter, the capitals of
which are of the lotus blossom type (No. 10 L) so as to receive the light from the clerestory. The
side avenues are about 46 feet high and have columns 42 feet 6 inches in height and 9 feet in
diameter, the Capitals being of the lotus bud type, on which the clerestory light would fall. The
impression produced on the spectator by the forest of columns is most awe inspiring, and the eye
is led from the smaller columns of the side avenues, which gradually vanish into semi-darkness,
giving an idea of unlimited size, to the larger columns of the central avenues lighted by the
clerestory, which is formed in the difference of height between the central and side avenues, a form
of lighting more fully developed in the Gothic period. The walls of the hall, the column shafts, and
the architraves are covered with incised inscriptions, still retaining their original colored
decorations relating to the gods and personages concerned in the erection of the structure.

The Temple of Sethos I., Abydos, was dedicated to Osiris and other deities of Abydos.
It was built by Sethos I. (B.C. 1366-1333), and completed by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300). The
walls are of fine grained limestone, and the reliefs on them are among the finest Egyptian
sculptures. In common with other temples it has pylons, a first and second fore-court and two
hypostyle halls, but instead of one sanctuary it has seven arranged side by side, dedicated to six
deities and a deified king; hence the front of this temple was divided into seven parts, each with
its separate gateway and portal. The seven sanctuaries are each roofed by means of horizontal
courses, every course project ing beyond that immediately below, and the undersides afterwards
rounded off in the form of a vault by the chisel. It further differs from others in having a wing at
right angles to the main structure in consequence of a hill immediately behind the temple.

The Great Temple of Abu-Simbel, built by Rameses II. (B.C. 1333-1300), is one of the
most stupendous creations of Egyptian architecture, and was entirely excavated out of the solid
rock. It has a forecourt, at the back of which is the imposing façade, 119 feet wide and over 100
feet high, formed as a pylon, and having four seated colossi of Rameses II., each over 65 feet in
height. The entrance leads to a vestibule, the ceiling of which is supported by eight pillars, the
walls having vividly colored reliefs. Eight smaller chambers, probably used to store. the temple
utensils and furniture, adjoin this vestibule, and in the rear is a small hypostyle hall, 36 feet by 25
feet, having four pillars. Behind this is a long narrow chamber out of which are three apartments,
the centre and largest one being the sanctuary, with an altar and four seated figures of the deities
worshipped.

The Temple of Isis, Island of Philæ, is an interesting example of the Ptolemaic period, and,
like earlier examples, was the work of several generations. The fore-court, entered through a
massive pylon, 150 feet broad and 60 feet high, has on the west side the Birth House, a small
colonnaded. temple dedicated to Hathor-Isis and to the memory of the birth of her son Horus, and
on the east a colonnaded building used by the priests. On the fourth side of the court is the second
pylon, which is 105 feet broad and 40 feet high. Beyond is the temple proper, consisting of courts,
a hypostyle hall with eight columns, two small vesti bules, a sanctuary, and other adjoining
chambers, all nearly in total darkness. This group, including the second pylon, has its axis at an
angle to that of the first pylon and courtyard. The entire structure has the walls, both inside and
out, covered with inscriptions.

The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (A.D. first century), is another Ptolemaic example, but
was not completed till the reign of Augustus. It has no pylons, fore-court, or enclosing outer walls,
but has a great vestibule with twenty-four columns, six of which form the façade, having low
screen walls between them on either side of the central entrance. Behind this is the hypostyle hall,
having six columns with elaborate Hathor-headed capitals. On each side of this hall and beyond
are chambers, used as lavatory, treasury, store-rooms; and behind are two ante-chambers with a
sanctuary beyond. Staircases on either side lead to the roof of the temple.

During the Græco-Roman period many temples were erected, of which the Temple of
Edfou, commenced by Ptolemy III. (B.C. 237), is the best preserved example. A massive pylon,
faced with reliefs and inscriptions, gave access to a great court, surrounded by a colonnade. The
back of this court was formed by the front of the great hypostyle hall, the portal of which was the
centre intercolumniation of a row of six columns, the narrower spaces between the side columns
having low screen walls (No. 8. Twelve larger columns with elaborate capitals support the roof
over this hall, beyond which was a smaller hypostyle hall, the roof of which was carried by twelve
columns, having rich floral capitals, embellished by so-called heads of Hathor. Behind this were
vestibules, smaller chambers, and the sanctuary.
OBELISKS

are monumental pillars, originally employed in pairs before the principal entrances of temples.
They are monoliths, i.e., single upright stones, square on plan with slightly rounded faces, and
tapering sides, with a pyramidal summit. The height is usually about nine to ten times as great as
the diameter, and the four faces were cut with hieroglyphics. The capping was of metal, for the
groove into which it was fitted is in some cases still visible. The quarrying and transport of such a
mass of stone without the power of a steam-engine was an engineering feat of considerable skill.

Many obelisks were removed from Egypt by the Roman emperors, and at least twelve are in
Rome itself. That in the centre of the Piazza of S. John Lateran is the largest in existence. It is of
red granite from Syene, and is 104 feet high, or with the pedestal 153 feet, 9 feet square at the base,
6 feet 2 inches at the top, and altogether weighs about 600 tons.

Cleopatra's Needle on the Thames Embankment, another example, brought to London from
Alexandria, although originally erected at Heliopolis (B.C. 1500), is 68 feet 6 inches high, 8 feet
square at the base, and weighs 180 tons.

DWELLINGS.

All these have disappeared, being only built of wood or of sun-drieD bricks. Houses are shown
on paintings and sculptures which have come down to us, from which they appear to have had one,
two, or three stories.

In the absence of any authentic remains, an illustration of the Egyptian House is given (No.
9), conjecturally restored, and erected at the Paris Exhibition, 1889, by M. Charles Garnier. The
design was founded on an ancient painting, and had a garden in front, laid out in a formal style,
with fish-ponds. The house was divided by a corridor in the centre, giving access to the rooms.
The staircase at the back led to a verandah, and also to a flat roof, extending over the whole length
of the structure. The whole building was treated with color, the upper part of the house being
painted a bright yellow, and the long external wooden columns blue.

COMPARATIVE.

A. Plans. The temples have already been slightly compared with Greek examples (pages 15 and
22), and as already noticed they were especially planned for internal effect. The hypostyle hall
seemingly unlimited in size, crowded with pillars, and mysteriously illuminated from above,
realized the grandest conceptions of Egyptian planning (No. 5). Externally the massive pylons
ornamented with incised decorations formed the chief façade, a contrast being obtained by the
slender obelisks which usually stood in front of them, while the approach was through an
impressive avenue of innumerable sphinxes.

The erection of these temples was in progress during many centuries by means of continual
additions. In this respect they resemble the growth of English cathedrals; as also in the disregard
for symmetry in the planning of one part in relation to another. This may be seen in many of the
later temples erected under the Ptolemys, the temple on the island of Phile being a notable instance.
The walls, the pylons, and other features are placed on different axes, free from any pretence of
regularity. The freedom and picturesqueness of grouping thus obtained is remarkable.

B. Walls. These were immensely thick, and in important buildings were of granite, while in the
less important they were of brick faced with granite.

The faces of the temple walls slope inwards or batter towards the top, giving them a massive
appearance (No. 7). Viollet-le Duc traces this inclination to the employment of mud for the walls
of early buildings. I Columns which form the leading features of Greek external architecture are
not found on the exterior of Egyptian buildings, which have normally a massive blank wall
crowned with a characteristic cornice, consisting of a large hollow and roll moulding (No. 10 J,
M). For the purposes of decoration, the walls, even when of granite, were generally covered with
a fine plaster, in which were executed low reliefs, treated with bright color (Nos. 7 and 10 P).
Simplicity, solidity, and grandeur, qualities obtained by broad masses of unbroken walling, are the
chief characteristics of the style.

C. Openings. These were all square-headed and covered with massive lintels, for the style being
essentially trabeated, the arch appears to have been but little used. Window openings are seldom
found in temples, light being admitted by the clerestories in the earlier examples at Thebes, or over
the low dwarf walls between the columns of the front row, as at Luxor, Edfou (No. 8, Dendera, or
Phila, a method peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

D. Roofs. These were composed of massive blocks of stone supported by the enclosing walls and
the closely spaced columns (No. 5 F). Being flat, they could be used in dwelling-houses (No. 9) as
a pleasant rendezvous for the family in the evening for the enjoyment of the view and the fresh
breezes which spring up at sunset, and at certain seasons may have been used for repose. They
may also have been used in the daytime, if protected from the sun by temporary awnings. The flat
roofs of the temples seem to have been used in the priestly processions. In the rock cut temples the
ceilings are sometimes slightly arched in form, and as at the tombs at Beni-Hasân, the roofing is
made to represent timber construction (No. 6).

E. Columns. The papyrus, a tall, smooth reed, and the lotus, a large white water-lily of exquisite
beauty, offered many sugges tions. The columns, seldom over six diameters in height, were made
to represent the stalks, and at intervals appear to be tied by bands (No. 10). The capitals were
mostly derived from the lotus plant (No. 10 D, E, F), as follows:

(a.) The lotus bud, conventionalized, tied round by stalks (No. 10 M).
(b.) The fully-grown lotus flower, which formed a bell-shaped capital, sculptured of ornamented
with color decoration (No. 10 L).
(c.) The "palm" capital, the main outline of the palms being painted or sculptured (No. 10 K).

In addition, the Isis or Hathor-headed capital, as at Dendera and Philæ, is formed of heads of
the goddess Isis, supporting the model of a pylon (No. 10 G).
F. Mouldings. These were few, viz., the hollow and bead generally used in conjunction, but the
bead was also used by itself. The two combined invariably crowned the upper part of the pylons
(Nos. 7 and 10 J, M), and walls.

G. Ornament (No. 10). This was symbolical, and was an important element in the style, including
such features as the solar disc or globe and the vulture with outspread wings (No. 10 N), as a
symbol of protection, while diaper patterns, spirals (No. 10 A, B and the feather ornament (No. 10
c) were largely used. The scarab, or sacred beetle, was considered by the Egyptians as the sign of
their religion, much in the same way as the cross became the symbol of Christianity. It probably
attained its sacred character as the emblem of resurrection because of its habit of allowing the sun
to hatch its eggs from a pellet of refuse. It must be remembered that the decoration of the walls of
a temple consisted largely in acts of adoration on the part of the monarch to his gods, to whose
protection he ascribed all his warlike successes. The Egyptians were masters in the use of color,
chiefly using the primary ones-blue, red, and yellow. The wall to be decorated was prepared as
follows: (a) It was first chiselled smooth and covered with a thin layer of plaster or cement, after
which a colored wash was put over the whole. (b) The figures or hieroglyphics were then drawn
on with a red line by an artist, being corrected with a black line by the chief artist; (c) the sculptor
next incised the outline, rounding slightly the inclosed form towards its boundaries; (d) the painter
then executed his work in the strong hues of the primary colors. (See the Egyptian Court at the
Crystal Palace.) The hieroglyphics were often, however, incised direct on the granite and then
colored, as may be seen on the sculptures at the British Museum. They are instructive as well as
decorative, and from them is learnt most of what is known of Egyptian history (No. 10 P).

The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus
plant, the symbol of fertility and abundance, produced by the overflowing Nile, the palm, the
papyrus, and others, each being copied as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a
way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, feature
of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for
ornamentation.
 THE HISTORY OF EGYPT

Egypt is a country in North Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea, and is home to one of the oldest
civilizations on earth. The name 'Egypt' comes from the Greek Aegyptos which was the Greek
pronunciation of the ancient Egyptian name 'Hwt-Ka-Ptah' ("Mansion of the Spirit of Ptah"),
originally the name of the city of Memphis.

Memphis was the first capital of Egypt and a famous religious and trade center; its high status is
attested to by the Greeks alluding to the entire country by that name. To the ancient Egyptians
themselves, their country was simply known as Kemet, which means 'Black Land', so named for
the rich, dark soil along the Nile River where the first settlements began. Later, the country was
known as Misr which means 'country', a name still in use by Egyptians for their nation in the
present day. Egypt thrived for thousands of years (from c. 8000 BCE to c. 30 BCE) as an
independent nation whose culture was famous for great cultural advances in every area of human
knowledge, from the arts to science to technology and religion. The great monuments which
ancient Egypt is still celebrated for reflect the depth and grandeur of Egyptian culture which
influenced so many ancient civilizations, among them Greece and Rome.

One of the reasons for the enduring popularity of Egyptian culture is its emphasis on the grandeur
of the human experience. Their great monuments, tombs, temples, and artwork all celebrate life
and stand as reminders of what once was and what human beings, at their best, are capable of
achieving. Although ancient Egypt in popular culture is often associated with death and mortuary
rites, something even in these speaks to people across the ages of what it means to be a human
being and the power and purpose of remembrance.

THE WRITTEN HISTORY OF EGYPT BEGINS BETWEEN 3400 AND 3200 BCE WHEN
HIEROGLYPHIC SCRIPT IS DEVELOPED BY THE NAQADA CULTURE III.

To the Egyptians, life on earth was only one aspect of an eternal journey. The soul was immortal
and was only inhabiting a body on this physical plane for a short time. At death, one would meet
with judgment in the Hall of Truth and, if justified, would move on to an eternal paradise known
as The Field of Reeds which was a mirror image of one's life on earth. Once one had reached
paradise one could live peacefully in the company of those one had loved while on earth, including
one's pets, in the same neighborhood by the same stream, beneath the very same trees one thought
had been lost at death.

This eternal life, however, was only available to those who had lived well and in accordance with
the will of the gods in the most perfect place conducive to such a goal: the land of Egypt.
Egypt has a long history which goes back far beyond the written word, the stories of the gods, or
the monuments which have made the culture famous. Evidence of overgrazing of cattle, on the
land which is now the Sahara Desert, has been dated to about 8000 BCE. This evidence, along
with artifacts discovered, points to a thriving agricultural civilization in the region at that time. As
the land was mostly arid even then, hunter-gatherer nomads sought the cool of the water source of
the Nile River Valley and began to settle there sometime prior to 6000 BCE.
Organized farming began in the region c. 6000 BCE and communities known as the Badarian
Culture began to flourish alongside the river. Industry developed at about this same time as
evidenced by faience workshops discovered at Abydos dating to c. 5500 BCE. The Badarian were
followed by the Amratian, the Gerzean, and the Naqada cultures (also known as Naqada I, Naqada
II, and Naqada III), all of which contributed significantly to the development of what became
Egyptian civilization. The written history of the land begins at some point between 3400 and 3200
BCE when hieroglyphic script is developed by the Naqada Culture III. By 3500 BCE
mummification of the dead was in practice at the city of Hierakonpolis and large stone tombs built
at Abydos. The city of Xois is recorded as being already ancient by 3100-2181 BCE as inscribed
on the famous Palermo Stone. As in other cultures worldwide, the small agrarian communities
became centralized and grew into larger urban centers.

Early History of Egypt

The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE) saw the unification of the north and
south kingdoms under the king Menes (also known as Meni or Manes) of Upper Egypt who
conquered Lower Egypt in c. 3118 BCE or c. 3150 BCE. This version of the early history comes
from the Aegyptica (History of Egypt) by the ancient historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd
century BCE under the Ptolemaic

Dynasty (323-30 BCE). Although his chronology has been disputed by later historians, it is still
regularly consulted on dynastic succession and the early history of ancient Egypt.

Manetho's work is the only source which cites Menes and the conquest, and it is now thought that
the man referred to by Manetho as 'Menes' was the king Narmer who peacefully united Upper and
Lower Egypt under one rule. Identification of Menes with Narmer is far from universally accepted,
however, and Menes has been as credibly linked to the king Hor-Aha (c. 3100-3050 BCE) who
succeeded him. An explanation for Menes' association with his predecessor and successor is that
'Menes' is an honorific title meaning "he who endures" and not a personal name and so could have
been used to refer to more than one king. The claim that the land was unified by military campaign
is also disputed as the famous Narmer Palette, depicting a military victory, is considered by some
scholars to be royal propaganda. The country may have first been united peacefully, but this seems
unlikely.

Geographical designation in ancient Egypt follows the direction of the Nile River and so Upper
Egypt is the southern region and Lower Egypt the northern area closer to the Mediterranean Sea.
Narmer ruled
from the city of Heirakonopolis and then from Memphis and Abydos. Trade increased significantly
under the rulers of the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt and elaborate mastaba tombs, precursors to
the later pyramids, developed in Egyptian burial practices which included increasingly elaborate
mummification techniques.

The Gods
From the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) a belief in the gods defined the
Egyptian culture. An early Egyptian creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in the midst
of swirling chaos before the beginning of time and spoke creation into existence. Atum was
accompanied by the eternal force of heka (magic), personified in the god Heka and by other
spiritual forces which would animate the world. Heka was the primal force which infused the
universe and caused all things to operate as they did; it also allowed for the central value of the
Egyptian culture: ma'at, harmony and balance.

All of the gods and all of their responsibilities went back to ma'at and heka. The sun rose and set
as it did and the moon traveled its course across the sky and the seasons came and went in
accordance with balance and order which was possible because of these two agencies. Ma'at was
also personified as a deity, the goddess of the ostrich feather, to whom every king promised his
full abilities and devotion. The king was associated with the god Horus in life and Osiris in death
based upon a myth which became the most popular in Egyptian history.

Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who governed the world and gave the
people the gifts of civilization. Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and murdered him but he
was brought back to life by Isis who then bore his son Horus. Osiris was incomplete, however, and
so descended to rule the underworld while Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and
defeated Set. This myth illustrated how order triumphed over chaos and would become a persistent
motif in Egyptian religion, mortuary rituals, and religious texts, and art. There was no period in
which the gods did not play an integral role in the daily lives of the Egyptians and this is clearly
seen from the earliest times in the country's history.

The Old Kingdom

During the period known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BCE), architecture honoring
the gods developed at an increased rate and some of the most famous monuments in Egypt, such
as the pyramids and the Great Sphinx of Giza, were constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c.
2670 BCE, built the first Step Pyramid at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief architect and
physician Imhotep (c.

2667-2600 BCE) who also wrote one of the first medical texts describing the treatment of over
200 different diseases and arguing that the cause of disease could be natural, not the will of the
gods. The Great Pyramid of Khufu (last of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world) was
constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE) with the pyramids of Khafre (2558-2532 BCE) and
Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE) following.

The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they originally would have appeared,
sheathed in gleaming white limestone, is a testament to the power and wealth of the rulers during
this period. Many theories abound regarding how these monuments and tombs were constructed,
but modern architects and scholars are far from agreement on any single one. Considering the
technology of the day, some have argued, a monument such as the Great Pyramid of Giza should
not exist. Others claim, however, that the existence of such buildings and tombs suggest superior
technology which has been lost to time.
There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza plateau - or any others in Egypt -
were built by slave labor nor is there any evidence to support a historical reading of the biblical
Book of Exodus. Most reputable scholars today reject the claim that the pyramids and other
monuments were built by slave labor, although slaves of different nationalities certainly did exist
in Egypt and were employed regularly in the mines. Egyptian monuments were considered public
works created for the state and used both skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in construction,
all of whom were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only one of many, were
given a ration of beer three times a day and their housing, tools, and even their level of health care
have all been clearly established.

The First Intermediate Period & the Hyksos

The era known as the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) saw a decline in the
power of the central government following its collapse. Largely independent districts with their
own governors developed throughout Egypt until two great centers emerged: Hierakonpolis in
Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These centers founded their own dynasties which ruled
their regions independently and intermittently fought with each other for supreme control until c.
2040 BCE when the Theban king Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) defeated the forces of
Hierakonpolis and united Egypt under the rule of Thebes.

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM OF EGYPT IS CONSIDERED ITS 'CLASSICAL AGE' WHEN

ART & CULTURE REACHED GREAT HEIGHTS & THEBES BECAME THE MOST
IMPORTANT & WEALTHIEST CITY.

The stability provided by Theban rule allowed for the flourishing of what is known as the Middle
Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). The Middle Kingdom is considered Egypt's 'Classical Age' when art
and culture reached great heights and Thebes became the most important and wealthiest city in the
country. According to the historians Oakes and Gahlin, "the Twelfth Dynasty kings were strong
rulers who established control not only over the whole of Egypt but also over Nubia to the south,
where several fortresses were built to protect Egyptian trading interests" (11). The first standing
army was created during the Middle Kingdom by the king Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) the
temple of Karnak was begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-1926 BCE), and some of the greatest and
Egyptian literature and art was produced. The 13th Dynasty, however, was weaker than the 12th
and distracted by internal problems which allowed for a foreign people known as the Hyksos to
gain power in Lower Egypt around the Nile Delta.

The Hyksos are a mysterious people, most likely from the area of Syria/Palestine, who first
appeared in Egypt c. 1800 and settled in the town of Avaris. While the names of the Hyksos kings
are Semitic in origin, no definite ethnicity has been established for them. The Hyksos grew in
power until they were able to take control of a significant portion of Lower Egypt by c. 1720 BCE,
rendering the Theban Dynasty of Upper Egypt almost a vassal state.

This era is known as The Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE). While the
Hyksos (whose name simply means 'foreign rulers') were hated by the Egyptians, they introduced
a great many improvements to the culture such as the composite bow, the horse, and the chariot
along with crop rotation and developments in bronze and ceramic works. At the same time the
Hyksos controlled the ports of Lower Egypt, by 1700 BCE the Kingdom of Kush had risen to the
south of Thebes in Nubia and now held that border. The Egyptians mounted a number of
campaigns to drive the Hyksos out and subdue the Nubians, but all failed until prince Ahmose I of
Thebes (c. 1570-1544 BCE) succeeded and unified the country under Theban rule.
The New Kingdom & the Amarna Period

Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570 - c. 1069
BCE) which again saw great prosperity in the land under a strong central government. The title of
pharaoh for the ruler of Egypt comes from the period of the New Kingdom; earlier monarchs were
simply known as kings. Many of the Egyptian sovereigns best known today ruled during this
period and the majority of the great structures of Egyptian architecture such as the Ramesseum,
Abu Simbel, the temples of Karnak and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley
of the Queens were either created or greatly enhanced during this time.

Between 1504-1492 BCE the pharaoh Thutmose I (Tuthmosis I) consolidated his power and
expanded the boundaries of Egypt to the Euphrates River in the north, Syria and Palestine to the
west, and Nubia to the south. His reign was followed by Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) who
greatly expanded trade with other nations, most notably the Land of Punt. Her 22-year reign was
one of peace and prosperity for Egypt.

Her successor, Thutmose III (Tuthmosis III), carried on her policies (although he tried to eradicate
all memory of her as, it is thought, he did not want her to serve as a role model for other women
since only males were considered worthy to rule) and, by the time of his death in 1425 BCE, Egypt
was a great and powerful nation. The prosperity led to, among other things, an increase in the
brewing of beer in many different varieties and more leisure time for sports. Advances in medicine
led to improvements in health.

Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian's regimen as it was encouraged by
their religion and modeled by their clergy. At this time, however, more elaborate baths were
produced, presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The Kahun Gynecological Papyrus,
concerning women's health and contraceptives, had been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this
period, seems to have been made extensive use of by doctors. Surgery and dentistry were both
practiced widely and with great skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms
of over 200 different maladies.

In 1353 BCE the pharaoh Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne and, shortly after, changed his
name to Akhenaten (`living spirit of Aten') to reflect his belief in a single god, Aten. The Egyptians,
as noted above, traditionally believed in many gods whose importance influenced every aspect of
their daily lives. Among the most popular of these deities were Amun, Osiris, Isis, and Hathor.
The cult of Amun, at this time, had grown so wealthy that the priests were almost as powerful as
the pharaoh. Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, renounced the traditional religious beliefs and
customs of Egypt and instituted a new religion based upon the recognition of one god.

AKHENATEN WAS THE FIRST RULER TO DECREE STATUARY & A TEMPLE IN

HONOR OF HIS QUEEN INSTEAD OF ONLY FOR HIMSELF OR THE GODS.

His religious reforms effectively cut the power of the priests of Amun and placed it in his hands.
He moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna to further distance his rule from that of his
predecessors. This is known as The Amarna Period (1353-1336 BCE) during which Amarna grew
as the capital of the country and polytheistic religious customs were banned.

Among his many accomplishments, Akhenaten was the first ruler to decree statuary and a temple
in honor of his queen instead of only for himself or the gods and used the money which once went
to the temples for public works and parks. The power of the clergy declined sharply as that of the
central government grew, which seemed to be Akhenaten's goal, but he failed to use his power for
the best interest of his people. The Amarna Letters make clear that he was more concerned with
his religious reforms than with foreign policy or the needs of the people of Egypt.

His reign was followed by his son, the most recognizable Egyptian ruler in the modern day,
Tutankhamun, who reigned from c. 1336 - c. 1327 BCE. He was originally named Tutankhaten to
reflect the religious beliefs of his father but, upon assuming the throne, changed his name to
Tutankhamun to honor the ancient god Amun. He restored the ancient temples, removed all
references to his father's single deity, and returned the capital to Thebes. His reign was cut short
by his death and, today, he is most famous for the intact grandeur of his tomb, discovered in 1922
CE, which became an international sensation at the time.

The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses II (also known as Ramesses the
Great, 1279-1213 BCE) who commenced the most elaborate building projects of any Egyptian
ruler and who reigned so efficiently that he had the means to do so. Although the famous Battle of
Kadesh of 1274 BCE (between Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli II of the Hittites) is today
regarded as a draw, Ramesses considered it a great Egyptian victory and celebrated himself as a
champion of the people, and finally as a god, in his many public works.

His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen Nefertari) depicts the battle of Kadesh and the
smaller temple at the site, following Akhenaten's example, is dedicated to Ramesses' favorite
queen Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II, the first peace treaty in the world (The Treaty of
Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and Egypt enjoyed almost unprecedented affluence as evidenced
by the number of monuments built or restored during his reign.

Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c. 1281 - c. 1225 BCE), is known as the "First
Egyptologist" for his efforts in preserving and recording old monuments, temples, and their
original owner's names. It is largely due to Khaemweset's initiative that Ramesses II's name is so
prominent at so many ancient sites in Egypt. Khaemweset left a record of his own efforts, the
original builder/owner of the monument or temple, and his father's name as well.

Ramesses II became known to later generations as 'The Great Ancestor' and reigned for so long
that he outlived most of his children and his wives. In time, all of his subjects had been born
knowing only Ramesses II as their ruler and had no memory of another. He enjoyed an
exceptionally long life of 96 years, over double the average lifespan of an ancient Egyptian. Upon
his death, it is recorded that many feared the end of the world had come as they had known no
other pharaoh and no other kind of Egypt.
The Decline of Egypt & the Coming of Alexander the Great
One of his successors, Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE), followed his policies but, by this time,
Egypt's great wealth had attracted the attention of the Sea Peoples who began to make regular
incursions along
the coast. The Sea Peoples, like the Hyksos, are of unknown origin but are thought to have come
from the southern Aegean area. Between 1276-1178 BCE the Sea Peoples were a threat to Egyptian
security.

Ramesses II had defeated them in a naval battle early in his reign as had his successor Merenptah
(1213- 1203 BCE). After Merenptah's death, however, they increased their efforts, sacking
Kadesh, which was then under Egyptian control, and ravaging the coast. Between 1180-1178 BCE
Ramesses III fought them off, finally defeating them at the Battle of Xois in 1178 BCE.

Following the reign of Ramesses III, his successors attempted to maintain his policies but
increasingly met with resistance from the people of Egypt, those in the conquered territories, and,
especially, the priestly class. In the years after Tutankhamun had restored the old religion of Amun,
and especially during the great time of prosperity under Ramesses II, the priests of Amun had
acquired large tracts of land and amassed great wealth which now threatened the central
government and disrupted the unity of Egypt. By the time of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the
end of the 20th Dynasty, the Egyptian government had become so weakened by the power and
corruption of the clergy that the country again fractured and central administration collapsed,
initiating the so-called Third Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 1069-525 BCE.

Under the Kushite King Piye (752-722 BCE), Egypt was again unified and the culture flourished,
but beginning in 671 BCE, the Assyrians under Esarhaddon began their invasion of Egypt,
conquering it by 666 BCE under his successor Ashurbanipal. Having made no long-term plans for
control of the country, the Assyrians left it in ruin in the hands of local rulers and abandoned Egypt
to its fate.

Egypt rebuilt and refortified, however, and this is the state the country was in when Cambyses II
of Persia struck at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Knowing the reverence the Egyptians held
for cats (who were thought living representations of the popular goddess Bastet), Cambyses II
ordered his men to paint cats on their shields and to drive cats, and other animals sacred to the
Egyptians, in front of the army toward Pelusium. The Egyptian forces surrendered and the country
fell to the Persians. It would remain under Persian occupation until the coming of Alexander the
Great in 332 BCE.

Alexander was welcomed as a liberator and conquered Egypt without a fight. He established the
city of Alexandria and moved on to conquer Phoenicia and the rest of the Persian Empire. After
his death in 323 BCE his general, Ptolemy I Soter, brought his body back to Alexandria and
founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE). The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra VII who
committed suicide in 30 BCE after the defeat of her forces (and those of her consort Mark Antony)
by the Romans under Octavian Caesar at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Egypt then became a
province of the Roman Empire (30 BCE-476 CE) then of the Byzantine Empire (c. 527-646 CE)
until it was conquered by the Arab Muslims under Caliph Umar in 646 CE and fell under Islamic
rule.
The glory of Egypt's past, however, was rediscovered during the 18th and 19th centuries CE and
has had a profound impact on the present-day's understanding of ancient history and the world.
Historian Will Durant expresses a sentiment felt by many:
The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the very dawn of history has influence
in every nation and every age. 'It is even possible', as Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through the
solidarity, the unity, and the disciplined variety of its artistic products, through the enormous
duration and the sustained power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest civilization that
has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do
well to equal it.

Egyptian Culture and history has long held a universal fascination for people; whether through the
work of early archeologists in the 19th century CE (such as Champollion who deciphered the
Rosetta Stone in 1822 CE) or the famous discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard
Carter in 1922 CE. The ancient Egyptian belief in life as an eternal journey, created and maintained
by divine magic, inspired later cultures and later religious beliefs. Much of the iconography and
the beliefs of Egyptian religion found their way into the new religion of Christianity and many of
their symbols are recognizable today with largely the same meaning. It is an important testimony
to the power of the Egyptian civilization that so many works of the imagination, from films to
books to paintings even to religious belief, have been and continue to be inspired by its elevating
and profound vision of the universe and humanity's place in it.
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN HISTORY

Ancient Egyptian architecture is often associated closely with the pyramids of Giza but was
actually quite diverse, taking a number of forms in the construction of administrative buildings,
temples, tombs, palaces, and the private homes of nobility and commoner. Ornamentation of
these various structures also varied according to their purpose and the resources of the builder.
Even so, the pyramids are the most recognizable symbol of ancient Egypt. Even though other
civilizations, such as the Maya or the Chinese, also employed this form, the pyramid in the modern
day is synonymous in most people's minds with Egypt. The pyramids at Giza remain impressive
monuments thousands of years after they were built and the knowledge and skill required to
construct them was gathered over the many centuries prior to their construction.

Yet the pyramids are not the apex of ancient Egyptian architecture; they are only among the earliest
and best known expressions of a culture which would go on to create buildings, monuments, and
temples just as intriguing.

6,000 Years of History

Ancient Egyptian history begins prior to the Predynastic Period (c. 6000 - 3150 BCE) and
continues through the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323 - 30 BCE). Artifacts and evidence of
overgrazing of cattle, in the area now known as the Sahara Desert, date human habitation in the
area to c. 8000 BCE. The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (c. 3150 - 2613 BCE) built upon the
knowledge of those who had gone before and Predynastic art and architecture was improved on.
The first pyramid in Egypt, Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara, comes from the end of this Early
Dynastic Period and a comparison of this monument and its surrounding complex with the mastaba
tombs of earlier centuries show how far the Egyptians had advanced in their understanding of
architectural design and construction. Equally impressive, however, is the link between these great
monuments and those which came after them.

The pyramids at Giza date from the Old Kingdom (c. 2613 - 2181 BCE) and represent the
pinnacle of talent and skill acquired at that time. Ancient Egyptian history, however, still had a
long and illustrious path before it and as the pyramid form was abandoned the Egyptians focused
their attention on temples. Many of these whose ruins are still extant, such as the temple complex
of Amun-Ra at Karnak, inspire as much genuine awe as the pyramids at Giza but all of them,
however great or modest, show an attention to detail and an awareness of aesthetic beauty and
practical functionality which makes them masterpieces of architecture. These structures still
resonate in the present day because they were conceived, designed, and raised to tell an eternal
story which they still relate to everyone who visits the sites.

EGYPTIAN STRUCTURES STILL RESONATE IN THE PRESENT DAY BECAUSE

THEY WERE CONCEIVED, DESIGNED, & RAISED TO TELL AN ETERNAL STORY
WHICH THEY STILL RELATE TO EVERYONE WHO VISITS THE SITES.

Egyptian Architecture & the Creation of the World

At the beginning of time, according to the Egyptian religion, there was nothing but swirling waters
of dark chaos. From these primordial waters rose a mound of dry land, known as the ben-ben,
around which the waters rolled. Upon the mound lighted the god Atum who looked out over the
darkness and felt lonely; so he mated with himself and creation began.

Atum was responsible for the unknowable universe, the sky above, and the earth below. Through
his children he was also the creator of human beings (though in some versions the goddess Neith
plays a part in this). The world and all that human beings knew came from water, from dampness,
moistness, from the kind of environment familiar to the Egyptians from the Nile Delta. Everything
had been created by the gods and these gods were ever-present in one's life through nature.

When the Nile River overflowed its banks and deposited the life-giving soil the people depended
upon for their crops it was the work of the god Osiris. When the sun set in the evening it was the
god Ra in his barge going down into the underworld and the people gladly participated in rituals
to make sure he would survive attacks from his nemesis Apophis and rise again the next morning.
The goddess Hathor was present in the trees, Bastet kept women's secrets and protected the home,
Thoth gave people the gift of literacy, Isis, although a great and powerful goddess, had also been
a single mother who raised her young son Horus in the swamps of the Delta and watched over
mothers on earth.

The lives of the gods mirrored those of the people and the Egyptians honoured them in their lives
and through their works. The gods were thought to have provided the most perfect of worlds for
the people of ancient Egypt; so perfect, in fact, that it would last forever. The afterlife was simply
a continuation of the life one had been living. It is not surprising, then, that when these people
constructed their great monuments they would reflect this belief system. The architecture of
ancient Egypt tells this story of the people's relationship with their land and their gods. The
symmetry of the structures, the inscriptions, the interior design, all reflect the concept of harmony
(ma'at) which was central to the ancient Egyptian value system.

The Predynastic & Early Dynastic Periods

In the Predynastic Period in Egypt images of the gods and goddesses appear in sculpture and
ceramics but the people did not yet have the technical skill to raise massive structures to honor
their leaders or deities. Some form of government is evident during this period but it seems to have
been regional and tribal, nothing like the central government which would appear in the Old
Kingdom of Egypt.

The homes and tombs of the Predynastic Period were built of mud-brick which was dried in the
sun (a practice which would continue throughout Egypt's history). Homes were thatched structures
of reeds which were daubed with mud for walls prior to the discovery of brick making. These early
buildings were circular or oval before bricks were used and, after, became square or rectangular.
Communities gathered together for protection from the elements, wild animals, and strangers and
grew into cities which encircled themselves with walls.

As civilization advanced, so did the architecture with the appearance of windows and doors braced
and adorned by wooden frames. Wood was more plentiful in Egypt at this time but still not in the
quantity to suggest itself as a building material on any large scale. The mud brick oval home
became the rectangular house with a vaulted roof, a garden, and courtyard. Work in mud brick is
also evidenced in the construction of tombs which, during the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt,
become more elaborate and intricate in design. These early oblong tombs (mastabas) continued to
be built of mud brick but already at this time people were working in stone to create temples to
their gods. Stone monuments (stelae) begin to appear, along with these temples, by the Second
Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2890 - c. 2670 BCE).

Obelisks, large upright stone monuments with four sides and a tapered top, began to appear in the
city of Heliopolis at about this time. The Egyptian obelisk (known to them as tekhenu, "obelisk"
being the Greek name) is among the most perfect examples of Egyptian architecture reflecting the
relationship between the gods and the people as they were always raised in pairs and it was thought
that the two created on earth were mirrored by two identical pieces raised in the heavens at the
same time. Quarrying, carving, transporting, and raising the obelisks required enormous skill and
labor and taught the Egyptians well how to work in stone and move immensely heavy objects over
many miles. Mastering stonework set the stage for the next great leap in Egyptian architecture: the
pyramid.

Djoser's mortuary complex at Saqqara was conceived by his vizier and chief architect Imhotep (c.
2667 - c. 2600 BCE) who imagined a great mastaba tomb for his king built of stone. Djoser's
pyramid is not a "true pyramid" but a series of stacked mastabas known as a "step pyramid". Even
so, it was an incredibly impressive feat which had never been achieved before. Historian Desmond
Stewart comments on this:
Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara marks one of those developments that afterward seem inevitable
but that would have been impossible without an experimenting genius. That the royal official
Imhotep was such a genius we know, not from Greek legend, which identified him with
Aesculapius, the god of medicine, but from what archaeologists have discovered from his still
impressive pyramid. Investigation has shown that, at every stage, he was prepared to experiment
along new lines. His first innovation was to construct a mastaba that was not oblong, but square.
His second concerned the material from which it was built. (cited in Nardo, 125)

Temple construction, albeit on a modest level, had already acquainted the Egyptians with
stonework. Imhotep imagined the same on a grand scale. The early mastabas had been decorated
with inscriptions and engravings of reeds, flowers, and other nature imagery; Imhotep wanted to
continue that tradition in a more durable material. His great, towering mastaba pyramid would
have the same delicate touches and symbolism as the more modest tombs which had preceded it
and, better yet, these would all be worked in stone instead of dried mud.
Historian Mark van de Mieroop comments on this:
Imhotep reproduced in stone what had been previously built of other materials. The facade of the
enclosure wall had the same niches as the tombs of mud brick, the columns resembled bundles of
reed and papyrus, and stone cylinders at the lintels of doorways represented rolled-up reed screens.
Much experimentation was involved, which is especially clear in the construction of the pyramid
in the center of the complex. It had several plans with mastaba forms before it became the first Step
Pyramid in history, piling six mastaba-like levels on top of one another...The weight of the
enormous mass was a challenge to the builders, who placed the stones at an inward incline in order
to prevent the monument breaking up. (56)
When completed, the Step Pyramid rose 204 feet (62 meters) high and was the tallest structure of
its time. The surrounding complex included a temple, courtyards, shrines, and living quarters for
the priests covering an area of 40 acres (16 hectares) and surrounded by a wall 30 feet (10.5 meters)
high. The wall had 13 false doors cut into it with only one true entrance cut in the south- east
corner; the entire wall was then ringed by a trench 2,460 feet (750 meters) long and 131 feet (40
meters) wide.
The actual tomb of Djoser was located beneath the pyramid at the bottom of a shaft 92 feet (28
meters) long. The tomb chamber itself was encased in granite but, to reach it, one had to traverse
a maze of hallways, all brightly painted with reliefs and inlaid with tiles, leading to other rooms or
dead ends filled with stone vessels carved with the names of earlier kings. This labyrinth was
created, of course, to protect the tomb and grave goods of the king but, unfortunately, it failed to
keep out ancient grave robbers and the tomb was looted at some point in antiquity.

Djoser's Step Pyramid incorporates all of the elements most resonant in Egyptian architecture:
symmetry, balance, and grandeur which reflected the core values of the culture. Egyptian
civilization was based upon the concept of ma'at (harmony, balance) which was decreed by their
gods. The architecture of ancient Egypt, whether on a small or large scale, always represented
these ideals. Palaces were even built with two entrances, two throne rooms, and two receiving halls
in order to maintain symmetry and balance in representing both Upper and Lower Egypt in the
design.

The Old Kingdom & the Pyramids

The innovations of Imhotep were carried further by the kings of the 4th Dynasty in the Old
Kingdom. The last king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, Huni (c. 2630 - 2613 BCE), was long
thought to have initiated the massive building projects of the Old Kingdom in constructing the
pyramid at Meidum but that honor is due the first king of the 4th Dynasty, Sneferu (c. 2613 - 2589
BCE). Egyptologist Barbara Watterson writes, "Sneferu initiated the golden age of the Old
Kingdom, his most notable achievements being the two pyramids built for him at Dahshur" (50-
51). Sneferu began his work with the pyramid at Meidum now referred to as the "collapsed
pyramid" or, locally, as the "false pyramid" because of its shape: it resembles a tower more than a
pyramid and its outer casing rests around it in a gigantic heap of gravel.

The pyramid of Meidum is the first true pyramid constructed in Egypt. A "true pyramid" is defined
as a perfectly symmetrical monument whose steps have been filled in to create seamless sides
tapering toward a point at the top. Originally, any pyramid began as a step pyramid. The Meidum
pyramid did not last, however, because modifications were made to Imhotep's original pyramid
design which resulted in the outer casing resting on a sand foundation rather than rock, causing it
to collapse. Scholars are divided on whether the collapse occurred during construction or over a
longer period of time.

Sneferu's experiments with the stone pyramid form served his successor well. Khufu (2589 - 2566
BCE) learned from his father's experiments and directed his administration in constructing the
Great Pyramid of Giza, the last of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Contrary to
the popular belief that his monument was built by Hebrew slaves, Egyptian workers on the Great
Pyramid were well cared for and performed their duties as part of a community service, as paid
laborers, or during the time when the Nile's flood made farming impossible. Scholars Bob Brier
and Hoyt Hobbs note:

Were it not for the two months every year when the Nile's water covered Egypt's farmland, idling
virtually the entire workforce, none of this construction would have been possible. During such
times, a pharaoh offered food for work and the promise of a favored treatment in the afterworld
where he would rule just as he did in this world. For two months annually, workmen gathered by
the tens of thousands from all over the country to transport the blocks a permanent crew had
quarried during the rest of the year. Overseers organized the men into teams to transport the stones
on sleds, devices better suited than wheeled vehicles to moving weighty objects over shifting sand.
A causeway, lubricated by water, smoothed the uphill pull. No mortar was used to hold the blocks
in place, only a fit so exact that these towering structures have survived for 4,000 years - the only
Wonders of the Ancient World still standing today. (17-18)

There is no evidence whatsoever that Hebrew slaves, or any kind of slave labor, went into the
construction of the pyramids at Giza, the city of Per-Ramesses, or any other important site in
Egypt. The practice of slavery certainly existed in Egypt throughout its history, as it did in every
ancient culture, but it was not the kind of slavery popularly depicted in fiction and film based on
the biblical Book of Exodus. Slaves in the ancient world could be tutors and teachers of the young,
accountants, nursemaids, dance instructors, brewers, even philosophers. Slaves in Egypt were
either captives from military campaigns or those who could not pay their debts and these people
usually worked in the mines and quarries.

The men and women who worked on the Great Pyramid lived in state-provided housing on the site
(as discovered by Lehner and Hawass in 1979 CE) and were well compensated for their efforts.
The more skilled a worker was, the higher their compensation. The result of their work still amazes
people in the modern day. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only wonder left of the Seven Wonders
of the ancient world and justifiably so: until the Eifel Tower was completed in 1889 CE, the Great
Pyramid was the tallest structure on earth built by human hands. Historian Marc van de Mieroop
writes:

The size boggles the mind: it was 146 meters high (479 feet) by 230 meters at the base (754 feet).
We estimate that it contained 2,300,000 blocks of stone with an average weight of 2 and 3/4 tons
some weighing up to 16 tons. Khufu ruled 23 years according to the Turin Royal Canon, which
would mean that throughout his reign annually 100,000 blocks - daily about 285 blocks or one
every two minutes of daylight - had to be quarried, transported, dressed, and put in place...The
construction was almost faultless in design. The sides were oriented exactly toward the cardinal
points and were at precise 90-degree angles. (58)

The second pyramid constructed at Giza belongs to Khufu's successor Khafre (2558 - 2532 BCE)
who is also credited with creating the Great Sphinx of Giza. The third pyramid belongs to his
successor Menkaure (2532 - 2503 BCE). An inscription from c. 2520 BCE relates how Menkaure
came to inspect his pyramid and assigned 50 of the workers to the new task of building a tomb for
his official, Debhen. Part of the inscription reads, "His majesty commanded that no man should be
taken for any forced labour" and that rubbish should be cleared from the site for construction
(Lewis, 9). This was a fairly common practice at Giza where the kings would commission tombs
for their friends and favored officials.
The Giza plateau today presents a very different image from what it would have looked like in the
time of the Old Kingdom. It was not the lonely site at the edge of the desert it is today but a sizeable
necropolis which had shops, factories, markets, temples, housing, public gardens, and numerous
monuments. The Great Pyramid was sheathed in an outer casing of gleaming white limestone and
rose from the center of the small city, visible from miles around.

Giza was a self-sustaining community whose people were government workers but the
construction of the enormous monuments there in the 4th Dynasty was very costly. Khafre's
pyramid and complex are a little smaller than Khufu's and Menkaure's smaller than Khafre's and
this is because, as 4th Dynasty pyramid building continued, resources dwindled. Menkaure's
successor, Shepsekhaf (2503 - 2498 BCE) was buried in a modest mastaba at Saqqara.
The cost of the pyramids was not only financial but political. Giza was not the only necropolis in
Egypt at the time and all of these sites required maintenance and administration which was carried
out by priests. As these sites grew, so did the wealth and power of the priests and the regional
governors (nomarchs) who presided over the different districts the sites were in.

The later rulers of the Old Kingdom built temples (or pyramids on a much smaller scale) as these
were more affordable. The shift from the pyramid monument to the temple signaled a deeper shift
in sensibilities which had to do with the growing power of the priesthood: monuments were no
longer being built to honor a certain king but for a specific god.

First Intermediate Period & Middle Kingdom

The power of the priests and nomarchs, along with other factors, brought about the collapse of the
Old Kingdom. Egypt then entered the era known as the First Intermediate Period (2181 - 2040
BCE) in which individual regions essentially governed themselves. The kings still ruled from
Memphis but they were ineffectual.

The First Intermediate Period of Egypt has traditionally been depicted as a time of decline because
no great monuments were raised and the quality of the art is considered inferior to that of the Old
Kingdom. Actually, though, the artwork and architecture is simply different, not sub-par. In the
Old Kingdom, architectural works were state-sponsored, as was artwork, and so was more or less
uniform to reflect the tastes of royalty. In the First Intermediate Period, regional artists and
architects were free to explore different forms and styles. Historian Margaret Bunson writes:
Under the nomarchs, architecture survived the collapse of the Old Kingdom. Their patronage
continued into the Middle Kingdom, resulting in such remarkable sites as Beni Hassan (c. 1900
BC) with its rock carved tombs and large chapels complete with columned porticos and painted
walls. (32)

When Mentuhotep II (c. 2061 - 2010 BCE) united Egypt under Theban rule, royal commissioning
of art and architecture resumed but, unlike in the Old Kingdom, variety and personal expression
was encouraged. Middle Kingdom architecture, beginning with Mentuhotep's grand mortuary
complex at Deir el-Bahri near Thebes, is at once grand and personal in scope.

Under the reign of king Senusret I (c. 1971 - 1926 BCE), the great Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak
was begun when this monarch erected a modest structure at the site. This temple, like all Middle
Kingdom temples, was constructed with an outer courtyard, columned courts which led to halls
and ritual chambers, and an inner sanctum which housed a god's statue. Sacred lakes were created
at these sites and the entire effect was a symbolic representation of the beginning of the world and
the harmonious operation of the universe. Bunson writes:
Temples were religious structures considered the "horizon" of a divine being, the point at
which the god came into existence during creation. Thus, each temple had a link to the past, and
the rituals conducted within its court were formulas handed down for generations. The temple was
also a mirror of the universe and a representation of the Primeval Mound where creation began.
(258)

Columns were an important aspect of the symbolism of a temple complex. They were not designed
only to support a roof but to contribute their own meaning to the whole work. Some of the many
different designs were the papyrus bundle (a tighly carved column resembling papyrus reeds); the
lotus design, popular in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, with a capital opening like a lotus flower;
the bud column whose capital appears to be an unopened flower, and the Djed column which is
probably most famous from the Heb Sed Court at Djoser's pyramid complex but was so widely
used in Egyptian architecture it can be found from one end of the country to the other. The Djed
was an ancient symbol for stability and frequently used in columns either at the base, at the capital
(so it appears the Djed is holding up the sky), or as an entire column.

Homes and other buildings continued to be made from mud brick during the Middle Kingdom;
stone was only used for temples and monuments and this was usually limestone, sandstone or, in
some cases, granite which required the greatest skill to work in. A little known masterpiece of the
Middle Kingdom, long ago lost, was the pyramid complex of Amenemhat III (c. 1860 - 1815 BCE)
at the city of Hawara.

This complex was enormous, featuring twelve great separate courts which faced one another across
an expanse of columned halls and interior hallways so intricate that it was called "the labyrinth"
by Herodotus. The courts and hallways were further connected by corridors and colonnades and
shafts so that a visitor might walk down a familiar hall but take an unfamiliar turn and wind up in
a completely different area of the complex than the one they had intended.

Criss-crossing alleys and false doors sealed by stone plugs served to confuse and disorient a visitor
to protect the central burial chamber of the pyramid of the king. This chamber is said to have been
cut from a single block of granite and to have weighed 110 tons. Herodotus claimed it was more
impressive than any of the wonders he had ever seen.

Second Intermediate Period & New Kingdom

Kings like Amenemhat III of the 12th Dynasty made great contributions to Egyptiaart and
architecture and their policies were continued by the 13th Dynasty. The 13th Dynasty, however,
was weaker and ruled poorly so that, eventually, the power of the central government declined to
the point where a foreign people, the Hyksos, rose in Lower Egypt while the Nubians took portions
of land to the south. This era is known as the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - 1570
BCE) in which there was little advancement in the arts.

The Hyksos were driven from Egypt by Ahmose I of Thebes (c. 1570 - 1544 BCE) who then
secured the southern borders from the Nubians and initiated the era known as the New Kingdom
of Egypt (1570 - 1069 BCE). This period saw some of the most magnificent architectural feats
since the Old Kingdom. In the same way that modern visitors are awed and intrigued by the
mystery of how the pyramids at Giza were built, so are they by Hatshepsut's funerary complex, the
Temple of Amun at Karnak, the many works of Amenhotep III, and the magnificent constructs of
Ramesses II such as Abu Simbel.

The rulers of the New Kingdom built on a grand scale in keeping with Egypt's new elevated status
as an empire. Egypt had never known a foreign power like the Hyksos taking control of their land
and, after Ahmose I drove them out, he initiated military campaigns to create buffer zones around
Egypt's borders. These areas were expanded by his successors, most notably Thutmose III (1458 -
1425 BCE), until Egypt ruled an empire which stretched from Syria, down the Levant, across to
Libya, and down through Nubia. Egypt became immensely wealthy during this time and that
wealth was lavished on temples, mortuary complexes, and monuments.

The greatest of these is the Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak. As with all the other temples in Egypt,
this one told the story of the past, the people's lives, and honored the gods but was an immense
work-in-progress with every ruler of the New Kingdom adding to it. The site covers over 200 acres
and is comprised of a series of pylons (monumental gateways which taper towards the top to
cornices), leading into courtyards, halls, and smaller temples.

The first pylon opens onto a wide court which invites the visitor further. The second pylon opens
onto the Hypostyle Court which measures 337 feet (103 meters) by 170 feet (52 meters). The hall
is supported by 134 columns 72 feet (22 meters) tall and 11 feet (3.5 meters) around in diameter.
Scholars estimate one could fit three structures the size of Notre Dame Cathedral inside the main
temple alone. Bunson comments:
Karnak remains the most remarkable religious complex ever built on earth. Its 250 acres of temples
and chapels, obelisks, columns, and statues built over 2,000 years incorporate the finest aspects of
Egyptian art and architecture into a great historical monument of stone. (133)

As with all other temples, Karnak is a paragon of symmetrical architecture which seems to rise
organically from the earth toward the sky. The great difference between this structure and any
other is its grand scale and the scope of the vision. Each ruler who contributed to the building made
greater advances than their predecessors but acknowledged those who had gone before.
When Thutmose III built his festival hall there he may have removed monuments and buildings of
earlier kings whom he then acknowledged with an inscription. Every temple symbolizes Egyptian
culture and belief but Karnak does so in large letters and, quite literally, through inscriptions.
Thousands of years of history may be read on the walls and columns of the Karnak temple.

Hatshepsut (1479 - 1458 BCE) contributed to Karnak like every other ruler but also commissioned
buildings of such beauty and splendor that later kings claimed them as their own. Among her
grandest is her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri near Luxor which incorporates every aspect of
New Kingdom temple architecture on a grand scale: a landing stage at the water's edge, flagstaffs
(relics of the past), pylons, forecourts, hypostyle halls, and a sanctuary. The temple is constructed
in three tiers reaching 97 feet (29.5 meters) and visitors are still amazed by the building in the
present day.

Amenhotep III (1386 - 1353 BCE) built so many monuments throughout Egypt that early scholars
credited him with an exceptionally long reign. Amenhotep III commissioned over 250 buildings,
monuments, stele, and temples. His mortuary complex was guarded by the Colossi of Memnon,
two figures 70 feet (21.3 m) high and each weighing 700 tons. His palace, now known as Malkata,
covered 30,000 square meters (30 hectares) and was elaborately decorated and furnished
throughout the throne rooms, apartments, kitchens, libraries, conference rooms, festival halls, and
all the other rooms.

Although Amenhotep III is famous for his opulent reign and monumental building projects, the
later pharaoh Ramesses II (1279 - 1213 BCE) is even better known. Unfortunately this is largely
because he is so often equated with the unnamed pharaoh in the biblical Book of Exodus and his
name has become recognizable through film adaptations of the story and the incessant repetition
of the line from Exodus 1:11 that Hebrew slaves built his cities of Pithom and Per-Ramesses.

Long before the author of Exodus ever came up with his story, however, Ramesses II was famous
for his military exploits, efficient rule, and magnificent building projects. His city of Per-Ramesses
("City of Ramesses") in Lower Egypt was widely praised by Egyptian scribes and foreign visitors
but his temple at Abu Simbel is his masterpiece. The temple, cut from solid rock cliffs, stands 98
feet (30 meters) high and 115 feet (35 meters) long with four seated colossi flanking the entrance,
two to each side, depicting Ramesses II on his throne; each one 65 feet (20 meters) tall.

Beneath these giant figures are smaller statues (still larger than life) depicting Ramesses' conquered
enemies, the Nubians, Libyans, and Hittites. Further statues represent his family members and
various protecting gods and symbols of power. Passing between the colossi, through the central
entrance, the interior of the temple is decorated with engravings showing Ramesses and Nefertari
paying homage to the gods.

Abu Simbel is perfectly aligned with the east so that, twice a year on 21 February and 21 October,
the sun shines directly into the inner sanctum to illuminate statues of Ramesses II and the god
Amun. This is another aspect of ancient Egyptian architecture which characterizes most, if not all,
of the great temples and monuments: celestial alignment. From the pyramids at Giza to the Temple
of Amun at Karnak, the Egyptians oriented their buildings according to the cardinal points and in
keeping with celestial events.

The Egyptian name for a pyramid was Mer, meaning "Place of Ascension" (the name "pyramid"
comes from the Greek word pyramis meaning "wheat cake" which is what they thought the
structures looked like) as it was believed that the shape of the structure itself would enable the
dead king to rise toward the horizon and more easily begin the next phase of his existence in the
afterlife. In this same way, temples were oriented to invite the god to the inner sanctum and also,
of course, provide access for when they wanted to ascend back to their own higher realms.

Late Period & Ptolemaic Dynasty

The New Kingdom declined as the priests of Amun at Thebes acquired greater power and wealth
than the pharaoh while, at the same time, Egypt came to be ruled by weaker and weaker kings. By
the time of the reign of Ramesses XI (c. 1107 - 1077 BCE) the central government at Per-
Ramesses was completely ineffective and the high priests at Thebes held all the real power.

The Late Period of Ancient Egypt is characterized by invasions by the Assyrians and the Persians
prior to the arrival of Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. Alexander is said to have designed the city
of Alexandria himself and then left it to his subordinates to build while he continued on with his
conquests. Alexandria became the jewel of Egypt for its magnificent architecture and grew into a
great center of culture and learning. The historian Strabo (63 BCE - 21CE) praised it on one of his
visits, writing:
The city has magnificent public precincts and royal palaces which cover a fourth or even a third of
the entire area. For just as each of the kings would, from a love of splendour, add some ornament
to the public monuments, so he would provide himself at his own expense with a residence in
addition to those already standing. (1)

Alexandria became the impressive city Strabo praises during the time of the Ptolemaic Dynasty
(323 - 30 BCE). Ptolemy I (323 - 285 BCE) began the great Library of Alexandria and the temple
known as the Serapeum which was completed by Ptolemy II (285 - 246 BCE) who also built the
famous Pharos of Alexandria, the great lighthouse which was one of the Seven Wonders of the
World.

The early rulers of the Ptolemaic Dynasty continued the traditions of Egyptian architecture,
blending them with their own Greek practices, to create impressive buildings, monuments, and
temples. The dynasty ended with the death of the last queen, Cleopatra VII (69 - 30 BCE), and the
country was annexed by Rome.
The legacy of the Egyptian architects lives on, however, through the monuments they left behind.

The imposing pyramids, temples, and monuments of Egypt continue to inspire and intrigue visitors
in the present day. Imhotep and those who followed after him envisioned monuments in stone
which would defy the passage of time and keep their memory alive. The enduring popularity of
these structures today rewards that early vision and accomplishes their goal.
 HOA FINALS

Architecture of Ancient Rome

Roman architecture, even more than the rest of Roman art, reflected the practical
character, restless energy and organizational mind-set of its creators. As the Roman Empire
expanded to engulf not only the Mediterranean region but also large areas of Westem
Europe, Roman architects struggled to achieve two overriding aims to demonstrate the
grandeur and power of Rome, while also improving the life of their fellow citizens. To this
end, they mastered a number of important architectural techniques, including the arch, the
dome and the vauit, as well as the use of concrete Using these methods, Roman engineers
designed and built some of the greatest public buildings in the history of architecture,
including temples, basilicas, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, monuments, and public
baths. In addition, to further reinforce the ideals of the Pax Romana and, above all,
maintain efficiency and order, Roman architects designed numerous aqueducts, drainage
systems, and bridges, as well as a vast network of roads, while planners developed a series
of urban blueprints, based on army camps, to help create new towns from scratch. Roman
architects absorbed a great deal from Etruscan art and design, and had huge respect for
both Greek architecture and Greek sculpture. They also learned from Egyptian pyramid
architecture and stonework Architecture is Ancient Rome's unique contribution to the
history of art and to the culture of Europe. It is far more influential than the various forms
of Roman sculpture, most of which were derived from the Greeks. Among the greatest
buildings erected by the Romans, were Maison Carree, Nimes, France (19 BCE), Pont Du
Gard Aqueduct, Nimes, France (19 BCE), The Colosseum, Rome (72-80 CE), Arch of Titus,
Rome (81 CE). Aqueduct, Segovia, Spain (100 CE); the Baths of Trajan (104-109), Trajan's
Bridge, Alcantara. Spain (105 CE), Library of Celsus, Ephesus, Turkey (120 CE), Hadrian's
Wall, Northem England (121 CE), The Pantheon, Rome (128 CE), Palace of Diocletian, Split
(300 CE), Baths of Diocletian (306 CE), Arch of Constantine, Rome (312 CE), and the
Cloaca Maxima (600-200 BCE), one of the world's earliest sewage systems, constructed in
Ancient Rome in order to drain local marshes and transport the city's waste to the River
Tiber. Many aspects of Roman building design were examined by the architect Marcus
Vitruvius (active, late 1st century BCE) in his architectural treatise De architectura (c 27
BCE), although it appeared before the most creative phase of Roman construction

Roman Characteristics

Mighty Romel Conqueror of Gaul and Carthage, of Greece and Egypt, mistress of the
Western world through six centuries, capital of the mighty Caesars, unchallenged home of
grandeur, spectacle, and magnificence, splendid with the art plundered from a hundred
enslaved peoples, giver of laws and morals and military science to all the West And yet this
"Eternal City was artistically inconsequential. Except in one direction, that of monumental
architecture and structural engineering, Rome produced very little distinctive creative art.
The Romans cut off rather than absorbed the one significant development on Italian soil,
the Etruscan, and turned to import decadent Greek sculptors, decorators, and painters to
give a Hellenistic surfacing to their culture in the aesthetic scales the contribution of
mighty Rome weighs more lightly than that of tiny states such as Sumeria and Siena
Grandeur was Rome's goal, grandeur was her one achievement, and perhaps also the secret
of the shallowness of her art. The desire to impress by bigness led to magnificent works of
engineering and building but the desire to impress by profusion and boastful display led,
more often than not, to the decoration of those same works with misused scraps and
veneers of Greek architecture and weak imitations of Greek ornamental sculpture Hellenic
moderation and reasonableness became Roman practicality and Roman swagger.

A glance around the main forum in Rome (1st century BCE-3rd Century CE) would have
given. any observer a birds-eye view of the city's architecture: old temples, increasingly
complex and graceful and adomed, but with something of Greek simplicity and harmony
persisting, set among palaces, basilicas, memorial columns, and arcades, on every side
magnificent arched construction, grand vistas, and banks of columns crowned by rich
Corinthian capitals; on every side a profusion of vulgarized Greek ornament, interspersed
with new panels of Roman relief sculpture: in all, a wonderful display of grandeur and
exhibitionism.

Roman Relief Sculpture

Influences

As soon as Rome takes on importance politically and culturally that is, as soon as adjoining
Etruria has been subjugated and Carthage successfully challenged - the spint that
dominates the arts is that of the conqueror and the celebrator. Architecture, for instance,
becomes dominated not by temples, but by the Forum or trading place, the basilica or
public meeting-hall, the baths, the sports arenas, the theatres and circuses, many of which
are constructed in colossal size, and lavishly ornamented. Later there are the palaces,
triumphal arches, and ceremonial gateways.

It seems incredible that Etruscan capabilities (in architecture and other arts) - so advanced
at the time of the rise of Rome - should have disappeared so quickly following the Roman
takeover of Italy. But the Greek influence, coming from Greek colonial cities in the south of
the country, and from the Greek world of the eastern Mediterranean, rapidly became
dominant
 The Rise of Rome
Building Techniques: Arch, Vault, Dome

In architecture, however, the Romans absorbed some important techniques from the
Etruscans before Greek influence was decisively felt. This included the arch and the vault,
which were destined to carry Roman engineering into a development directly away from
that of ancient Greece, who preferred "post-and-linter building methods to arches and d
Thus was laid the foundation of the art in which the Italic peoples were to surpass the
Hellenes: structural engineering. The vaulting techniques used by the Romans were the
simple geometric forms: the semi-circular barrel vault, the groin vault, and the segmental
vault. The vault surfaces were typically covered with stucco or tiles. An excellent example of
Roman vaulting is the Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius in Rome. A natural
development of the vault was the dome, which enabled the construction of vaulted ceilings
and the roofing of large public spaces such as the public baths and basilicas. The Romans
relied heavily on the dome for much of their architecture, such as Hadrian's Pantheon, the
Baths of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, Characteristic of Roman architectural
design was the construction of complex forms of domes to suit multilobed ground plans.
The mastery by Roman architects and engineers of the arch, vault and dome - further
enhanced by their development of concrete helped them to solve the first problem of
monumental architecture, which is to bridge space. Roofing a great area means carrying
heavy materials. across spaces impossible to span with the Greeks' simple post-and-lintel
system. In the arch, and the vault that grew out of it, the Romans had a means of thrusting
the massive Colosseum walls story above story, of covering a luxurious bathing hall that
could accommodate three thousand persons, and of creating the majestic form of the
Pantheon.

Influence of Ancient Greece

Although limited by their persistent use of post-and-lintel building methods, Greek

influence over Roman architecture was dominant in almost all matters of architectural style
and 3D decorative art. The most obvious Hellenistic gift was the series of Greek Orders of
architecture Doric, ionic and Corinthian from which the Romans developed two more.
Tuscan and Composite (variants of the Greek Doric and Corinthian styles, respectively) In
general, Roman Doric, ionic and Corinthian Orders were slenderer and more ornamented
Columns tended to be left unfluted, but the fascia of the entablature, left plain by Greek
architects, was heavily decorated.

Given their tendency to show off, Roman architects had the least interest in Greek Doric
and when they did use it, they invariably added a decorative molding to the base Examples
of the Roman Doric style can be seen in the Tabularium and the Colosseum in Rome, and
in the Temple of Hercules at Con. The ionic order was used by the Romans in some temples
and public buildings, as well as private homes. Exemplars include: the Temple of Fortuna
Virts and Trajan's Forum in Rome. By far the most popular idiom, however, was the
Corinthian order. Based initially on the style of columns taken from the Greek Temple of
Olympian Zeus al Athens, the order became progressively more decorative and elaborate.
Good examples can be seen at the temples of Mars Ultor in Rome, and the Temple of Vesta
at Tivoli.

Trajan’s Forum in Rome

In view of all this, it is hardly surprising that whereas the names of architects are mostly
Roman or Etruscan, the names of sculptors and painters are Greek What's more, it seems
that the architects did all the important engineering and construction work, and then
handed the building over to imported artists to do the superficial decorative work Thus,
when the hand of time stripped the ornamental casing from the Caracalla Baths or the
theatre at Orange, the walls and arches stood out with a mighty lift and a competing
grandeur. And a "plain" engineering work like the Pont du Gard stirs the blood and lifts the
eye with its mathematical vigour.

Roman Theatre at Orange

Concrete

The Roman mastery of concrete was a major step forward its strength, flexibility,
convenience and low cost when compared to any other building material-made arch, vaults
and domes much easier to build First employed in the town of Cosa sometime after 273
BCE, its widespread use was a key event in the Roman architectural revolution, and freed
Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick material and allowed for
revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension Laid in the
shape of arches, vaults and domes, hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the
internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or
brick The widespread use of concrete in many Roman quickly structures has ensured that
many survive to the present day. The Pantheon, Baths of Caracalla, and Basilica of
Constantine in Rome are just three examples.

Use of concrete in town of Cosa

Roman concrete (Opus Caementicium) was typically made from a mature of lime mortar,
water, sand and pozzolana, a fine, ochre-coloured volcanic earth, which set well even under
water. To this cement mixture, was added a combination of tuff, travertine, brick, and other
rubble. Among the more unusual additives used, were horse hair, which reportedly made
concrete less prone to cracking, and animal blood, which increased its resistance to frost.
 Pozzolana Horse hair Animal blood

Concrete walls, except those underground, were invariably faced Works were categorized
according to the type of facing employed. The four main types included: (1) Opus
Quadratum concrete, a type of ordinary stone walling that was used to face important
public buildings (2) Opus Incertum concrete, the most popular facing for ordinary concrete
walls, prior to the Imperial era (3) Opus Reticulatum concrete, similar to opus incertum but
with pyramid shaped stones (4) Opus Testaceum concrete, a type of brick/tile-facing which
became the most widespread form cross the empire. (5) Opus Mixtum concrete, a combined
brick/stone facing. popular with later empire architects during the Diocletian period

Opus Caementicium

Building Materials

The earliest buildings built in and around Rome were made of tuff, a type of volcanic rock
of varying hardness, which could be worked mostly with bronze tools Later, harder stones
were used, like peperino and local albani stone from the Alban hills During the empire, the
most common stone used for building was travertine, a form of limestone quarried in Tivoli,
as used on the exterior of the Colosseum in Rome. Marble was used only for facing or
decoration, or sometimes in mosaics Coloured marbles and stones like alabaster, porphyry
and granite, were also popular, as exemplified by the remains of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli
The majority of domestic homes were made with a variety of unburned bricks faced with
stucco.

Tuff Peperino stone Albani stone Travertine

 Alabaster Porophyry Granite Bricks faced with Stucco

Temples

There were temples in Rome, and throughout her far-flung colonies and provinces. But they
were far less distinctive and inventive than Greek designs of (say) the Parthenon or other
structures, rather they represented the Greek idea adapted and elaborated. The columns
usually carried florid Corinthian capitals the Doric style being too plain to Latin eyes.
Decoration was added elsewhere too, so that in the end no bit of bare wall was tolerated.
Even the architrave, kept clean by the Greeks to emphasize the feeling of cross-bar
strength, was soon being traced over with Roman ornament.

The earlier round structures of the sort illustrated the ancient Temple of Vesta in the
Roman forum, provided an appealing grace and a pleasing ornamental fullness not known
to the architecture of the Hellenes. The more usual adaptation of the Greek rectangular
temple is to be seen today in the example at Nimes in France, known as the Maison Carree.
It illustrates both the survival of the essential Greek form, and the typical Roman (originally
Etruscan) changes, such as the podium or raised platform (stylobate) with a flight of steps
in front, and the substitution of engaged columns or pilasters along the side walls of the
cella, in place of the original continuous colonnade. Even today the building has dignity
and a quiet effectiveness.

In some cases, the cella of the Roman temple was vaulted in concrete; it might also possess
a semi-circular end, as in the Baths of Diana at Nimes, and the Temple of Venus and
Rome, in Rome. The most important Roman temples of which remains exist, include: Mars
Ultor, Castor and Pollux, Fortuna Virilis, Concord and Antoninus, in Rome, the Temple of
Bacchus at Baalbek, the Temple of Minerva at Assisi and the temples at Pompeii.

Baths of Diana at Nimes Temple of Venus and Rome Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek
Basilicas

The most influential type of religious building developed by Roman architects was the
basilica Originally secular in purpose, it was destined to become an early prototype for the
first Christian churches and thus to affect monumental architecture down to the twentieth
century. The basilica was commonly situated in the Forum of a Roman city, and was
designed as a large, covered hall to be used as a place of general assembly for trade,
banking, and administration of the law in simplest words, a meeting hall. The standard
Basilica plan had a central nave between side aisles; and it was here that clerestory lighting
and construction were introduced into European building. A few basilicas were given semi-
circular halls at the end opposite the entrance, corresponding to the later church apse or
altar area. The oldest basilica is the Basilica Porcia (184 BCE), while the famous Church of
St. Paul Outside the Walls (4th century CE) at Rome, though robuit in the 10th century
(according to the 4th-century plan), illustrates the impressive simplicity and grandeur of
the basilica design, combined with late Roman sumptuous decoration Where arched
construction here surmounts the interior columns, the earlier form had been continuous
architrave, sometimes with gallery above, just under the clerestory windows. It is one of
Rome's four most distinguished papal basilicas: the others being the basilicas of St. Mary
Major, St. Poter's, and St John Lateran. The most magnificent example is the 63,000
square-foot Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius, an awesome example of the cohesion
and strength of Roman concrete. A more modem basilica modelled on Roman architecture
is Saint Peter's Basilica (c. 1520-1620) in Rome.

Roman Basilica Roman Forum

 Rome, Evolution of Plans for New St. Peter’s: (A) Nicholas V and B. Rossellino, 1452. (B)
Julius II and Bramante, 1506. (C) Leo X and Raphael, 1516. (D) Clement VII and Peruzzi,
1522. (E) Plus IV and Michelangelo, 1560. (F) Paul Y and C. Maderno, 1610.

The Pantheon

The greatest surviving circular temple of classical antiquity, and arguably the most
important example of ancient art produced in Rome, is the Pantheon. Today it has lost its
interior embellishments, though it is the best preserved of major Roman monuments, but it
takes the breath by the vast dimensions, the simplicity of its forms, and the audacity of the
structural design. A temple-like forecourt or porch lies against an immense 142-foot wide
circular hall or rotunda under a low dome. The engineering is elementary. the rotunda's
walls form the drum from which the dome springs direct, there are no windows Light is
admitted to the building solely through a great a 28-foot oculus left open to the sky at the
top. To sustain the thrust of the dome, the walls are twenty feet thick, and there are eight
apse-like niches hollowed in them-one opened to form the main portal, the others designed
for statues of gods and later transformed by the Christians into side-chapels. In its time the
inside of the dome, richly coffered, and the marble trim of walls and apses, must have been
impressively sumptuous; but today it is the grand simplicity of the engineering and the
great spaciousness that thrill the visitor. The Pantheon is truly one of the world's most
impressive buildings. The Corinthian temple facade of the French Pantheon (1790) Paris,
designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-80), is a direct copy of its ancestor in Rome.

The Pantheon

Theatres

The theatres of Rome itself were usually temporary erections, but often were adorned with
almost incredibly rich displays of sculpture and architectural accessories, if one may
believe eyewitness reports. Some surviving provincial examples indicate, indeed, that the
architecture was thought of as part of the spectacle. One Latin description mentions a stage
wall with 360 columns, 3000 statues, and other "special" adornments.
Theatre in Aspendos on Turkey's south coast, the best-preserved Roman theatre in the world

Amphitheatres

Amphitheatres were public arenas (of which 220 are known) in which spectacles were held,
such as contests between gladiators, public displays, public meetings and bullfights. There
is enough left of the Colosseum in Rome, for instance, to indicate the form and to impress
the eye-though the complete interior sheathing of coloured marble has disappeared.
Constructed by the emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (c.70-82), the structure is of
concrete with a facing of Travertine marble. The 6-acre complex is a marvellous
constructive feat a bow more than 600 feet long, with 50,000 60,000 seats resting on a
honeycomb structure of arcades and vaults, with passageways for spectators, rooms for the
gladiators, and cells for the wild beasts. To that extent the architecture is functional and
honest. But the marble facing to a certain degree weakens the mass effect, denies the
engineering, and contrasts badly with the necessarily heavy materials. The columns carry
no weight.

Roman Amphitheatre

Incidentally it may be noted that the Emperor Augustus (31-14 BCE), of the golden age of
Rome, who is said to have boasted that he transformed Rome from a city of brick to a city of
marble, was speaking in terms of veneer. Greek monumental buildings had been of solid
marble, and the Egyptian pyramids are mountains of laid-up stone, but the Romans seem
not to have had the time or the thoroughness to deal in difficult materials even when they
had the materials at hand.
 Roman Stadium Roman Cirus (Hippodrome)

Amphitheatres should be distinguished from Roman circuses (hippodromes) in effect,

racecourses flanked by tiers of seats and a central grandstand whose elongated circuits
were designed for horse or chariot racing events, and also from the smaller stadia, which
were built for athletics and similar games. The largest Roman hippodrome was the U-
shaped Circus Maximus (bur, rebuilt and enlarged c.500 BCE 320 CE) in Rome, with a
seating capacity at its height of 250,00. It became the prototype for circuses throughout the
Roman Empire.

Public Baths

Probably the most popular Roman buildings among all classes of citizens were the public
baths (balneae or thermae) (akin to Turkish steam baths) which by the end of the republic,
were a recognized feature of Roman life. The term Balneae usually referred to smaller scale
baths, while Thermae described larger, wealthier establishments. It was in the late Imperial
thermae, like the Baths of Caracalla, that the spirit of luxurious grandeur in Roman
architecture was best expressed. The best of them were regular social meeting places the
upper classes, were lavished with the most stupendous engineering ingenuity and the most
vulgarly ornate architectural decoration. Not only was an incredible number of pools,
gymnasia, anointing rooms, and lounging halls to be roofed over, but lecture and studio
rooms had to be included in the interior, and a stadium was to adjoin it. It is said that one
thousand bath buildings existed in imperial Rome, ranging from the simplest to the
immense establishments known by the names of the emperors who built them, Nero,
Trajan, Diocletian, and the like. There are sufficient remains of the Baths of Caracalla to
impress the observer today with the daring of Roman engineers in roofing the necessary
spaces and buttressing the supporting arches. There are traces of the marble sculpture as
well as pavements and mosaics, and contemporary descriptions that aid in building up a
picture of magnificent decorations and furnishings.

Baths of Agrippa
The first thermae were established in Rome about 21 BCE by Marcus Agrippa, deputy of
Emperor Augustus Others were built by Emperors Nero, Titus, Trajan, Caracalla,
Diocletian, and Constantine. The best preserved are the Baths of Caracalla, the Baths of
Diocletian and the Stabian Baths in Pompeii. The design and construction of public baths
is discussed thoroughly by the Roman architect Vitruvius in his treatise on architecture (De
Architectura)

Triumphal Arches

The commemorative arches, or arches of triumph, were a sort of ceremonial architecture

invented by the Romans in their passion for the show of power, to commemorate an
important event or military campaign. They merit hardly more attention than any other
ornamental and advertising monument, though there is considerable symmetry and
academic competence in the compositions. Typically erected away from the main
thoroughfares, they were typically decorated with relief sculpture illustrating the events to
be commemorated. The most famous example is the Arch of Titus, celebrating the capture
of Jerusalem, and the Arch of Constantine (c.315). celebrating Constantine's tine's victory
over Maxentius at Milvian Bridge erected in the Italian provinces i Famous triumphal
arches included those of Tiberius at Orange, of Augustus at Susa, of Trajan at Benevento
and Ancona, and Caracalla at Tebessa. All have served as models to fifty of triumphant
militarists' home from their conquests, including Napoleon Bonaparte, generations of who
commissioned the famous Arc de Triomphe (1806-38) in Paris, a masterpiece of 19th
century architecture. Triumphal arches perfectly expressed the spectacular-ceremonial side
of the Roman character. An offshoot was the single column memorial, exemplified by
Trajan's Column (c.1123 CE). The stylistic antithesis of the triumphal arch is probably best
exemplified by the Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome (c.13-9 BCE), a shrine erected by the Roman
Senate to mark the triumphal return of Emperor Augustus from the battlefields of Gaul and
Spain.

Arc de Triomphe, Paris Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome

Bridges, Aqueducts

But in bridges and aqueducts one finds fully asserted again the spirit that is admirable and
splendid. These constructions are functional, authentic, and mathematical. Waterways
strike out across country, overcoming both hills and valleys. Gorges are bridged with those
honest spans, repeated, unvarying, and everlasting. This is the supreme architectural
memorial of the Roman Empire. In the thick, heavy, power-breathing Roman wall, and in
the regimented arches and vaults, one finds artistic Rome and her engineer-architects in
their most and typical achievement. When she turned to ornamentation, employed other
architects to split the functional Greek columns and paste them uselessly beside the
arches, in row over row against the walls, the engineer was eclipsed, a curtain of make-
believe was dropped before the true drama of Roman building art. The Pont du Gard has
come free of those embellishments, it moves boldly, implacably, nakedly on its business of
carrying an aqueduct over hill and valley. Other great structures include the Aqueduct of
Segovia (100 CE) and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio
Novus - both begun by Emperor Caligula in 38 CE and completed by Emperor Claudius in
52 CE.

Roman Bridge Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus

Roman Roads

Roman engineers were famous above all for their high quality roads. In all, they laid more
than 250,000 miles of roads, including over 50,000 miles of paved roads. At the height of
the Roman Empire, 29 major military highways radiated from its capital, Rome. The most
famous Roman roads include: (in Italy), Via Appia (the Appian Way), leading from Rome to
Apulia, Via Aurelia, from Rome to France, (in France) Via Agrippa, Via Aquitania and Via
Domitia, (in Spain and Portugal) Via Augusta, from Cadiz to the Pyrenees, (in Britain)
Ermine Street, Walling Street and Fosse Way.

The Appian Way

Lighthouses

As well as building roads to facilitate transport and travel overland, Roman architects also
erected numerous lighthouses around the Mediterranean and the western shores of the
Atlantic, to assist maritime navigation. One surviving example is the famous Tower of
Hercules (c 110 CE), located on a peninsula about a mile and a half from the centre of
Coruna, in north-western Spain. Known until recently as the "Farum Brigantium", the
lighthouse has been in continual use since the 2nd century CE, making it the oldest
lighthouse in the world.

The Tower of Hercules

Urban Planning, Houses, Residential Architecture

The city of Ancient Rome-at its height, a huge metropolis of almost one million people-
consisted of a maze of narrow streets. After the fire of 64 CE, Emperor Nero announced a
rational rebuilding program, with little success: the city's architecture remained chaotic
and unplanned Outside Rome, however, architects and urban planners were able to achieve
a lot more. Towns were developed using grid-plans originally drawn up for military
settlements Typical features included two wide axis streets a north-south street, known as
the cardo, and a complementary east-west street called the decumanus, with the town
centre located at their intersection Most Roman towns had a forum, temples and theatres,
plus public baths (thermae), but ordinary houses were often simple mud-brick dwellings.

Roman Town Planning

In very simple terms, there were two basic types of Roman house the domus and the insula
The domus, exemplified by those discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum, usually
comprised a collection of rooms set around a central hall, or atrium. Few windows
overlooked the street, light coming instead from the atrium. In Rome itself, however, very
few remains of this type of house have survived, one example is the House of the Vestals in
the Forum and the House of Livia on the Palatine Hill.

Roman House

In general, only wealthy citizens could afford houses with courtyards, roofed atria,
underfloor heating, or gardens. Even then, space constraints in many provincial towns
meant that even well-to-do houses were relatively compact Rich cities were the exception
The Judean port of Caesarea (25-13 BCE), extended by Herod the Great to please his boss
Augustus Caesar, and home of Pontius Pilate, the regional Roman Prefect, possessed a
spacious network of gridded streets, a hippodrome, public baths, palaces and an aqueduct.
The wealthy Italian port of Ostia had brick-built apartment blocks (called insulae, after
insula the Italian for building) rising five floors high.

Roman Apartment

Legacy

Roman architecture has had a colossal influence on building construction in the West. If
Greek architects established the main design templates, Roman architects established the
basic engineering prototypes. Thanks to their mastery of the arch, vault and dome, they set
the standard for most types of monumental architecture. Their example was followed
closely in Byzantine art (Hagia Sophia), in medieval Russian architecture (the onion domes
of St Basil's Cathedral, Moscow), in Renaissance architecture (Florence Cathedral) by the
likes of Fillippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), Florence Cathedral, Brunelleschi and
Renaissance (1420-36)-Andrea Palladio (1508-80) and others, and Baroque architecture (St
Paul's Cathedral), and inspired Neoclassical architecture around the world. The Pantheon
in Paris (1790), and the US Capitol Building (1792-1827) in Washington DC are just two of
the world-famous structures derived from Roman architecture. In addition, Roman bridges,
aqueducts, and roads became the models for later architects and engineers throughout the
world.
 Hagia Sophia St. Basil’s Cathedral

Florence Cathedral St. Paul’s Cathedral

French Pantheon US Capitol Building

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Cloaca Maxima (600-200 BCE) - One of the

world's earliest urban drainage/effluent
systems.

Cloaca = sewer

Circus Maximus (c.500 BCE - 320 CE)

Largest Roman hippodrome, with seating
capacity of 250,000 spectators.

Circus = ring, circle

Hippodrome = horse race track
Temple of Jupiter (500 BCE) Greatest of all
Etruscan temples, it was built mostly from
timber on the Capitoline Hill by King Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus. It was destroyed in a
fire in 83 BCE, before being rebuilt using
stone and marble columns.

Temple of Vesta (100 BCE) A circular

Corinthian style temple near the Tiber; the
oldest surviving marble building in the city
of Rome.

Temple of Hercules, Cori (80 BCE)

A rare example of the Roman Doric style.

The Forum in Rome (1st BCE-3rd Century

CE) Home to temples, palaces, basilicas,
triumphal arches, arcades.

Forum = public square / market place

Maison Carree, Nimes (19 BCE)

Best preserved of all Roman temples, made
of limestone with Corinthian columns.

Pont Du Gard Aqueduct, Nimes (19 BCE)

Highest aqueduct ever built by the Romans;

made of precut stone blocks, with three tiers
of arches. Designed to provide fresh water, it
is a superb example of the Pax Romana.
Aquaduct = water channel Pax Romana -
Roman peace
Theatre of Marcellus (10 BCE)
Famous Roman theatre, noted for its high
exterior facade - a blend of orders and
arches.

Temple of Mars Ultor (2 CE)

Built out of Carrara marble by Augustus to
avenge the death of Julius Caesar, it was
the central feature of the colonnaded Forum
of Augustus.

Treasury at Petra, Jordan (25 CE)

Carved out of the rose-red cliff face by
masons working for King Aretas IV, whose
Nabataean kingdom was annexed by
Emperor Trajan.

The Colosseum in Rome (72-80 CE)

50,000-seater amphitheatre for gladiatorial
contests and the like.

Amphitheatre = public arena

Arch of Titus (81 CE) The oldest surviving
triumphal arch. One of 36 built in Rome
alone.

Arch = arco

Inscription:
THE ROMAN SENATE AND PEOPLE
(dedicate this) TO THE DIVINE TITUS
VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS, SON OF THE
DIVINE VESPASIAN
Aqueduct, Segovia (100 CE)

One of the most significant and well-

preserved Roman architectural structures
on the Iberian peninsula. Carries water from
Fuente Fria river to Segovia.

Baths of Trajan (104-109)

Huge thermae complex, designed by

Apollodorus of Damascus.

thermae = bathhouses

Trajan's Bridge, Alcantara (105 CE)

Stone bridge spanning the Tagus river with
six wide arches. A triumph of Roman
engineering.

Library of Celsus, Ephesus (120 CE)

Its monumental facade has two levels of
columned bays, topped by alternating
curved and triangular pediments.
Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli (123-134 CE)
Complex of 30 buildings set in parks and
gardens, off the Appian Way.

Hadrian's Wall, Northern England (121-136

CE)
Stone/turf structure, averaging some 20
feet high, erected to keep out Barbarians.

The Pantheon in Rome (128 CE)

Originally a temple, its coffered ceiling

remains the largest non-reinforced concrete
dome in the world.

Pantheon = Temple to all the gods.

Pan= all

Baths of Hadrian, Leptis Magna (127 CE)

Constructed near Tripoli in Libya, from
green, pink, black and white marble.
Arch of Septimius Severus (203 CE)

Triumphal arch made of white marble,

erected at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, to
commemorate the victorious Parthian
campaigns of Emperor Septimius Severus
and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, in
194/195 and 197 199.

Temple of Minerva Medica (260 CE)

Noted for its experimental designed to make
the elaboration in vaulting. supports lighter
both structurally and aesthetically.

Palace of Diocletian, Split (300 CE)

Set in an enormous walled compound, as
big as a town. Had a huge gallery 520 feet
long with over fifty windows overlooking the
sea.

Baths of Diocletian (306 CE)

Grandest of all Roman Baths; could

accommodate over 3,000 bathers. Remained
in use until the aqueducts that supplied the
water were destroyed by the Goths in 537.

Arch of Constantine (312 CE)

Last of the great triumphal arches. Stands
in the shadow of the Colosseum. A year
after its construction, Constantine
converted to Christianity,
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (312)
(Basilica Nova) - meaning Largest building
in the Roman Forum, lavishly decorated
with enormous Corinthian columns, rich
marbles, mosaics. Influenced on the design
of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

Mausoleum of Santa Costanza (360)

Built as a tomb for Constantine's daughters,

Helena and Constanza. Its dome is
supported by 12 pairs of marble Corinthian
columns. Inspired numerous Byzantine and
Christian churches.