Compressed Air Controls

Excerpted and submitted by Ron Marshall and Bill Scales for the Compressed Air Challenge®

Compressed air system controls match the

compressed air supply with system demand and are one of the most important determinants of
overall system energy efficiency. This article is part of CAC’s publication “Improving
Compressed Air System Performance, A Sourcebook for Industry” discusses both individual
compressor control and overall system control of plants with multiple compressors. Proper
control is essential to efficient system operation and high performance. “While there are other
actions that impact on energy usage to produce compressed air, a properly applied and operating
compressor capacity control system is the only way to translate less compressed air used into
lower input electrical power and energy consumption.” advises Hank Van Ormer of Air Power
USA, Inc, a senior compressed air auditor and an Advanced level CAC Instructor. The objective
of any control strategy is also to shut off unneeded compressors or delay bringing on additional
compressors until needed. All units that are operating should be run at full-load, except one unit
for trimming.

Compressor systems are typically comprised of multiple compressors delivering air to a common
plant air header. The combined capacity of these machines is generally sized to meet the
maximum plant air demand. System controls are almost always needed to orchestrate a reduction
in the output of the individual compressor(s) during times of lower demand. Compressed air
systems are usually designed to operate within a fixed pressure range and to deliver a volume of
air that varies with system demand. System pressure is monitored and the control system
decreases compressor output when the pressure reaches a predetermined level. Compressor
output is then increased again when the pressure drops to a lower predetermined level.

The difference between these two pressure levels is called the control range. Depending on air
system demand, the control range can be anywhere from 2-20 psi. In the past, individual
compressor controls and non-supervised multiple machine systems were slow and imprecise.
This resulted in wide control ranges and large pressure swings. As a result of these large swings,
individual compressor pressure control set points were established to maintain pressures higher
than needed. This ensured that swings would not go below the minimum requirements for the
system. Today, faster and more accurate microprocessor-based system controls and variable
speed compressors with tighter control ranges allow for lower system pressure set points. Precise
control systems are able to maintain lower average pressure without going below minimum
system requirements.

A rule of thumb for systems in the 100 psig range is for every 2 psi increase in discharge
pressure, energy consumption will increase by approximately 1 percent at full output flow (check
performance curves for centrifugal and two-stage lubricant injected rotary screw compressors).
There is also another penalty for higher-than-needed pressure. Raising the compressor discharge
pressure increases the demand of every unregulated usage, including leaks, open blowing, etc.
Although it varies by plant, unregulated usage is commonly as high as 30-50 percent of air
demand. For systems in the 100 psig range with 30-50 percent unregulated usage, a 2 psi
increase in header pressure will increase energy consumption by about another 0.6-1.0 percent
because of the additional unregulated air being consumed. The combined effect results in a total
increase in energy consumption of about 1.6 to 2 percent for every 2 psi increase in discharge
pressure for a system in the 100 psig range with 30-50 percent unregulated usage.

Caution needs to be taken when lowering average system header pressure because large, sudden
changes in demand can cause the pressure to drop below minimum requirements, which can lead
to improper functioning of equipment. With careful matching of system controls and storage
capacity, these problems can be avoided.

Controls and System Performance

Few air systems operate at full-load all of the time. Part-load performance is therefore critical,
and is primarily influenced by compressor type and control strategy. The type of control
specified for a given system is largely determined by the type of compressor being used and the
facility's demand profile. If a system has a single compressor with a very steady demand, a
simple compressor control system may be adequate. On the other hand, a complex system with
multiple compressors, varying demand, and many types of end-uses will require a more
sophisticated strategy. In any case, careful consideration should be given to both compressor and
system control selection because they can be the most important factors affecting system
performance and efficiency.

Individual Compressor Control Strategies

Over the years, compressor manufacturers have developed a number of different types of control
strategies. Controls such as start/stop and load/unload respond to reductions in air demand,
increasing compressor discharge pressure by turning the compressor off or unloading it so that it
does not deliver air for periods of time. Modulating inlet and multi-step controls allow the
compressor to operate at part-load and deliver a reduced amount of air during periods of reduced
demand.
Start/Stop. Start/stop is the simplest control available and can be applied to either reciprocating
or rotary screw compressors. The motor driving the compressor is turned on or off in response to
the discharge pressure of the machine. Typically, a simple pressure switch provides the motor
start/stop signal. This type of control should not be used in an application that has frequent
cycling because repeated starts will cause the motor to overheat and other compressor
components to require more frequent maintenance. This control scheme is typically only used for
applications with very low duty cycles for compressors in the 25 hp and under range. Its
advantage is that power is used only while the compressor is running, but this is off-set by
having to compress to a higher receiver pressure to allow air to be drawn from the receiver while
the compressor is stopped.

Load/Unload. Load/unload control, also known as constant speed control, allows the motor to
run continuously, but unloads the compressor when the discharge pressure is adequate.
Compressor manufacturers use different strategies for unloading a compressor, but in most cases,
an unloaded rotary screw compressor will consume 15-35 percent of full-load horsepower while
delivering no useful work. As a result, some load/unload control schemes can be inefficient.

Modulating Controls. Modulating (throttling) inlet control allows the output of a compressor to
be varied to meet flow requirements. Throttling is usually accomplished by closing the inlet
valve, thereby restricting inlet air to the compressor. This control scheme is applied to centrifugal
and lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors. This control method cannot be used on
reciprocating or lubricant-free rotary screw compressor and when applied to lubricant-injected
rotary screw compressors, is an inefficient means of varying compressor output. When used on
centrifugal compressors, more efficient results are obtained, particularly with the use of inlet
guide vanes which direct the air in the same direction as the impeller rotation. However, the
amount of capacity reduction is limited by the potential for surge and minimum throttling
capacity.

Inlet valve modulation used on lubricant-injected rotary air compressors allows compressor
capacity to be adjusted to match demand. A regulating valve senses system or discharge pressure
over a prescribed range (usually about 10 psi) and sends a proportional pressure to operate the
inlet valve. Closing (or throttling) the inlet valve causes a pressure drop across it, reducing the
inlet pressure at the compressor and, hence, the mass flow of air. Since the pressure at the
compressor inlet is reduced while discharge pressure is rising slightly, the compression ratios are
increased so that energy savings are somewhat limited. Inlet valve modulation normally is
limited to the range from 100 percent to about 40 percent of rated capacity, at which point the
discharge pressure will have reached full load pressure plus 10 psi and it is assumed that demand
is insufficient to require continued air discharge to the system. At this point the compressor can
fully unload as previously described in a compressor using load/unload control.

Dual Control/Auto Dual. For small reciprocating compressors, dual control allows the selection
of either Start/Stop or Load/Unload. For lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors, auto dual
control provides modulation to a pre-set reduced capacity followed by unloading with the
addition of an over-run timer to stop the compressor after running unloaded for a pre-set time.
Variable Displacement. Some compressors are designed to operate in two or more partially-
loaded conditions. With such a control scheme, output pressure can be closely controlled without
requiring the compressor to start/stop or load/unload.

Reciprocating compressors are designed as two-step (start/stop or load/unload), three-step (0%,

50%, 100%) or five-step (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100 %) control. These control schemes generally
exhibit an almost direct relationship between motor power consumption and loaded capacity.

Some lubricant-injected rotary screw compressors can vary their compression volumes (ratio)
using sliding or turn valves. These are generally applied in conjunction with modulating inlet
valves to provide more accurate pressure control with improved part-load efficiency.

Variable Speed Drives. Variable speed is accepted as an efficient means of rotary compressor
capacity control, using integrated variable frequency ac or switched reluctance dc drives.
Compressor discharge pressure can be held to within +/- 1 psi over a wide range of capacity,
allowing additional system energy savings.

Rotary screw compressors with fixed-speed drives can only be stopped and started a certain
number of times within a given time frame. Depending on the control scheme used, instead of
stopping the compressor, it will be unloaded, throttled, or the compressor displacement will be
varied in applications where the demand for air changes over time. In some cases, these control
methodologies can be an inefficient way to vary compressor output. Compressors equipped with
variable speed drive controls continuously adjust the drive motor speed to match variable
demand requirements.

In a positive displacement rotary compressor the displacement is directly proportional to the

rotational speed of the input shaft of the air end. However, it is important to note that with
constant discharge pressure, if efficiency remained constant over the speed range, the input
torque requirement would remain constant, unlike the requirement of dynamic compressors, fans
or pumps. The actual efficiency also may fall at lower speeds, requiring an increase in torque.
Electric motors and controllers currently are available to satisfy these needs, but their efficiency
and power factor at reduced speeds must be taken into consideration.

Multiple Compressor Control

Systems with multiple compressors use more sophisticated controls to orchestrate compressor
operation and air delivery to the system. Network controls use the on-board compressor controls'
microprocessors linked together to form a chain of communication that makes decisions to
stop/start, load/unload, modulate, vary displacement, and vary speed. Usually, one compressor
assumes the lead role with the others being subordinate to the commands from this compressor.
System master controls coordinate all of the functions necessary to optimize compressed air as a
utility. System master controls have many functional capabilities, including the ability to monitor
and control all components in the system, as well as trending data to enhance maintenance
functions and minimize costs of operation. Other system controllers, such as pressure/flow
controllers, can also substantially improve the performance of some systems.

Network Controls. Network controls use the on-board compressor controls' microprocessors
linked together to form a chain of communication that makes decisions to stop/start, load/unload,
modulate, vary displacement, and vary speed. Usually, one compressor assumes the lead role
with the others being subordinate to the commands from this compressor.

Less sophisticated network controls use the cascade set point scheme to operate the system as a
whole. Those systems are capable of avoiding part load compressors but can still present the
problem of approaching production's minimum pressure requirement as more and more
compressors are added and the range of compressor load and unload set points increases.

The more sophisticated network control systems use single set point logic to make their
operational decisions to start/stop, etc. In systems with positive displacement compressors
(reciprocating, rotary screws, etc.) all compressors are kept fully loaded except for one
compressor that is operated in some part load fashion specific to the design of the machine.

Three major disadvantages of network system controls are:

• They are capable of controlling only air compressors,

• They cannot be networked with remote compressor rooms without a master control of some
type, and

• Typically they only work with compressors of the same brand and configuration because of
microprocessor compatibility issues.
 

Expensive upgrades or retrofits may need to be made to make different brands of compressors or
older versions of the same brand work in the system. In some cases retrofits are not available and
different brand or outdated compressors cannot be used in the control scheme.

There are no network controls available that can coordinate the control of rotary screw,
reciprocating, and centrifugal compressors as one system. To do this, system master controls are
required, especially if there is a desire to monitor and operate compressors, cooling systems,
dryers, filters, traps, storage, pressure/flow controllers, and any other part of a compressed air
system that a facility might want included in the control scheme.

System Master Controls. If complexity outpaces the capabilities of local and network controls,
a system master control is required to coordinate all of the functions necessary to optimize
compressed air as a utility. System master controls have many functional capabilities, including
the ability to monitor and control all components in the system, as well as trending data to
enhance maintenance functions and minimize costs of operation. System master controls
interface with all brands and types of air compressors, and can coordinate the operation of
satellite compressor rooms spread around the facility, or in different buildings across an
industrial campus. The primary function of these controls, as with the network controls, is to
operate a multiple compressor system in harmony. “Pressure actuated central capacity control
systems are basically reactive in nature meaning, regardless of a response time, no action can be
taken until after something has occurred.” Says Van Ormer, “There is a trend in recently
developed central air management systems of using system pressure combined with flow based
data to create more proactive systems. Combining many critical data inputs into the software
analysis such as unit load position, specific power and, particularly with mass flow compressors,
ambient and inlet conditions, often allows a timely adjustment prior to the actual event
optimizing the system even more. There are many action data inputs used. See article
Compressed Air Management Systems, Compressed Air Best Practices Magazine, October
2009.”

The least sophisticated have few if any of the features mentioned above and use cascading set
point logic to control compressors. The most sophisticated, state-of-the-art system master
controls use single point control logic with rate of change dynamic analysis to make decisions
regarding how the compressed air system responds to changes. These changes can occur on the
demand side, supply side, or in the ambient conditions - all affect the performance of the system
and have a role in how the system should respond. Some of these require short duration support,
such as additional storage.

Multiple Compressor Control with VSD

Control of multiple compressors in a system that includes fixed speed and VSD compressors
requires special a special approach to avoid unintended system and control issues. This subject is
beyond the scope of this article and planned for a future CAC submission. If this situation
applies to you, or you are interested in applying a new VSD compressor to your system, we
recommend reading a further discussion of Multiple Compressor Controls that appears in CAC’s
“Best Practices for Compressed Air Systems” Appendix 2.A.4 (This 325 page manual is
available at the CAC bookstore). To purchase your copy go to our Compressed Air Challenge®
website.
CASCO USA

Compressor Control Methods

As noted in the descriptions of the various compressor types, there are several control methods
available for air compressors, and control methods may greatly affect the overall operating
efficiency of the compressor.

Inlet Valve Modulation / Inlet Throttling

Used in: Oil Flooded Rotary Screw, Oil Flooded Rotary Vane Compressors

Inlet valve modulation (often just referred to as modulation) throttles off the air inlet to the
compressor as pressure rises above the setpoint pressure. This causes the compressor to draw in
less air, matching compressor capacity with air usage for relatively steady pressure control.
However, this also causes the compressor to draw a vacuum at the inlet, so that it is trying to
make high pressure from a lower starting pressure. This causes part load performance to be very
poor (a machine that modulates to 0 capacity still uses about 70% of its full load power). The
modulating compressor can typically regulate discharge pressure with no or minimal air receiver
storage

Some modulation controlled machines may be adjusted to fully unload or “blow down” if
capacity reduces to a certain level, such as 40%.  This saves some energy, but requires the use of
air storage receivers to meet demand when in the fully unloaded state.
Load / Unload (Dual) Control

Used In:  Virtually any type of compressor

Load/unload (sometimes called load / no-load or dual control) requires storage receiver volume,
and operates the compressor at full capacity until the unload pressure (cut-out) setpoint is
reached.  At the unload pressure, the compressor switches to unload, producing no compressed
air, and venting its internal pressure (blowing down).  During this unload period, demand of the
plant must be met by the stored air in the receiver(s) and piping.  Once a lower load (cut-in)
pressure is reached, the compressor returns to full capacity, and the cycle repeats.

During the unload period, the compressor reaches a low unloaded power consumption
(approximately 25% of full load for lubricated screw and vane compressors, and 10 to 20% for
reciprocating, oil-free screw, and centrifugal compressors).  On oil flooded screw and vane
compressors, however, it may take 30 to 60 seconds of unload time for the compressor to reach
this lowest unloaded power consumption.  For this reason, the efficiency of these compressors is
greatly affected by the amount of receiver volume present in the system, as well. More receiver
volume allows longer unloaded periods with lower power consumption. In addition, more
receiver volume causes the compressor to cycle less, reducing wear and tear on the machine.
Load/Unload control also includes variants, such as “Auto Dual” which shuts the compressor off
totally if it remains in the unloaded state for a preset time delay.  Other variants may monitor
motor starts and/or motor temperature to maximize off time of the motor, while limiting the
motor starts to a reasonable frequency.

Variable Displacement Control

Used In: Oil Flooded Screw Compressors, Double Acting Reciprocating Compressors

Variable displacement controls change compressor capacity by opening ports in the pump that
limit the amount of the cylinder or airend that is used for compression.  For double acting
reciprocating compressors and some rotary screw designs, this is done in discrete steps (0, 25%,
50%, 75% and 100% for reciprocating compressors, 50%, 62.5%, 75%, 87.5% and 100% for
rotary screw compressors). Other rotary screw designs are continuously adjustable from 50 to
100% capacity.  Efficiencies are typically good within the variable displacement range, but
screw compressors sometimes sacrifice some full load performance to use this method, and
screw compressors operating below 50% must resort to another control method, such as inlet
modulation or load/unload.
Variable Speed Control

Used In: Oil Flooded Screw Compressors, Oil Flooded Vane Compressors, Water Flooded
Screw Compressors

Variable speed drive (variable frequency drive) compressor controls use a frequency drive to
control the frequency of the electrical signal to the motor.  This, in turn, varies the speed of the
motor and airend, controlling capacity.  This provides a nearly proportional flow to power ratio
at part load.  At full load, however, drive losses make the variable speed compressor slightly less
efficient than a fixed speed compressor.

Variable speed compressors can turn down to approximately 25% load, at which the compressor
must load/unload or start and stop.
Variable speed drives are sometimes considered for retrofit applications to existing compressors,
but this provides some unique complications.  Typical variable speed drive applications such as
pumps and fans are variable torque applications, where torque drops significantly with speed. 
Compressor applications are constant torque, where torque remains relatively constant (assuming
constant air pressure) as speed varies.

Additionally, fixed speed compressor airends typically have been designed to operate over a
narrow speed range, without regard for significant speed change.  In this case, efficiency of the
pump often drops off substantially as speed varies from the design speed.
Centrifugal Compressor Controls

Centrifugal compressors typically throttle their inlet controls to about 70 to 80 % of

capacity. Below this range, there is insufficient airflow through the machine to overcome the
pressure at the discharge. This causes the air to reverse flow through the compressor, a condition
known as “surge”.
Surge is not a desirable condition, and may damage the compressor or cause nuisance
shutdowns, therefore, if demand is reduced below the turndown range at a given pressure, the
compressor must control in a different manner. The traditional option is to maintain the
minimum flow by venting the excess air through a discharge valve, called a blowoff valve
(BOV) or modulating blowoff valve (MBOV). Manufacturers refer to this control method as
“modulation” or “constant pressure” control, because it is able to meet air demand without
significant storage volume or pressure fluctuation.

Alternatively, the compressor can unload, fully opening the discharge valve, and shutting the
inlet. In this case, the discharge valve is referred to as a bypass valve (BPV) and may be a
modulating valve that is operating only in the fully opened or fully closed position or may be a
two position valve.  Unloading controls may be referred to by several different names, such as
dual control, auto dual control, etc..  While unloading reduces power consumption to 10 to 20%
of full load power consumption, it does require significant storage volume and allows pressure
fluctuation to occur.