STEP UP TO

GCSE
MUSIC
Get up to speed
with stave notation
and the other core
requirernents in

just two weeks

PAUL TERRY

RHINE GOLD
EDUCATION
Ste
This book has been designed to get you
up speed with the musical understanding
to
you'll need in order to get the top grades
in your GCSE, whichever board you are
studying. should be used in combination
It

with the dedicated study guide for your

particular course
It is split into two sections: Theory and Knowledge. The 14 theory
sessions start from the very beginning and take you through the
essentials of stave notation, the source code of Western music.
By the time you see this tune in session 13 ...

you'll be able to decode the notes and discover the musical tricks

that make it the most recognised song in the English language.

The Knowledge section takes you through the conventions,

terminology and historical background that will allow you to get to

grips with whatever your GCSE course throws at you. A few of the
topics may not apply to the particular exam you will be taking.
The 'Test your knowledge' section (Activity 22), which begins on
page 66, introduces a short piece of music in its entirety and tests
you on a range of topics that you have studied in this book.

Beyond the exam

An understanding of music theory and stave notation doesn't just
help you to pass an exam, it allows you to take control of your

musical life and opens the door to centuries of great music.

If you can notate your music, it gives you the power to develop it

and grow as a composer. It means you can get your music performed
live, and it also means that you can import your scores into programs

like GarageBand, Cubase and Logic and create tracks using all your

favourite editing tools.

The notated scores for many of the great works in the history of
music are available online to download for free. No one who can read
stave notation ever has an excuse for running out of ideas!
 STEP UP TO GCSE MUSIC

o
z
Theory Page z
an

Session 1 The stave . 4

The treble clef .5

Session 2 The bass clef. .7

Leger lines . . 8

Session 3 Time values 9

Bars and time signatures (1) 12

Session 4 Beaming notes and grouping rests 14

Triplets

Session 5 Bars and time signatures (2) . 18

Tied notes .20

Session 6 Tones and semitones . 21

The scale and key of C major . 22

Session 7 Degrees of the scale . 23
Accidentals. .24

Session 8 Major keys and key signatures .26

Session 9 Minor keys and minor scales . 31

Session 10 Modes and other scales. .34

Session 11 Intervals .36

Session 12 Chords .38

Session 13 Cadences and chord progressions .42

Session 14 Modulation and tonality 44

Knowledge

Terms and signs . 47

Musical structures . 53

Texture . .56

Compositional devices . 58
Voices and instruments. . 60
Historical periods 64
Test your knowledge .66

Answers 68

Index of terms . 71
Session 1

The stave
Music is written on a set of five lines called a stave. Notes can
be written on the lines (which actually means that a line passes
through the note) or in the spaces between the lines. The notes
are read from left to right, like words in a book.

If sounds higher than another note we say it is higher in

a note
pitch and it is written in a higher position on the stave, If a note

sounds lower than another note, we say it is lower in pitch and it

is written at a lower position on the stave,

These notes are lower in pitch than these notes:

The shapes on the stave above are note heads. They are ovals, not
circles, and should be written clearly so there is no doubt which line

or space they are on.

Letter names of notes

The pitches of notes are named after the first seven letters of the
alphabet, from A to G. These are called the letter names of notes.

As we go through the alphabet, the pitches get higher:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G. After G, start again from A to go still higher in

pitch. If we go backwards through the alphabet (G, F, E, D, C, B, A)

the pitches get steadily lower.

Going up In pitch

down In pitch
going

The jump from one note to its neighbour, such as F to G, is called

a step. Look at the diagram below. Can you see that A is one step
higher than G and one step lower than B?
It will help you to
quickly work out the
C names of notes that
go down in pitch
if you are good at

saying the musical

steps alphabet backwards
('G FED CB
 SESSION 1

The treble clef m

A clef is written at the start of every stave to show how the letter
names of notes fit on the lines and spaces.
m
The treble clef ( ) is used for high notes. It curls around the second
line up to indicate that this is the line for G. It began life many

hundreds of years ago as a capital letter G, which over the centuries

became more and more curly.

5
4
.3

G Line 2

Now we know the line for G, we can work out where all the other
letter names fit on the stave. Don't forget that the note that is a step
higher than G is A:

E
c
G

The notes in the four spaces spell FACE, reading up from the bottom.
Some people like to learn the names of the notes on the five lines
(EGBDF, reading up from the bottom) by remembering a sentence
such as Every Good Boy Deserves Football.

Football-
c Deserves
Boy
Good
Every

However, if you remember that the treble clef curls around the G

line, it is easy to work out any letter name by just going through the
musical alphabet as you count the lines and spaces from G:

A step up to the line or space immediately above a note goes to

the next letter in the musical alphabet (G to A, A to B, B to C and
so on).

A step down to the line or space immediately below a note goes

to the previous letter in the musical alphabet (C to B, B to A, A to

G and so on).

The G just above line 5 and the D just below line 1 must just touch the
lines and not float above or below them.
SESSION 1

Which pitch does the treble clef indicate on a stave?

23 What is the letter name of the note that is one step higher than D?

3, What is the letter name of the note that is one step lower than A?

4. Draw a circle around the note with the highest pitch on the stave below and give
its letter name.

The letter name of the note with the highest pitch on this stave is

5. Draw a circle around the note with the lowest pitch on the stave below and give its

letter name.

The letter name of the note with the lowest pitch on this stave is

Draw a circle around two notes next to each other on the stave below that are one
step apart.

To find out why Edward felt ill, decode the following message by writing the letter
names of the notes on the lines below the stave.

Write the named notes on the stave below, using o for each one.

B G at the top
on a line on a line in a space in a space on a line of the stave

Remember, when we say that a note i, 'on a Iiiåe3 we -mean that a stave line passes
through the note head

3
 The bass clef
The bass clef (9: ) is used for low notes. It curls around the fourth
1 line up of the stave to show that this is the line for F (a lower F than
either of those in the treble clef shown on page 5). It was once a
capital letter F, but now the sideways strokes have shrunk to just
two dots.

Now we know the line for F, wecan work out where all the other
letternames fit on the stave. Remember, the note which is a step
higher than G is A:

Some people like to learn the names of the notes in the four spaces

(ACEG) by remembering a sentence such as All Cows Eat Grass.

However, if you remember that the clef fits around the F line,
it is easy to work out any letter name by just going through the

musical alphabet as you count the lines and spaces from F.

Which pitch doesthe bass clef indicate on a stave?

2i Draw a circle around the note with the lowest pitch on the stave below and give its

letter name

The letter name of the note with the lowest pitch on this stave is

3. To find out what frightened Lucy, decode the following message by writing the
letter names of the notes on the lines below the stave,

on the

Write the named notes on the stave below; using o for each one,

c F G E F at the bottom
in a space on a line in a space in a space in a space of the stave
 SESSION 2

z Leger lines
If a note is too high or too low to fit on a stave, we use leger lines.

These are short extra lines above or below the stave. They are the
same distance apart as the stave lines.

Separate leger lines must be drawn for each note that needs them,
but you don't need to use leger lines for notes that sit in the spaces
immediately above and below the stave, such as the note at the end
of this example:

X X
Leger line

Leger

The next example shows how notes in the treble clef follow on from
those in the bass clef as pitch rises. The notes
in the shaded box can

be written in either clef and sound the same whichever clef they are
written in. The note in the middle is called middle C:

middle C
A BCD F GA BCD

FGABCDEFG
ABCDEFGABCDE middle C

Write the letter names of these notes on the lines below the stave.
Then circle the highest and lowest notes on the stave.

2. Rewrite these notes in the treble clef so that they sound at the same pitch.
The first note is given.
 Session 3

Time values
The length of a note is called its time value and is shown by
Stem Tail
the shape of the note. So far in this book we have used only
a semibreve (whole note), which has a hollow note head (o).
Note head Other notes may have stems and tails, as shown left.

In music, a silence (called a rest) can be just as important as a note.

For every note there is a rest of the same length. In the table below,
the English terms for time values are shown in bold and their widely
used American equivalents are shown in brackets.

Semibreve
4 beats
(whole note)

Minim
2 beats
(half note)

Crotchet
1 beat
(quarter note)

Quaver
1/2 beat
(eighth note)

Semiquaver
1/4 beat
(16th note)

Demisemiquaver
1/8 beat
(32nd note)

x
Notes on and above the middle line of

the stave normally have stems that go

down from the left of the note head.

Notes below the middle line of the stave

normally have stems that go up from the
right of the note head.

Tails of short notes are always to the

right of the stem, whether the stem goes
Semibreve and minim up or down.
rests look very similar,
To remember the
difference, think of a Rests should be positioned vertically on the stave as shown in the
two-beat rest as light table above. Semibreve rests must hang from the fourth line up and
enough to sit on a minim rests must sit on the middle line.

line, while the longer

Cheavier') four-beat rest
The 'hooks' of a rest symbol always sit in spaces on the stave.
flops down below a line.
The number of hooks is the same as the number of tails on a note
of the same length. For instance, a semiquaver note has two tails
and so a semiquaver rest has two hooks.
10 SESSION 3

Each time value lasts twice the length of the next shortest time value.
This diagram shows how each note length measures up.

.h.h.h.h.h.h.h

Dotted notes
A dotted note is a note with a dot after its note head. The dot makes
the note longer by half. Here are the three most common dotted
notes:

lasts for 2 beats, so lasts for 3 beats (2 +1 = 3)

lasts for 1 beat, so lasts for 1 1/2 beats (1 + 1/2 = 1 1/2)

lasts for 1/2 beat, so lasts for 3/4 beat (1/2 + 1/4 = 3/4)

The dot is always written in a stave space so that it can easily be

seen. If the note is on a line its dot goes in the space above the line.

Add a stem in the correct direction 2. Add a stem with one tail to each
to each of these note heads: of these note heads:

Circle the shortest note on this stave 4 Circle the longest note on this stave

and name its time value: and name its time value:

Shortest note Longest note

 SESSION 3

5, Which time value has the same length as four quavers (four eighth notes)?

m
6, Which time value does not have a stem?

7. Which time value has the same length as eight demisemiquavers

(eight 32nd notes)?

8. Next to each of these notes, write a rest that has the same time value.
The first answer is given.

Add up the total number of beats in each of these boxes. The first answer is given.

Total 172 beats

(1) (2) (1/2) (1/4) (74)

Total beats

Total beats

Total beats

Total beats

TOG Add one or more rests at each place marked * so that the rhythm •in each box
makes a total of four beats.

A rhythm is a pattern of sounds produced by different time values.

It looks bad for musicians to mis-spell rhythm! The following

sentence may help you get it right:
Rhythm Helps Your Two Hands Move
 SESSION 3

Bars and time signatures (1)

Barlines
z
Upright lines ( ) drawn across the stave are called barlines. The terms 'up beat' and
They divide the music into bars, each containing the same number 'down beat' come from
of beats. The first note after a barline is a strong beat, known as the movements of a
z a down beat. The weak beat before it is known as an up beat. conductor's baton when
beating time.
A double barline marks the end of a section ( l) or the end of
a piece(

Time signatures
A time signature before the first note of a piece indicates how the
pulse (the regular beat in music) is shown. It has two numbers, one
3 Number of beats
above the other. The upper number shows how many beats there are
in each bar - typically 2, 3 or 4. The lower number shows which type 4 Type of beats

of note represents a beat.

3 beats 3 beats 3 beats 3 beats

1 1 1 I-a—I

Bar Double barline

Time signature Barline

Notice that there is no barline before the first note of a piece and
that bars that contain a lot of notes are wider than bars with
few notes, even though all the bars last for the same length of time.

The three most common time signatures with a crotchet beat are:

4, which indicates two crotchet beats in each bar.

Music that has two beats in a bar is said to be in duple metre.

For example:

2 2 2 1 2

u 4, which indicates three crotchet beats in each bar.

Music that has three beats in a bar is said to be in triple metre.

For example:

The time signature C is

often used instead of 4.

2 3 2 3

4, which indicates four crotchet beats in each bar.

Music that has four beats in a bar is said to be in quadruple metre.

For example:

2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 123 4
 SESSION 3

The time signature is only written once, at the start of the piece,
unless it changes. It is not a fraction, so there is no line between its

numbers. We write 3 not 3 X and we call this 'three-four time',

not 'three-quarters time'.

Metre is what you hear or m

count; a time signature Anacrusis
is what you see in the z
Sometimes music begins before the first strong beat, resulting in
music.
an incomplete bar at the start. This is known as an anacrusis or
pick-up. Sometimes the last bar of such a piece is shortened to
balance the length of the anacrusis so that the two together add up
to acomplete bar, as in this example, where 1 1/2 beats of anacrusis
and 1 1/2 beats in the final bar together add up to the 3 beats shown
by the time signature:

Anacrusis
1

bar number incomplete final bar

1 1/2

In the example above, a bar number has been added in bar 5. Bar

numbers are a useful way of referring to particular places when

discussing or rehearsing music. When there is an anacrusis, bar 1 is

always the first complete bar.

The semibreve rest

On page 9 we learnt that a semibreve (whole note) rest lasts for four
beats. There are two other things to remember about this rest:

• It is always written in the middle of a bar, not on the first beat like

a semibreve note.

It is used to show a totally silent bar in other times, such as 4

and 4, as well as in 4 time, and is therefore sometimes called a
whole bar rest:

Semibreve note Whole-bar rest Whole-bar rest Whole-bar rest

(4 beats long) (4 beats long) (3 beats long) (2 beats long)
start of bar centre of bar centre of bar centre of bar

Complete the four blanks in the sentences below the music,

5

This tune is in metre. Bar 4 has the same rhythm as bar

The rest in bar lasts for beats.

 Beaming notes and grouping rests
To make music easier to read, short notes are grouped into one-beat
z units whenever possible. This is done by joining them with lines called
beams, which replace the tails on individual notes. The number of
O beams is the same as the number of tails (one for quavers, two for
semiquavers and three for demisemiquavers).
z
Notes within the same beat are beamed together; but (with a few
exceptions given below) notes that lie within different beats are not

z beamed tails in the first row of examples

together. All of the notes with
below should be written with beams instead, as shown in the second
z
row of examples. Beats are shown by the red lines below the stave.

A beam can link notes of different lengths, providing they lie within the same beat.

Troubleshooting and exceptions

The first beam in the next example is wrong because it links notes that lie

within different beats. This example must be written as shown on the right:

When linking notes of different lengths, any short unattached beams

should point in, not out.

If all of the notes in a beam go up, the beam should slope up a little.

If notes go down, their beams should slope down a little. If the notes go
up and down, usually the beam is horizontal.

The stems of notes joined by a beam must all point in the same direction.
If most of the notes are above the middle line, all stems should point down,

otherwise they should all point up - even if this results in some stems
pointing in the wrong direction to normal. In the next example, the stem
directions of notes in red have had to be changed so that they can be
beamed with their neighbours.
 SESSION 4

z
O

z
To make long strings of demisemiquavers easier to read, their inner
beams may be subdivided into two groups, each worth a quaver, o
as shown below right:
z

There are two exceptions to the rule that beamed notes must lie

within the same beat:

Four quavers (eighth notes) can be beamed together when

they are in the same bar and make up two beats next to
each other:

Except that four quavers must not be beamed across the

middle of a 4 bar. Instead, start a new beam on beat 3 to
show clearly where the second half of the bar begins:

Six quavers (eighth notes) can be beamed together when

they fill a whole bar of 4 time:

To save learning lots of

rules, simply remember
that whenever possible
beams should show
clearly the position of
each beat. The same
applies to the grouping
of rests, as explained on
the next page.
16 SESSION 4

Grouping rests
Likebeams, rests are grouped to make the beats of the bar easy
means that when rests are needed, any incomplete
to see. This
beats should be filled first. Each completely silent beat should have
o its own rest:

z X x

o
z 2 2 2 2 2 1 2

z
Start of beat 2 shown by rest.s The start of beat 2 is unclear when it lies halfway through a rest

When using short time values, begin by completing the subdivisions

of the beat with rests, starting with the smallest subdivision. Look at

this example:

Complete the first half beat . . and the final quarter beat:

Now complete the whole first beat . . and the final half beat:

Finally add a crotchet rest on beat two and complete the

remainder of the last beat:
The rules about minim
rests and beaming in
quadruple time are
the start of the
similar:
second half of the bar on
Minim rests may be used in the first or second half of a 4 bar, but beat 3 must be obvious.
they should not be used across the middle of a 4 bar, nor in 4 or 4
time.

1234 1 2 1 2 3 4

Rewrite this tune with correct beaming and with the rests in the last bar correctly grouped.
 SESSION 4

Triplets
To divide a crotchet into two equal parts we write two quavers (Z).
3

To divide a crotchet into three equal parts we use a triplet (J¯ü)

The small figure three just outside the beam is an instruction that
these three quavers must fit into the time normally taken by two
quavers (or one crotchet).

You can get a feel for the effect of triplets if you say these nonsense
words aloud:

Plinkety-plunkety, hickory-dickory,
Jiggery-pokery, Higgledy-piggledy,

A triplet of quavers can include rests and dotted notes, and doesn't
even need to contain three separate notes, providing its lilting rhythm
adds up to one crotchet:

3 3

Notice how triplet quavers are beamed in crotchet beats, just like

normal quavers. If no beam for the figure three (as

there is in the last
triplet above) a square bracket is used instead.

Any note value can be split into a triplet pattern. The first example
below includes a triplet of crotchets - three crotchets in the time
taken by two crotchets (or one minim). The second example includes
a semiquaver triplet - three semiquavers in the time taken by two
semiquavers (or one quaver).

Other unusual divisions of a note are achieved in a similar way.

For example, a quintuplet is shown by the figure five, indicating that
five notes must fit into the time normally taken by four of the same
value, a sextuplet is shown by the figure six, and so on. These unusual
divisions are collectively known as tuplets.

ACTIVITY 7

Make up a verse of nonsense using words with a triplet rhythm

You could use words of three syllables such as merrily, murmuring, elephants, chattering,
tenderly, carefully, Italy, Canada, Latvia, Zambia. If you feel adventurous you might include
six-syllable words such as multidimensional, microbiology, hyperelliptical, unsuitability!

You could also include phrases that fit a strong-weak rhythm, such as 'Sounds
of music, words of wonder', as these would match a long-short triplet pattern: (J j))
Bars and time signatures (2)

Simple time
4, 4 and 4 are known as simple time signatures. Other simple time
signatures have a quaver beat, shown by an 8 as the lower number,
or a minim beat, shown by a 2 as the lower number (think of the
American note names, shown in brackets on page 9).

The time signature for 2 can alternatively be written as (which

musicians often call 'cut C time'). Here is a table of these time
signatures for comparison:

bea

Simple duple

Simple triple

Simple quadruple
or C

Irregular metre
Music is said to be in irregular metre if it has a time signature
such as 4 (five crotchet beats in a bar, grouped as 2+3 or 3+2) or
4 (seven crotchet beats in a bar, grouped as 4+3 or 3+4).
The famously insistent rhythm in 'Mars, the Bringer of War' from

Holst's The Planets is in 4 time:

Compound time
When a piece needs a triplet feel throughout, it can be written in

compound time instead of using triplets. Each beat in compound This music in simple time
time is a dotted note that divides into three, in a strong-weak-weak
pattern.

The top figure in compound time is always a multiple of three

(usually 6, 9 or 12, but not 3 itself). For example, 8 indicates six
sounds the same as
quavers in a bar, in the rhythm strong-weak-weak strong-weak-
this in compound time
weak. The two strong beats form duple time and are written as
dotted crotchets, as shown below left.

Notice how this differs from 4 time, shown below right, which
also has six quavers in a bar, but in the rhythm strong-weak,
strong-weak, strong-weak.
 SESSION 5

Here are the main compound time signatures, of which the most
frequently used is g.

Compound duple 6 6 6
16 8 4
Remember, if the upper c
figure of a time signature Compound triple
9 9
4
is 2, 3 or 4, the music is

in simple time.
12 12 (2
Ifthe upper figure is 6,
Compound quadruple 16 8 4
9 or 12, the music is in
compound time.
In compound time, short notes are beamed into one-beat groups
whenever possible. Beams are never longer than one beat.
Remember that the beat is a dotted note in compound time -
for example, it is a dotted crotchet in

When writing rests in compound time, any incomplete beats first,

fill

as in simple time. A single rest may beeused to cover the first and
second of the three divisions of the beat, but separate rests must be
used for the second and third divisions:

Rests in compound time should show the start of each beat, as in

simple time. A silent beat is best indicated by a dotted rest, although

two rests in the order long-short are sometimes used instead.
Rests longer than a beat are avoided, except that a dotted minim
rest can be used in the first or second half ofa 8 bar and an
undotted whole bar rest should be used for a completely silent bar.
The following examples are all correct:

A duplet can be used to divide the dotted beat of compound time

into two equal halves, or a pair of dotted notes can be used instead:

Free time
Music that has no regular beat is said to be in free time. It does
not have a time signature and may be marked senza misura
('without metre').
20 SESSION 5

Tied notes
o
z A tie is a curved line that connects note heads of the same pitch. It turns the
tied notes into a single sound. Ties should curve away from the note stems:

Ties are used for three reasons:

When a note needs to be held over a barline and on into the next bar:

1 1/2 beats

When an unusual note length is needed:

2 1/2 beats 3 1/2 beats 4 1/2 quavers

To allow important beats to be seen clearly on the stave, such as the third
beat of a 4 bar. Bars (a) and (b) below sound the same, but (b) is wrong
because it gives no visual indication of where the second half of the bar

begins:

(a) (b)

Rests are never tied (instead use two or more rests next to each other) and
ties are not used where just one note can be used instead. So

x x X must be written as .

Add the missing barlines to the following tunes. The first barlineis given for each.
Remember that the time signature shows how many beats per bar there are. First, pencil in
the time values below the stave, then add ticks at the places that need barlines, as shown
for the first tune. Finally, draw the barlines. Don't forget that if there is an anacrusis, the last

bar may be shortened to balance.

2.
 Session 6

Tones and semitones

When you play or sing these notes .

or these .

... can you hear that the steps marked from E to F and
from B to C, sound smaller than the other steps?

A full step, such as the one from C to D, is called a tone.

A half step, such as the one from E to F, is called a semitone.

Semi means half, so a semitone is half a tone.

It is easy to see the semitones between E and F, and between B

and C, on a music keyboard. They are where there is no black note

between the white notes:

C A B c

After each of these notes, write the letter name of the note that is a tone higher than the
given note,

2. After each of these notes, write the letter name of the note that is a semitone lower than
the given note.

32 Circleeach pair of notes in this melody where the notes are next to each other and a
semitone apart. The first answer is given. You will need to add four more circles.
 SESSION 6

O The scale and key of C major

A scale is a set of notes that go up or down in order:

C Major is the only

z major scale that uses

LU This is a scale of C major. It is calledC because it begins and ends on just the white notes on

C and it is called major because, when going up, the steps between a keyboard:
its notes make the pattern:
c
Tone - Tone - Semitone Tone - Tone - Tone - Semitone 'Semitone

Every major scale has this pattern when the notes go up. If you
learn T-T-S T-T-T-S, you can make any major scale you wish.

Remember these four rules for making a major scale of eight notes:

All seven letters of the musical alphabet must be used G

2. The first letter is repeated at the end (and is the only
repeated letter)
Sérnifohe
3. A note in a space is always followed by a note on a line, and
a note on a line is always followed by a note in a space

4. When going up, the steps must make the pattern T-T-S T-T-T-S. D
An ascending scale has notes that go up. A descending scale
has notes that go down. A descending major scale has the same c
notes as the ascending version, but in reverse order. The semitone
steps are still between the same pairs of letter names
(marked below).

Ascending Descending

c D E F A B c c A G F E D c

When music contains mainly notes found in the scale of C major, and
C seems be the most important note, we say that the music
to is in

the key of C major and that C is the keynote.

Write an ascending scale of C major in the bass clef, starting on the given note.
Use minims (half notes),

Draw a bracket over five notes next to each other in this tune that
form part of a descending scale of C major.
Takutian Poik Song
 Session 7

Degrees of the scale m

There are always semitone
The notes of a scale are called degrees. Each has a number and m
steps (marked
a name. When going up, the first note of a scale is the 1st degree,
between the 3rd and 4th o
the next note is the 2nd degree, and so on.
degrees of a major scale,
and between the 7th and The two most important scale degrees are the 1st, which is the
8th degrees. keynote (or tonic), and the 5th (the dominant). The mediant lies
mid-way between them.

1st 2nd 3rd 5th 6th 7th 8th

tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant leading note tonic

When a scale goes down, each note keeps the same degree number
and name that it had when going up. The 8th degree always has the
same letter name as the 1st degree, and is often described as the
1st degree. However, it is better to think of it as the 8th if you need

The 1st degree of a scale to count back down from this 'upper tonic' when working out scale

can be any tonic, high or degrees, as in the second half of the following tune:
low. All the notes shown
below are the 1st degree
of C major.
1st 2nd 3rd 1st
8th 6th 5th 3rd

'Sub'means 'below'. The submediant is the same number of degrees

below the tonic as the mediant is above. Similarly, the subdominant is
the same distance below the tonic as the dominant is above:

F G B c D E F
subdonmnant submediant tonic mediant dominant

The supertonic is the note above the tonic ('super' means 'above').
The leading note seems to want to lead to the upper tonic when the
whole scale is played.

ACT

This tune is in C major. Number the scale degree (e.g. 6th) of each note marked

Name the scale degree (e.g. mediant) of each note marked The key is C major.
Cöiiing: & Léigh
 SESSION 7

Accidentals
z Look at the layout of the keyboard below. There is a black note Remember that we say
between C and D. It is a semitone higher than C, and is called C 'C sharp' and 'B flat',

sharp. It will need a sharp sign (#) in front of the C note head when
but when we write on a
stave, the sign for the
written on the stave.
accidental goes before
The same black note is a semitone lower than D and so can instead the note.
be called D flat. It will need a flat sign (b) in front of the note D when
written on the stave.

A sharp or flat sign written before a note is called an accidental.

Db

Any of the notes with letter names from A to G can be raised a

semitone by adding a sharp, or they can be lowered a semitone by
adding a flat.

Notes that sound the same but are written differently, such as and
Db, are calledenharmonic equivalents. The note that is a semitone
higher than E is normally written as F, but it could be written
enharmonically as E#, while C could be written as Similarly, E is a

semitone lower than F, but it could be written as Fb while B could be

written enharmonically as Cb.

Accidentals must be written on the same line or in the same space

as the note to which they apply and they must appear immediately
before that note:

x x

Give the full name (e.g. B flat) of each of these notes.

 SESSION 7

An accidental applies to the note to which it is attached and to

any note of the same pitch later in the same bar. In other cases,
an accidental must be repeated if it is needed again, except in the
z
case of tied notes.

The note marked is not F, A

because the sharp on the first note
of the bar also applies to the same
pitch later in the same bar.

The note marked is not A

F, because the tie makes it a

continuation of the in bar 1.

The note marked is F, not A

because it is at a different pitch to
A fcautionary accidental' the F# earlier in the same bar.

brackets may be
in

used if there could be

The note marked A is F, not
because it is not in the
doubt about whether a
same bar as the previous
particular note should be
sharp, flat or natural.
A natural (h) is an accidental that cancels the effect of a previous
sharp or flat:

F natural (Fh) is the same as F, B natural (Bh) is the same as B, and

so on.

Like other accidentals, a natural sign must be written immediately in

front of the note to which it applies, and on the same line or space,
and it too applies to notes of the same pitch that come later in the
same bar.

Although much rarer than other accidentals, a double sharp (x) raises

a note by a tone (F* is the same as G). Similarly a double flat (bb)

lowers a note by a tone.

In Draw a circle around the lower note of each pair:

2. Draw a circle around the higher note of each pair:

Give the full letter name (e.g. A sharp) of each note marked * in this melody:
 Major keys and key signatures
Serfiltone
z Key signatures with sharps
On page 22 we learned the pattern T-T-S T-T-T-S for a major scale.
The diagram on the right shows what happens if we start the same
z ladder of tones and semitones on G, the dominant of C. Remember,
we already know that there are semitones between B and C, and
between E and F.

Can you see that all notes fit the T-T-S T-T-T-S pattern, except for
o c
F? To get the correct fit, we need the note that is a semitone higher Semitone
than F, which is This then gives the correct pattern of tones and
semitones for a scale of G major:

B c D

s s

Check for yourself that we have followed all four rules for a major
scale listed on page 22.

Music that contains mainly notes found in the scale of G major, and
in which G seems to be the most important note, is in the key of G
major. To save writing an accidental every time we need we can
use a key signature. For G major, this is a sharp sign placed on the
stave line for F immediately after the clef, as shown on the right.

It tells us that every F, however high or low, is to be played as an

Unlike time signatures, a key signature must be repeated on every
stave of a piece of music.
D semitone

If we repeat the process at the top of the page but start on D,

the dominant of G, something similar happens. We retain the F} from
G major, but the 7th note turns out to be C, which doesn't fit the
major scale pattern. It needs to be raised a semitone to in order
to become the leading note of D major. We then have the correct
pattern of tones and semitones for a scale of D major:

D E G A B CiF D G Setnifone

D
Music that contains mainly notes found in the scale of D major,
and in which D seems to be the most important note, is in the key
of D major. The key signature of D major is shown on the
written as
right. The sharp signs indicate that every F and every C must be
sharp, unless cancelled by natural signs.

A major scale is simply the notes of a major key laid out in order.
 SESSION 8

Have you spotted the pattern? When we start a new major scale
on the dominant of the previous scale, we keep all the sharps
o
already used and add one extra sharp for the leading note (shown
in red below):

C major C DEF GAB C z

G major C D E m

D major D E
z
A major B D E
E major

B major B E

major

C# major

Here are the key signatures for these eight keys. The sharps in
a key signature must be written in the order shown, and on these
exact lines and spaces.

C major G major D major A major E major B major major C# major

5.

O sharps 1 sharp 2 sharps 3 sharps 4 sharps 5 sharps 6 sharps 7 sharps

1. Give the full name (e.g. F sharp) of each of these notes. Remember to take account of the
key signature.

2. Name the key of the tune below: How many times is the dominant

used in these bars?

Draw a circle around the leading note.

TraditionäJ Etngnsh,

3. Name the key of the tune below: On which degree of the scale does

it end?
28 SESSION 8

Key signatures with flats

The diagram on the right shows what happens if we start the ladder
Semitone
of tones and semitones for a major scale on F, the subdominant of C.
cn Remember, we already know that there are semitones between B and
LU C, and between E and F.

z Can you see that all notes fit the T-T-S T-T-T-S pattern, except for
B? To get the correct fit, we need a note that is a semitone lower
than which is Bb. This then gives the correct pattern of tones and
B,
c
semitones for a scale of F major:

F G c D Semitone

s s

Note that we cannot use to fit the pattern of tones and semitones,
giving the notes F G A A#XC D E F, because the rules for a major
scale listed on page 22 state that all seven letters of the musical
alphabet must be used and only the keynote can be repeated.
To use all seven letters, B must be changed to Bb, not

As you will be able to guess, if you are following this chapter closely,
music that contains mainly notes found in the scale of F major,
and in which F seems to be the most important note, is in the key of
F major. We can write key signatures for flats, just as with sharps.
The key signature for F major is shown on the right. It tells us that
every B, however high or low, is to be played as a Bb. Remember,
key signatures must be repeated on every stave of the music.

If we now start a scale on Bb, the subdominant of F, the 4th note will
Semitone
be E,shown on the right. This doesn't fit the pattern of tones and
as
semitones needed for a major scale. E needs to be lowered to Eb -
then we have the correct pattern of notes for a scale of Bb major:

c D G A

s s
Semitone

The key signature of Bb major is written as shown on the bottom

C
right of the page. The flat signs indicate that every B and every E
must be flat, unless cancelled by natural signs.

Have you spotted the pattern for flat key signatures? When we start
a new major scale on the subdominant of the previous scale (instead
of the dominant, as we did with sharp key signatures), we keep all
the flats already used and add one extra flat for the subdominant of
the new scale (shown in red over the page).
 SESSION 8

C major C D E F A B c
o
F major F A C D E F

Bb major Bb c D F

Eb major Bb C D Eb z
Ab major c Db

Db major c
Gb major Bb
z

Cb major

Here are the key signatures for these eight keys. The flats in a key
signature must be written in the order shown, and on these exact

lines and spaces.

C major F major Bb major Eb major Ab major Db major Gb major Cb major

O flats 1 flat 2 flats 3 flats 4 flats 5 flats 6 flats 7 flats

1. Give the full name (e.g. G flat) of each of these notes. Remember to take account of the
key signature.

2B Name the key of the tune below: Which is the only bar not to

contain the tonic? Bar

Draw a circle around the supertonic.

Coa Conrad,

3, Name the key of the tune below: Give the degree number (e.g. 1st)

of each note marked

Mozart:
30 SESSION 8

The circle of fifths

The dominant is the 5th note of a major scale. We describe the

z distance from the tonic to the dominant as a 5th. For example, C up
v) to G (CDEFG) is a 5th. When you count up these five notes, notice
that the lower note counts as '1' (see page 36 for the full section on If you find it tricky

naming intervals).
to count through the
musical alphabet in 5ths,
Each new sharp added to a key signature is a 5th higher than the remember the sentence
previous sharp and the name of each new sharp key is a 5th higher Father Christmas Goes
than the previous key. Down An Escalator
O
Each new flat added to a key signature is a 5th lower than the Backwards. The capital
previous flat (for example, the next flat to add after Eb is Ab and letters give the order of

the name of each new flat key is a 5th lower than the previous key). sharps in key signatures
(FCGDAEB). Reverse
We can show all of the key signatures in a chart called a circle
this sequence to give
of fifths:
the order of flats in a key
signature (BEADGCF).

lb
-I-bs
c

2b

Circle
3b of
fifths

5b

6b
3

Keys that are next to each other in the circle are said to be closely
related because they have all but one of their notes in common.
The slice at the bottom of the circle is for both major and Gb These notes in F} major ...

major. These two keys are enharmonically related - they sound the
same but are written differently (see right). Db major can be written
enharmonically as major (7 sharps), and B major can be written
enharmonically as Cb major (7 flats).
... sound the same as
these in Gb major ...
 Minor keys and minor scales
o
For every major key there is a minor key that has the same key
signature. It is called the relative minor.

To find the keynote of a relative minor, count two scale steps down
z
from the keynote of a major key:

z
o

c
From this we see that:

A minor is the relative minor of C major

(and conversely C major is the relative major of A minor).

Count down two scale steps from the tonic in F major (F-E-D) to
see that:

D minor is the relative minor of F major

(and conversely F major is the relative major of D minor).

Count down two scale steps from the tonic in G major (G-F#-E) to
see that:

E minor is the relative minor of G major

(and G major is the relative major of E minor).

Let's compare the scales of C major and A minor:

Semitone Semitone
The type of minor scale
2 6 7 8
shown right is called
a natural minor scale.
Other types require
C major CDEFGABC
changes to the 6th A minor A B C D E F G A
and/or 7th degrees,
2 8
as explained below.
Semitone Semitone

Degree numbers are counted from the new keynote, so A will be the
degree (or tonic) in A minor. In minor scales the semitone steps
first

don't come between the same degree numbers as major scales, and
thismakes the minor sound different. Some people describe major
as sounding happy and minor as sad, although a fast piece in a minor
key is likely to sound more angry than sad.

You don't need to learn a new pattern of tones and semitones for
minor scales. Just on the new keynote (A for A minor) and then
start
use the note names of the relative major scale. However, the 6th
and 7th degrees of the minor scale are not fixed as they are in major
scales. They may be raised a semitone by accidentals, and the raised
and natural forms of these notes may be used in close proximity:

7th 6th 6th 7th 6th 7th

The raised 7th degree followed by the tonic is important in confirming

a minor key. The 7th degree only sounds like a leading note when it is

a semitone below the tonic.

32 SESSION 9

u)
The table below shows the relative minor of each major key, with
its key signature, raised 6th and 7th degrees, and tonic. If either the
To step up to GCSE
6th or 7th degree is already a flat according to the key signature, it
music, you will need
O becomes a natural when raised a semitone; if it is normally a sharp, to know all the key
it becomes a double sharp when raised a semitone.
signatures up to and
including those that have
z
four sharps or flats.

C major A minor
O
z

G major E minor F major D minor

D major B minor Bb major G minor

A major minor Eb major C minor

E major minor Ab major F minor

"Rima-a

B major G # minor Db major Bb minor

major D} minor Gb major Eb minor

major minor Cb major Ab minor

The tonic in a minor key

is always a semitone
above its raised 7th
 SESSION 9

We can add relative minor keys to the circle of fifths. A small 'm'
indicates minor. Once again, keys that are next to each other in the
circle are regarded as close relatives, while those that are a long way
apart are regarded as unrelated.

lb

Em

Bm
Circle
3b Cm of
Fifths

C#rn

Bbm
Ebm

5b

are keys that share the same tonic, such as C major and
'Parallel keys'

C They are also closely related. When the 6th and 7th degrees
minor.
of a minor scale are raised, the minor scale differs from its parallel
major scale in only one note (Eb in the case of C minor, whereas C

major has Ela). We can say that C minor is the tonic minor of C major,
and that C major is the tonic major of C minor.

ACTIVITY

1. Name (a) the relative minor of A major: minor, and (b) the tonic minor of

A major: minor.

2. Name (a) the relative major of F minor: major, and (b) the tonic major of

F minor: major.

3. Name the key of the tune below: How many times is the tonic

heard in these bars?

Bach?

4. Write a scale of D minor ascending (going up) starting on the given note. Use semibreves
(whole notes) and raise the 6th and 7th degrees by a semitone.
 Session 10

Modes and other scales

Modes
The major scale is a type of mode. Other modes can be found
o in folk, rock and jazz, as well as in classical music. The three most
z common modes, apart from the major scale, are:

O
Aeolian mode
Example starting on A

Mixolydian mode
Example starting on G

Dorian mode
Example starting on D

Although all three examples use the notes of C major, the difference
is that C is not the keynote in any of these modes. Also none have
the semitone step from the leading note up to the tonic that defines
the key in major and minor scales.

Play or sing these three examples and compare the effect of the
leading note rising to the tonic (shown by an arrow) in (i) and (ii),

with the modal ending of (iii):

(i) C major example (ii) A minor example (iii) Aeolian mode example

Like major and minor scales, a particular mode can start on any note:

Tune using dorian mode on G Brigg Fair (English traditional)

Tune using aeolian mode on E Veni Emmanuel (15th-century French)

Pentatonic and hexatonic scales

Folk music is often based on 'gapped scales' - major or minor scales, Playing the black notes
or modes, with fewer than seven notes per octave. A pentatonic on a piano will create a
scale has five notes (just as a pentagram has five sides). Here are the pentatonic scale.
most common forms:

C major pentatonic A minor pentatonic

A hexatonic scale has six notes (just as a hexagram is a six-pointed star).

G major hexatonic
 SESSION 10

The blues scale is a type of hexatonic scale particularly associated

with jazz and the blues. The three flat notes below are known as
blue notes. For expressive effect the flat notes may be played or
sung only slightly lower than natural notes:

Blues scale on C

The whole-tone scale is another type of hexatonic scale. As its

name suggests, it contains no semitones between adjacent notes:

The chromatic scale

A chromatic scale contains 12 notes to the octave and is made up
entirely of semitones. Using sharps for the ascending scale and flats

for the descent keeps the number of accidentals to a minimum.

The word 'chromatic' comes from 'chroma', the Greek word for
colour. A chromatic passage adds colour to a key. Music which
contains no chromatic notes, and which uses only the notes of
the key that it is in, is described as diatonic.

ACTIVITY1i

Using phrases from the list below, describe the scale on which each of the following
tunes is based,

Mixolydian Major pentatonic Whole tone Blues scale Chromatic scale

ArneriCäh ttäditiofiat,

Appalachian Folk song (adapted)

Bizet

Giinkä
 Session 11t

Intervals
An interval is the distance between two pitches. If they sound
z together they make a harmonic interval. If one pitch sounds after
the other, they make a melodic interval. In this example, all the
intervals are the same size because they all have C as their lower
note and E as their higher note:

Harmonic interval Melodic interval Melodic interval

Intervals are described by type and number. To work out the number,
count the letter names from the lower note to the higher note.
The lower note is always counted as I. For example, the interval
above is a 3rd (C-D-E).

Each of the following intervals has G as its lower note:

Unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8ve 9th

An interval of an 8th is normally called an octave (8ve for short).

Intervals larger than a 9th are often described as 'compound' and

then treated as if both notes are in the same octave (see right).

The notes in harmonic intervals of a unison and a 2nd have to be 3rd 10th or

written side by side, so they are both clear.

compound 3rd

The same intervals are found in all major keys. Using the key of
F major as an example, here are some intervals that use the tonic

as the lower note:

Unison 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 9th

There are five types of interval: major, minor, perfect, augmented and
diminished. To work out the type of interval, imagine that the lower
note is the tonic of a major scale. If the upper note is part of that
scale, the interval is:

major when the interval is a 2nd, 3rd, 6th or 7th

A perfect when it is a unison, 4th, 5th or 8ve (the word 'perfect' is

usually omitted when describing unisons and octaves).

Two of the most
common reasons for
mis-identifying intervals

An interval can be made smaller by lowering its

are failing to count
the lower note as 1
upper note or by raising its lower note.
and forgetting to take
account of key signatures
If reduced by a semitone, without changing the
a major interval is
and accidentals,
Ziti

number of the interval, it becomes a minor interval. G to A is a major

2nd, while G to Ab and to A are minor 2nds; C to E is a major 3rd
while C to Eb and to E are minor 3rds, and so on.
 SESSION 11

major 2nd minor 2nds major 3rd minor 3rds

Minor means 'lesser' when referring to intervals (just as minor

roads are of less importance). Minor intervals are a semitone less
than major intervals. Minor intervals occur in major keys and major
intervals occur in minor keys.

If a minor or perfect interval is reduced by a semitone, without

changing the number of the interval, it becomes a diminished
interval. C to B is a major 7th, C to Bb is a minor 7th and to Bb
is a diminished 7th; D to A is a perfect 5th, while D to Ab is a
diminished 5th, and so on,

major 7th minor 7th diminished 7th perfect 5th diminished 5th

If a major or perfect interval is increased by a semitone, without

changing the number of the becomes an augmented
interval, it

interval. Thus, C to D is a major 2nd while C to is an augmented

2nd; D to G is a perfect 4th while D to is an augmented 4th, and

so on. An augmented 4th or diminished 5th (the same interval of

three whole tones) is often called a 'tritone' (see box below left).

major 2nd augmented 2nd perfect 5th diminished 5th

Remember: unisons, 4ths, 5ths and octaves are never named as

major or minor intervals, as they occur in both types of scale.
The intervals below are
enharmonic equivalents.
They sound the same, ånås, Srds; Untsons; Cths
but the first is written as 5th århd7thö 5thsand eves
an augmented 4th while
the second is written as a
diminished 5th:
Q)
Major 3

Minor

Diminished

Give the full name and number (e.g. perfect 5th) of each of these intervals:
38 Session12

Chords
O
A chord is a group of notes sounding together or in very close
proximity. Chords make harmony - the sounds created when
different notes are heard at the same time and seem to fit together.

The most common type of chord is the triad - a three-note chord

consisting of two intervals of a 3rd placed one on top of the other.
For example, a C major triad consists of the
notes C, E and G. The three notes in a triad
are called (from the bottom up) the root,
The way in which the
the third and the fifth. otil
3rd notes of a chord are laid
Above the bass note, the notes of a chord root
out is called the voicing
can appear in any order and in any octave; of the chord. Sometimes
they can be duplicated, and can be sounded separately to make the Sth of a chord may
patterns called broken chords, arpeggios and (more generally) be omitted from the
figuration. All of the following are examples of a chord of C major voicing.
in root position, because each one consists of the notes C, E and G,
with C (the root) as the lowest note:

Block chords

Arpeggio Broken chord

Figuration
Alberti Bass figuration

Major keys
Triads can be constructed on any note of a scale. They have the
same names as the degree of the scale on which they are based, and
are traditionally described using Roman numerals (in capitals for

major triads and lower case for minor). Triads are major if their lower
interval is a major 3rd. In major keys, chords l, IV and V (known as the
primary triads) are all major. Triads are minor if their lower interval
is a minor 3rd (chords and vi in major keys), except for chord vii,
ii, iii

which is known as a diminished triad because the interval between

its outer notes is a diminished 5th (B-F in the following example of
triads in the key of C major):

c Am B dim

iii vi vii
C major: ii

tonic supertonic mediant subdominant dominant submediant leading note

Inversions
When the root is sounded as the lowest note (i.e. the bass note) the
chord is in root position. When the 3rd is the lowest note, it is in first

inversion. When the fifth is the lowest note, it is in second inversion.

 SESSION 12

Naming Chords
o
There are two widely used methods for naming chords:

Roman numerals: chords are named after the degree of the scale
that forms the root of the chord, using upper case for major
Non-primary triads in
chords and lower case for minor chords, as in the music example
minor keys are more
complicated because at the foot of page by a
38. First inversion chords are indicated

they can be major, letter and second inversion chords by a letter 'c' (e.g. Vb or lc).
'b',

If Roman numerals are used to describe a chord, the key must also
minor, diminished or
be stated.
augmented, depending
on whether any 6th or Chord symbols: written above the stave, chord symbols show the
7th degree of scale they letter name of the root of each chord. Minor and diminished triads
contain is raised by are indicated by adding 'm' or 'dim' after the letter name of the
semitone or not. root (e.g. Am or Cdim). If the bass is not the root, a slash followed
by the actual bass note is added to the chord symbol (e.g. Cm/Eb
It is important to realise means a triad of C minor with Eb as its lowest note). This is called a
that major chords occur slash chord. Chord symbols are often used when notating pop and
inminor keys, just as jazz melodies.
minor chords occur in
major keys. Minor keys
The primary minor keys are similar to those in major keys,
triads in

except that chords and iv are minor triads. Chord V is usually made
i

into a major chord in order to define the key more clearly, which
involves raising its middle note, the 7tNdegree of the scale, by a
semitone.

C minor C minor: iv

tonic subdominant dominant

7th chords 7th

5th
7th chords have a root A 7th chord is a four-note chord, created by 3rd
root
position and three adding another interval of a 3rd to a triad.
inversions. When using This new note is a 7th above the root, hence
Roman numerals the the name of this type of chord.
third inversion (which The most common 7th chord is the dominant 7th, made by adding
has the 7th in the bass) is
a 7th above the root of a dominant triad. The supertonic 7th (shown
shown by a letter below in root position and 3rd inversion) is often used before a
dominant chord. The diminished 7th gets its name from the interval
between its outer notes:

Dm7 Dm7/C G#dim7

diminished 7th

C major: V7 ii7d A minor:

dominant 7th supertonic 7ths leading note 7th

7th chords are indicated by a figure 7 after the chord symbol or

Roman numeral.
40 SESSION 12

Identifying chords
o To identify a triad or 7th chord, rewrite it so that its notes are close
together on a single stave. To do this you may have to move all the
notes into the same octave and ignore any duplicate letter names:

(a) (b)

The notes on bracketed

D
staves sound together.

If the lowest note you have written has the same letter name as the
bass note of the chord, as in (a) above, the chord is in root position.
This can be labelled with the chord symbol D. Its lower 3rd (D-F#) is
major, so it is a major triad. If Roman numerals are preferred, and the

key is known to be G major (rather than E minor), the chord should be

labelled as V (because D is the dominant, or 5th degree, of G major).

If the bass note of the chord is not the root, as in example

(b) above, show it as a slash chord (A7/C#) or with an inversion
letter (D minor: V 7b).

Melodic decoration
Music would sound very dull if it consisted of only a string of chords,
one to each melody note. Composers make free use of non-harmony
notes to move between and decorate notes belonging to chords.
Look at this example:
Mozart

The chords are actually quite simple - all but one are the primary
triads of C major. The real interest is in makes
the tune, which
extensive use of melodic decoration. Non-harmony notes are shown
in red in this copy of the same music:

c c/E Dm/F c/G

C major: lb iib lc

Melodic decoration is ignored when labelling chords with Roman

numerals or chord symbols, even when it is chromatic (such as the
notes with sharps above).
 SESSION 12

1. State the key of this melody and name the chord on which its first two bars (bracketed)
are based. Key

Chord

Answer the following questions either by writing chord symbols above the
staves (including slash chords where needed) or by naming the key and
writing Roman numerals below the staves (with inversion letters if needed).

Label each chord marked * below. As sometimes occurs in music, the 5th is missing
from the final chord.

3. Label each chord marked * below. Both exercises are in a minor key, indicated by raised
7th degrees. Several chords on the rest of this page are missing a 5th,

psrry

Häydn

Notice that chords change on every beat in the first of the two examples above, while they
only change once in each bar in the second. The frequency with which chords change is

known as the rate of harmonic change.

4m These three bars are in the key of Ab major. Label each chord marked
2
o
Cadences and chord progressions
A cadence is a pair of chords that acts like punctuation, marking
the ends of musical statements and sections.
O There are four types of cadence, the first two of which also play an
Sometimes, cadences
important role in establishing what key you are in. can be suggested
O The imperfect cadence moves from any chord to the dominant (V), by melody alone.
leaving the impression that more is to follow, rather like a comma. Play or sing this
z The perfect cadence moves from a dominant chord to the tonic example without its
creating a sense of completion similar to that of the accompanying chords.
full stop.

imperfect perfect

G major:

The other two cadences are far less common. The plagal cadence
(IV-I) sounds like a sung 'Amen' while the interrupted cadence
moves from to any chord except sounding as l, if a perfect
cadence has literally been interrupted.

plagal interrupted

G major: IV VI

Chord progressions
A chord progression is a series of chords played in order. A cadence,
with or without its approach chord (the chord preceding the actual
cadence), is a short chord progression. Here are three very common
approaches to a perfect cadence, often found at the end of a section
or complete piece. The first three are based on ii-V-l progressions,
while the last is called a cadential second inversion because its

approach chord is a second inversion of the key chord:

Dm7/F C Dm7b5/F G cm c/G C

C: ii7b | Cm: ii7b V i

 SESSION 13

Most chord progressions are at least several bars in length. One of

the most famous is the falling fifths progression, which the root
in

of each new chord is a 5th below the root of the previous chord
(eg. Em, Am, D, G, C). In practice, falling 5ths alternate with rising
4ths (which result in the same letter names) to avoid the bass
descending lower and lower.

Bdim Em Dm

A common variant of this progression is a pattern of falling 3rds,

ending with the same falling 5ths as above:
STEP,U
Dm

The falling fifths chord

progression is often
called a circle of 5ths,
even if its chords are all
Another well-known chord progression is the 12-bar blues, widely
in the same key (with no used in jazz and rock as well as in the blues. It consists of three
new accidentals), as in
four-bar phrases and typically has one chord per bar in the pattern
the example on the right. I-I-I-I, IV- IV- I-I, V- IV-I- l, although there are many variants,
including adding minor 7ths to any or all of the triads.

Name the key and the cadence (bracketed) in each of the following.

Key Cadence Key Cadence

COtiéNj:

Key Key Cadence

Session 14

Modulation and tonality

The process of changing key is called modulation. It is an important

way of creating variety in tonal music - that music based on major

is,

and/or minor keys. Western music that is not in a key or mode is

described as atonal ('without tonality').

In order for a modulation to take place, there normally needs to be

a perfect cadence (preferably V 7-1) in the new key as well as the
correct notes for thenew key. Composers rarely change the key
signature when they modulate. Instead, they use accidentals to form
the notes needed in the new key.

Bb
Mozart

F maior• V

10 11 12

C major: V 7
F rnajor: V

The piece above begins in F major, suggested by the key signature

and confirmed by the perfect cadence in bars 3-4, which is V 7-1 in
F major.

The Bhs in bars 5 and 7 remove the effect of the Bb in the key
signature. There are now no flats (or sharps) in the music.
This suggests the key of C major and this is confirmed by the
perfect cadence in bars 7-8, which is V 7-1 in C major.

Bb re-appears in bar 9, suggesting a return to F major. This is

confirmed by the perfect cadence in bars 11-12, which is V 7-1 in

F major.

If asked to describe the tonality of this music, we could say that it

begins in the key of F major, modulates to the dominant (C major) in

the middle section (bars 5-8) and returns to the tonic key of F major
for the last four bars.

Look again at bar 9 in the example above and you will see that no
accidental is needed to prepare for the modulation back to F major.
You have to be alert to the fact that Bb has returned to replace Bk.

Be a tonality detective
To discover whether or not a piece of music has modulated, look for
two pieces of evidence:

The notes of a new key

There will need to be one or more accidentals to add to (or cancel)
the sharps or flats in any key signature there might be.
 SESSION 14

2. A perfect cadence to confirm that key.

o
An accidental could just be an innocent chromatic note or an alteration
of the 6th or 7th degree if the key is minor. A perfect cadence in

the new key is the second piece of evidence needed to confirm

modulation. If that cadence ends with a major tonic chord, the new key

is major, if it ends with a minor tonic chord, the new key is minor. z

A useful rule of thumb is to remember that a note raised by an

accidental (a sharp, or a natural that raises an otherwise flat note)
could be the leading note of a new key. For example, in the key of
C might make you suspect a modulation to A minor; Eh in the key of
Bb might suggest a modulation to F. Look for a cadence in the new
key to confirm your suspicion.

Similarly, a note lowered by an accidental (a flat, or a natural that

lowers an otherwise sharp note) could be the 4th degree of a new
key. For example, Bb in the key of C might make you suspect a
modulation to F, Gh in the key of A major (3 sharps) might suggest a
modulation to D (2 sharps). Again, look for a cadence in the new key
for confirmation.

Case study 1
In bar 1 of this case study, the sharpest note is suggesting the key of E.

This is confirmed as E minor by the first perfect cadence.

D# is then cancelled in
Corelli
bar 2 and the sharpest
note becomes in bar
3, suggesting the key of
D. This is confirmed as

D major by the perfect

cadence in bars 3-4. Em: Vb D: Vb

Case study 2
In bar 1 here, the sharpest note is F#, suggesting the key of G. The Bb in the key signature
may lead to the expectation that the key is G minor, but the Bh in the tonic chord of the
first perfect cadence confirms the key of G major. The Bh is replaced by Bb in bar 3.

There are no other

accidentals, so we Corelli

have the notes of F

major, confirmed by the
cadence in bars
perfect.
3-4. The notes in bars 2
and 4 shown in grey are
non-harmony notes. G: Vb F: Vb

When music stays in a new key for only a very short period (as in
both examples above) we often say that the music 'passes through'
the keys concerned.

Modulations are often to closely related keys, as shown in the circle

of 5ths (on page 33). In simple pieces be
modulations are likely to

from a major key to its dominant and back, or from a minor key to
its relative major and back.
46 SESSION 14

Accidentals do not always indicate modulation, they could simply

be chromatic decoration. In the following example, might suggest
D minor and Bh might suggest C major, but the perfect cadence is in

F major: there is no modulation.

The notes with arrows are purely chromatic decoration.

Beethoven

Perfect cadences in minor keys sometimes end on a major tonic

chord (e.g. a chord of A major in the key of A minor, as shown left).

This is not in itself a modulation but this effect of a raised 3rd in the
tonic chord is called a Tierce de Picardie.

ACTIV

1. Look at these four bars and then complete the sentences below:
Géötge Le Brunn

The V 7-1 progression in bars 1-2 is in the key of: while the V 7-1 progression

in bars 3—4 is in the key of The letter name of the only chromatic note in

these four bars •is

Name the key in which the following passage starts and the key in which it ends:
Schubert.

Starting key: Ending key:

3- This extract begins in G major. To which key does it modulate in the last two bars?

Rossini.
 Terms and signs
Note that some Italian In the early days of music printing, many of the most famous
words are very similar composers came from Italy. Musicians in other countries became
to English, such as
used to seeing instructions on how to play a piece in Italian, and
moderato (moderately) we still use many of these words today, Some of the more common
and espressivo Italian terms are listed below.
(expressively).

Tempo directions
Tempo means 'time' and refers to the speed at which music is played
or sung. Most pieces have a tempo direction at the start of the
music, printed above the time signature. It tells you how fast or slow
to perform the music. A fast tempo means a fast speed and a slow
tempo means a slow speed.

lento very Slow moderato moderately

adagio slow allegro moderato moderately fast

largo broadly (quite slow) allegro fast, joyful

andante walking pace (not too slow) vivace lively

allegretto a little brisk presto very quick

Tempo can be indicated more exactly by the number of beats in a

minute. All of the following mean 60 crotchet beats per minute -
one beat per second - which is a slow speed:

60 bpm bpm stands for beats per minute

the number of crotchet (quarter note) beats per minute
M.M. J=60 M.M. is short for Maelzel's Metronome (see left)

The metronome, invented 200 years ago by Johann Maelzel, can

be set to click the speed of the beat. If you don't own a traditional
clockwork or electronic model, there are several free metronome
A clockwork metronome
websites and plenty of apps available.

æoss The higher the number, the faster the speed. For instance 120 bpm
or .1=120 means 120 beats a minute, two beats per second, which is
a fast speed.

Tempo change
Directions used if the tempo should be modified or the beat
An electronic metronome interrupted:

accelerando (or accel.) gradually speed up

rallentando (or rall.) gradually slow down
ritardando (ritard. or rit.) gradually slow down
allargando get slower and broader
ritenuto (riten. or rit.) hold back, immediately slower

a tempo 'in time': return to the original speed after a change of speed
rubato literally 'robbed time': play the rhythm freely for expressive effect

a pause sign (or 'fermata') indicates that a note or rest should be

held for longer than normal

a caesura (//) or a breath mark (5) above the stave indicates a

brief silence
48 KNOWLEDGE

z Dynamics
A dynamic marking indicates how loud or soft music should be. Usually dynamics
z are shown by the abbreviations or signs listed below, rather than by full words.

Abbreviation or sign Full word Meaning

pianissimo very soft

piano soft

medium soft mezzo is Italian for

mp mezzo-piano
mezzo-forte medium loud 'half' or 'medium'

forte loud

fortissimo very loud

fortepiano loud, then immediately soft

crescendo gradually get louder

or cresc.

diminuendo gradually get softer

or dim.

Expression

affettuoso with feeling, tenderly leggiero lightly

appassionato passionately maestoso majestically

agitato agitated marcato marked, accented

animato animated, lively marziale in a march style

cantabile in a singing style pesante heavily

con forza with force risoluto boldly

delicato delicately ritmico rhythmically

dolce sweetly scherzando playfully, merrily

espressivo expressively simile (sim.) (continue) similarly

giocoso playfully sostenuto sustained

grazioso gracefully staccato (stacc.) detached (see page 49)

legato smoothly tranquillo calmly

Qualifying words

;ltajiamterm Yeaning Example

al, alla in the style of alla marcia (in the style of a march)
assai presto assai (very quick)
col, con with con moto (with movement)
e, ed and piano e staccato (soft and detached)
ma but allegro ma non troppo (fast, but not too much so)

meno less meno mosso (less movement, slower)

molto much, very molto adagio (very slowly)
pit more pii forte (more loudly)

poco a poco little by little poco a poco cresc. (get louder little by little)

quasi as if quasi corni (resembling [the sound of] horns)

sempre always sempre legato (always smoothly)

subito suddenly attacca subito (begin [the next part] -immediately)
 KNOWLEDGE

Articulation marks
Articulation marks indicate how individual notes (or groups of notes)
should be performed. They are normally written above or below a
note head, on the opposite side to the stem.

Staccato dots indicate notes that

are to be played shorter than normal and
separated from their neighbours.

If a whole section of music is to be played staccato, dots may be placed

on only the first few notes, perhaps followed by the abbreviation stacc.
or sim-

Be careful not to confuse staccato dots, which go above or below the

note head, with the dots that go after note heads to make notes longer.

Staccatissimo wedges indicate

notes that are to be even more separated.
In old music this sign could confusingly
mean normal staccato or an accent (see below).

An accent indicates that the note should stand out by being sounded with
a bit more force than its neighbours. Be careful not to confuse an accent
sign with the sign for a diminuendo ( which is much larger.

A marcato sign indicates that the note should be strongly accented and
also usually staccato.

Assorted abbreviations for a group of Italian terms - sforzando or

sforzato (strongly accented), forzando or forzato (stressed) and
rinforzando or rinforzato (reinforced). There is no significant difference

between any of these - they all indicate an accent.

The abbreviation indicates a strongly accented note that
immediately becomes quieter.

A tenuto sign (or the abbreviation ten.) indicates that a note should
be given its full value and also usually a slight emphasis.

A slur is a curved line that links notes to be played smoothly, without

gaps between them. Don't confuse slurs with ties. A tie joins notes of the
same pitch while a slur links notes of different pitches:

slur slur

tie

Articulation marks can be combined. The examples on the left indicate

mezzo-staccato ('half staccato') which is less detached than full staccato,

The effect sometimes called 'non legato'. A staccato dot plus tenuto
is

dash is used
if only an isolated note is mezzo-staccato, otherwise slurred

staccato is preferred. Staccato dots are sometimes combined with

accents signs (J and J) as are tenuto marks
50 KNOWLEDGE

Signs for repetition

The number of beams shows the type of note into which

the printed note must be divided: one beam for quavers,
two for semiquavers or three for demisemiquavers. See the
extract by Sullivan on page 59 for an example of quaver
repetition.

Adding tremolo (or treme) -indicates that the repetitions

should be as fast as possible and not necessarily counted
precisely.

These signs, and those below, are normally only used for
extended passages of repetition.

When a two-note pattern is to be repeated, both printed

notes represent the total length of the effect. The beams
show the length of the notes that should actually be played.

The first three signs below are more commonly found in scores of
pop and jazz than in classical music.

Repeat the previous beat

Repeat the previous bar

Repeat the previous two bars

Repeat all the music between these repeat signs

(if the first sign is missing, repeat from the start)

The instructionda capo al fine (or D.C. al fine) means repeat from the start
of the music and stop at the word 'fine'. 'Da capo' means 'from the top', and 'fine'

means 'finish':
Traditional

ne

'T end here

repeat from the start

D. C. alfine
 KNOWLEDGE

If the instruction is dal segno (or D.S.), meaning 'from the sign', the repeat is not
from the start of the music, but from a place marked by a sign (usually

After a repeat there may be an instruction, particularly in pop songs, to jump

forward to a final section called a coda, in the form D.C. al coda or D.S. al coda.
The start of a coda is usually marked

When a repeat needs a different ending, first- and second-time bars are used.
In this example, the bars marked IT.¯I are replaced by the bar marked

The multi-bar rest is used in music for individual instruments when a player has
a long rest (46 bars in the example below). It is often followed by a cue in small
notes, showing what another instrument plays just before the entry:

Trumpet

Acciaccatura Ornaments
is pronounced Ornaments are short patterns of notes used to decorate a main
a-chak-a-too-ra and note, each represented by a symbol or by grace notes (notes
appoggiatura in small print that do not add to the count of beats in a bar).
is pronounced
Ornaments were common in 17th- and 18th-century music, and
a-podge-a-too-ra. trills and acciaccaturas are still used today.

Example zJZPIayed a Expfahation&

An Acciaccatura is played as quickly as possible before the

main note, either on or just before the beat.

An appoggiatura creates an expressive dissonance with the

harmony, lasting for at least half the value of the main note

A mordent is a rapid alternation of the main note with

the note above (upper mordent) or note below (lower
mordent).

A trill is a continuous alternation of the main note and the

note above. The ending can vary.

A turn consists of the note above the main note, the main
note itself, the note below and back to the main note again.

Accidentals can be used

with ornament signs, e.g.:
52 KNOWLEDGE

Other terms and signs

The passage in small notes below is an example of fioritura,

z a 'flowering' or decoration of the melodic line. These are often

described as grace notes, even if they are not strictly ornamenting
a main note. Composers may add the direction ad lib. to such
passages, indicating that the rhythm can be treated quite freely.

Chopin

A wavy line before a chord indicates an arpeggio, meaning that the

notes of the chord should be sounded in rapid succession rather
than together. On instruments such as the piano or harp, each note is

sustained until the end of the length of the written chord.

A wavy line between notes (or a straight line with the abbreviation
gliss.) indicates a glissando or slide - a rapid glide from the first

pitch to the next.

4
A small circle above a note( ) instructs the performer of a string
instrument to play a harmonic - a high, pure sound produced by
lightly touching the string instead of using normal finger pressure.

The abbreviation 8ve above the stave indicates that the bracketed
music should be played an octave higher than written. Sometimes
the figure 8 alone is used. If the bracket is below the stave, the music
should be played an octave lower than written - sometimes the
abbreviation 8ba (ottava bassa) is used to confirm this.

For string and brass instruments, con sordino is an instruction to 3

apply a mute, and senza sordino the player to remove it. Be

tells

term muta, which tells a musician

careful not to confuse this with the
to change something. For example, 'muta C in D' would be used to
instruct a drummer to change the pitch of a kettledrum from C to D.

Colla voce ('with the voice') indicates that an accompaniment

should follow the rhythm of the singer, which is likely to be flexible
at this point.

Segue ('it follows') means 'continue straight on to the next section A violin mute clipped to the
without a break'. The word attacca Cattach') has a similar meaning. bridge to dampen the sound

When writing about music for an exam, it is important to show that you

understand and can use music terminology correctly. This includes knowing
that tonality refers to keys (not tone) as well as understanding what texture
means (see pages 56-57). Both points are often confused in exams.
Examiners will not be interested that you think a particular piece or
composer is great or awful, although they may ask you what it is in the music
that leads you to form such an opinion. You need show what you know
to
about the piece, using correct technical vocabularyj and you should always
aim to answer the precise questions set.
 KNOWLEDGE

Musical structures
The smallest structure in music is a figure, sometimes known as
acell. This melody is made mainly from repetitions of a four-note

figure at different pitches:

Debussy
3 3 3
3 3
m

3
3

A motif is a short idea that is distinctive enough to retains its identity

even when it is changed in various ways. In the next example, a
three-note motif first spans a 4th, then a 5th, then a 9th. The last
appearance is longer, but the motif's opening on a repeated G and
ending with a J iY rhythm are both recognisable:

Allegro vivace
Schubert

c: Vb Vb

The complete example above one of the basic building

is a phrasé,
blocks of music. It is in length because
described as being four bars
its opening is balanced by only three beats in its last bar, making

16 beats in all. Phrases don't always end in a cadence, but there is

usually some sense of a natural 'breathing point' in the musical flow,
which may be confirmed by the use of phrase marks (long curved
lines above or below the notes):

Traditional

Phrases are usually 2, 4 or 8 bars long, although other lengths are

not uncommon. The essential thing is that a phrase forms a unit,
like a spoken phrase.

The melody above is an example of periodic phrasing,

traditional
Figures, cells, or motifs in which the of two phrases of similar length sounds questioning
first

might make up a phrase. and unfinished, because it ends on the dominant, while the second
Phrases, in turn, might of the pair seems to supply an answer by ending on the tonic.
be grouped together in These balanced phrases are a particular feature of music in the
such a way as to make a Classical period (see page 64). A melody that is the basis for part
melody. If the melody is or all of a composition, may be described as a theme.
used as the basis for a
larger section of music,
it can be described as Musical form
a theme.
The shape or structure of a composition is known as its form.
When explaining form, capital letters identify different sections of
music, each usually consisting of a number of phrases, and numbers
show variation. For example, ABAI indicates a first section (A),
a new section (B) and a variant of the first section (A1).
KNOWLEDGE

Strophic form
This is the simplest form, using the same tune for each
verse of a song, as in a traditional blues or a Christmas
carol. If a strophic song has three verses, the structure
could be described as AAA.

Verse-and-chorus form
In verse-and-chorus form, each verse (A) has similar music
but different words, and is followed by a contrasting
chorus (B) in which both the words and the music are
usually the same every time. The chorus may be repeated
to make it allthe more memorable.

Binary form
Binary form has two sections, each usually repeated,
in the pattern B The second section is usually
longer than the and the sections are often not very
first,

contrasted in content. The most important feature is that

section A ends in a related key (the dominant if the main
key is major, or the relative major if the main key is minor),
while section B ends in the tonic. Binary form was often
used for dances in the 17th and 18th centuries, and for
short piano pieces in the 19th century.

Ternary/Da capo form

Ternary form has three sections, the first of which
returns at the end, either exactly (ABA) or varied (ABAD.
The B section usually contrasts with the A sections in
key or content (or both). The repeat of the first section
may be indicated by the term da capo at the end of the
middle section, avoiding the need to write out the first
section again. Many 18th-century songs do this and are
consequently known as 'da capo' arias ('aria' being Italian

for 'song').

Sonata form
Sonata form begins with a section called the exposition,
in which a main theme called the first subject (labelled

as 1 in the diagram) is heard in the tonic key. The

Exposition Development Recapitulation
music then moves to a closely related key, which often
features a contrasting second subject (labelled as 2)
in the new key. This material is transformed in various
ways, and in a variety of keys, in a central section
called the development. In the final section, called the
recapitulation, material from the exposition returns,
now all in the tonic key. The movement may end with a
coda (closing passage) and sometimes there is a slow
introduction before the start of the exposition.

Rondo form
Rondo form based on the idea of a rondo theme (A)
is

that repeatedly comes around in the tonic key between

c
contrasting episodes (B, C and so on) in related keys.
This gives rise to structures such as ABACA or ABACADA.
 KNOWLEDGE

Arch form
Arch form has a symmetrical structure such as ABCBA.

Ritornello form

The 'ritornello' of the title refers to the opening section in the

tonic key. Parts of the ritornello then return in related keys,
separated by modulating episodes for one or more soloists.
The final ritornello is in the tonic key. This differs from rondo
form in that a rondo theme is normally complete and in the
tonic every time it returns.

Longer musical forms

Longer pieces of music often have several movements.
These are substantial sections that are usually separated by short
breaks in performance. They tend to be contrasted in mood but
A particular category related in key, and individual movements are often in one of the
of music, such as the forms listed in the previous section. Examples include:
concerto or string
quartet, can be
The suite: before 1750 the suite was a collection of short

described as a genre. dances, mostly in binary form, sometimes preceded by a longer

introductory movement entitled overture or prelude.

The concerto: group

a type of music in whith a soloist (or small
of soloists) is heard in and in combination with, an
contrast to,

orchestra. Most concertos have three movements, in the order

fast - slow - fast.

The symphony: the most common form of orchestral music from

around 1750. Typically in four movements, in the order fast-slow-
Never describe music minuet-fast. The minuet was originally a dance in triple-time.
as a 'song' unless it is
It was replaced by the faster 'scherzo' in the 19th century. The slow
actually sung by a solo movement might be in ternary form or a theme and variations.
singer. Use terms such Thelast movement (or finale) might in rondo form, sonata form,
as 'piece' or 'work' if you or a combination of the two.
don't have more precise
details.

Pop song structures

Popular song form developed from verse-and-chorus songs in the
early 20th century. A short introduction replaces the first verse
1 and the song consists of a repeated 32-bar chorus made
rest of the
from four eight-bar phrases in the pattern AABA. Each phrase has

different lyrics, but the A phrases all have the same chord pattern
and melody, sometimes based on a hook - a short, repeated
melodic idea designed to stick in the memory. The B phrase,
known as the 'middle eight' or 'bridge', has a contrasting tune with
different harmonies,and lyrics that generally offer a different slant
on the idea expressed in the A phrases.

Pop songs since the middle of the 20th century use a variety of
structures but often have an extended verse-and-chorus form,
in which there may be an introduction ('intro') at the start, an
instrumental that substitutes for one of the sung verses, and a coda
or 'outro' to provide a conclusion. The chorus may have an AABA
structure, particularly in more old-fashioned songs. There may also
be a pre-chorus, a short section that leads into the chorus proper,
set to thesame words each time it comes around.

1
56 KNOWLEDGE

Texture
The term texture refers to ways in which the simultaneous elements
of melody and harmony fit together in music. Be aware that
textures often change during a piece. There are three main kinds
of texture.

Monophonic textures (monophonic = Gone sound')

An unaccompanied melody is described as a monophonic texture:

Bach

(unaccompanied cello)

Even if an unaccompanied melody is performed by a number of

people in unison or in octaves, the texture is still described as
monophonic.

Homophonic textures (homophonic = 'same sounds')

A harmonised melody is described as a homophonic texture. It could

be either

a chordal texture, in which a melody is accompanied mainly by

block chords:

Andante Beethoven

melody and accompaniment, in which the accompaniment does

not have the same rhythm as the tune:

Andantino
Elgar

Polyphonic textures (polyphonic = 'many sounds')

Polyphonic or contrapuntal music has two or more simultaneous,

independent melodies of roughly equal importance. Contrapuntal
is the adjective used to describe counterpoint (another name for

this type of texture). Each line is known as a voice, even if the piece
is intended to be played rather than sung. The four voices in this

example are identified by different colours:

Bach
Andante
 KNOWLEDGE

Counterpoint often features imitation, in which each part copies

what has been played a few beats earlier by a previous part (whether
at the same pitch or not), creating an overlap in the process:

Andante moderato Sullivan

cresc.

If the imitation is exact (which it is in the example below, but not in

the one above) and it continues for some bars, the result is a canon
and the texture is canonic:
Anon. (late 16th century)

etc.

A round such as 'London's Burning' is a canon that continually

repeats (think of going around and around).

Other terms related to texture

The simultaneous performance of different versions of the same
melody produces a heterophonic ('different sounds') texture:
Allegro
Haydn

in cel sis, in cel sis De

1st Violins

Heterophony is often heard in folk music when performers

simultaneously decorate a melody in different ways. In classical music
its effect is less obvious as it often appears as just one element
within an overall homophonic texture.

In an antiphonal texture, two or more soloists or groups are

separated to create a stereo-like effect when they alternate and
combine.

A layered texture is a type of polyphony in which each voice consists

Texture can be described of repetitive patterns rather than melodic lines. Typically, individual

in general terms as thick layers drop in and out of the overall texture to provide areas of

or thin, but in exams contrast. Layered textures are a feature of some modern music
it is preferable to be written in a minimalist style, and are also found in some types of

more precise (e.g. by music from Africa and other world cultures.
describing the texture as
A tune heard at the same time as a main melody, such as a descant
two-part counterpoint). sung above the melody of a traditional hymn or carol, is known as a
countermelody.

A texture may be under-pinned by a pedal (see page 59).

58 KNOWLEDGE

Compositional devices
Music happens in time and an idea is over in seconds, so repetition
is important to ensure that an idea is noticed and remembered.
Composers often repeat an idea once, then vary it. In the next
example, brackets above the stave show how a two-beat motif
is first repeated exactly and then extended to create a varied

repetition:
Mozart

The whole eight-beat phrase shown by the first bracket beneath the
stave is then repeated a step lower in a device called sequence - the
immediate repetition of an idea at a higher or lower pitch. It's a good
way to make repetition sound fresh.

Melodic variation is another way to add interest when repeating

an idea. Here is an example from Arban's The Carnival of Venice.

The main theme ...

Arban

Becomes

19

On page 53 we saw an example of intervallic expansion, in which an Eli

interval gets progressively larger (the melody by Schubert). The next

example includes contraction of the opening major 3rd as well as its

expansion:

Allegro con brio Beethoven

major 3rd minor 2nd minor 3rd perfect 4th minor 2nd minor 3rd

Fragmentation is the result of breaking off part of a longer idea to

develop independently:

Allegro

Sequence of two previous bars

Fragment Sequence of fragment

Notice that devices such as sequence do not have to be exact to

make their point. The sequence in bars 3-4 above begins with a
rising perfect 4th rather than the minor 3rd heard in bar 1, and it

lacks an upbeat before this first rising interval.

 KNOWLEDGE

Inversion occurs if the intervals in a melody are turned upside

down, so that rising intervals fall and falling intervals rise:

Bach

Becomes ..

Augmentation is an increase in the note lengths of a melody

while diminution is a decrease. Inthe example below, stave 1
is a diminution of stave 3 and is an octave higher. Stave 2 is an
augmentation of stave 3 and is a perfect 5th higher:

Cooke

Call and response is a device often heard in jazz and world music,
in which a solo phrase is immediately answered by one or more
different performers.

The ostinato that dominates An ostinato (Italian for 'obstinate') is an idea that is repeated many
'Mars' from The Planets by Holst times in accompaniment to something else.
succession, usually as an
The same device in electronic music is called a loop, and a similar
device in rock and jazz is called a riff. A ground bass is an ostinato
that repeats in the bass throughout an entire movement. The device
was popular in English and Italian songs of the 17th century.

A pedal is a sustained or repeated note, usually in the bass, against

which the harmony changes. If the pedal is above the harmony it
is called an 'inverted' pedal. The term drone is used in folk music.

A tonic pedal (see the top of page 57) creates a static effect while
a dominant pedal generates excitement:
Allegro con brio Sullivan

cres cen

syncopation

Syncopation occurs when notes off the beat are given prominence,
temporarily upsetting the normal pattern of beats.

A Cross rhythm is produced when two conflicting rhythms are

cross rhythm heard at the same time (as shown left).
60 KNOWLEDGE

z
Voices and instruments
Voices
The four most common types of voice, from highest to lowest, are
z
z soprano alto tenor bass

Soprano and alto parts are usually sung by women; tenor and bass
parts are usually sung by men.

The small 8 below the tenor's treble clef is a reminder that a tenor
voice sounds an octave lower than written. Most singers can manage
a few notes beyond the ranges shown above, and professional Range (or compass)
singers usually have a range of at least two octaves. can apply to the music
itself, as well as to
A treble is a boy's voice with a range similar to a soprano.
the capabilities of a
A countertenor (or male alto) is a high male voice with a range
particular voice. So a
similar to that of an alto, usually produced by singing falsetto
(the technique of using just the edge of the vocal cords to achieve
song might have a wide
range or a narrow range,
a higher range than normal). A mezzo-soprano voice lies between
or it might be set high or
soprano and alto in range. A baritone voice lies between tenor and
low within the singer's
bass in range.
overall range.
When writing music, the text to be sung (called the lyrics in

non-classical music) is split into separate syllables by hyphens,

with each syllable positioned under the note (or first note) to which
it is sung. When each syllable is set to a different note, the word
setting is called syllabic. If a syllable is sung to several notes (called
a melisma), the word setting is called melismatic.

syllabic melismatic
(one syllable per note) (one syl able to a group of notes)
Handel

Allegro

See the ra-ging flames a - rise,

mostly disjunct (moving in leaps) mostly conjunct (rnoving by step)

This example also illustrates word painting, which is the description

in music of the words that are sung. Here, the tune rapidly ascends to
illustrate the word 'arise'.

Choirs
The most common type of choir (called a chorus in the theatre)
is made up of all four voice types listed above. If a choir sings

unaccompanied, it is known as singing a capella.

Choral music is usually laid out on four staves, bracketed together.

There is one stave
for each voice part, labelled with its capital letter
(SAT B). Simple choral music may be laid out on two staves, SA on
one and TB on the other (which means that the tenor part is in the
bass clef).
 KNOWLEDGE

Stems usually point in opposite directions to differentiate the parts.

o
Both of these examples sound the same:
m

s Sullivan

All hail, all hail! z

All hail, all hail!
s

m
All hail, all hail !

1.

All hail, all hail!

All hail, all hail!

All hail, all hail!

Types of vocal music

In the example above Opera is a sung drama, presented on stage, in costume and to an
right, noticehow notes instrumental accompaniment. Operas contain arias (the individual
must be written when songs) and, in pre-20th century works, recitative - a type of solo
parts on the same stave vocal music that uses speech rhythms and lots of pitch repetition
are in unison or just one for moments when getting the words across is more important
step apart. than melody. There are usually parts for a chorus, and sometimes
dancers too.

An operetta is a light opera with spoken dialogue between the

songs. It was the precursor of the musical, which often has more
dialogue than music.

Types of solo song with piano accompaniment popular in the 19th

century include the German Lied and the generally
(plural, Lieder)

slow and sentimental English ballad. Towards the end of the century,
Music Hall songs became one of the main types of popular music.

An oratorio is a large-scale work for soloists, choir and orchestra,

intended for concert performance. Most oratorios are on religious
subjects. A cantata is a vocal composition in several movements, for

one or more soloists with instrumental accompaniment and often

including a choir. The text may be sacred or secular (non-sacred).
Arias and recitatives are commonly found in oratorios and cantatas,
as well as in opera. Choral music for church services includes settings
of the Latin mass text in several sections, and single-movement,
self-contained forms such as the motet (usually in Latin) and the
anthem, which uses English words. Plainsong is a type of chant,
traditionally performed in unison by unaccompanied men's voices.

The term a cappella (fin chapel style') is used for any type of
unaccompanied singing, even if the music is secular (non-sacred) or
pop music,

The orchestra
The origins of the modern orchestra date from the 17th century,
when ensemble would consist of mainly string
a typical orchestral
instruments. There was also a part for the continuo group, which
would include at least one instrument (such as an additional cello)
to reinforce the bass, and at least one chordal instrument (such as a
harpsichord, organ or lute) to fill out the harmonies.
 KNOWLEDGE

By 1700, oboes and bassoons were regular members of orchestras.

A flute was sometimes included, and trumpets and timpani were
Before 1818 horns and
often added for ceremonial music. Nevertheless, orchestras seldom
trumpets had no valves,
exceeded 18-24 players at this time.
so could play only a
z By 1800 the wind section had expanded to pairs of flutes, oboes, limited selection of
clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets, plus timpani. More string notes.
players were needed to balance the wind, resulting in typically
40-50 players in all. The increased size meant that a keyboard
instrument was no longer needed to fill out the harmonies.

By the late 19th century, most instruments had developed to their

current state and the symphony orchestra had reached its modern

size of at least 80 players:

The symphony orchestra

2 flutes and a piccolo (a small flute that sounds an octave higher than written)
2 oboes and a cor anglais* (a large member of the oboe family)

woodwind 2 clarinets* and a bass clarinet* (a large clarinet)

2 bassoons and a contrabassoon (a large bassoon that sounds an octave lower
than written)

4 horns* (more are required for some works)

3 trumpets*
brass
3 trombones and a bass trombone
1 tuba

timpani (one player). These are kettledrums that can be tuned to specific pitches
untuned percussion (one or more players). Including instruments such as the side

percussion drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, castanets and tam-tam (gong).
tuned percussion (usually one player). Including the xylophone, glockenspiel,

celesta, marimba, vibraphone and tubular bells.

harp (a small number of orchestral pieces also require a piano)

first violins (approx. 14 players)

second violins (approx. 13 players)
violas (approx. 12 players). Violas use an alto clef (B) in which the middle line
strings
represents middle C.
cellos (approx. 10 players). Cello is an abbreviation of 'violoncello'
double basses (approx. 9 players). Double basses sound an octave lower than written. 1

Instruments with a * next to them are transposing instruments, Allthe instruments below
which means that their notes do not sound at the pitches written. sound middle C when the
This has happened mainly for historical reasons, because it made the notes shown are played.

instruments easier to play in the early stages of their development.

Most transposing instruments are described as being 'in' a certain Clarinet in Bb

key, which is the note you hear when C is played, and most sound
at a lower pitch than written. For example, a 'horn in F' sounds an F
Horn in F
when C is written and played. From this you can work out that all of
its notes sound a perfect 5th lower than written.
Viola
 KNOWLEDGE

Common transposing instruments are clarinets in A and in Bb, horns

in F and trumpets The cor anglais is not described as 'in F',

in Bb.

but remembering that the name means 'English horn' will remind
you that it is in F, just like the horn in F.

Orchestral scores are laid out in the order shown in the table
on page 62, from woodwind at the top to strings at the bottom.
Within each section the highest instruments are above the lower
ones, except that horns appear at the top of the brass section in
order to be close to the woodwind, with whom they often play.

A wind instruments usually shares the same stave in an

pair of
orchestral score.Stems point up for the first player and down for the
second, and rests are positioned to show to which part they apply.
The instruction a 2 ('for two') tells both players to play the same
notes.

If parts are playing the same notes in unison, we can say their parts
are doubled. If they are playing the same notes an octave apart,
they are 'doubling in octaves'.

String players can play two notes simultaneously (called double

stopping). Triple and quadruple stopping are also possible. If string
players are to divide into groups to play simultaneous notes,
instead of using double-stopping, the instruction divisi (div.) is used.
The instruction unison (unis) or non div. indicates that everyone
should now play the same notes.

double stops played by all div. unis.

Other instructions for strings include pizzicato (pizz.), which tells

The Royal Scottish National Orchestra players that they should pluck the strings and arco, a direction to
with Music Director Peter Oundjian return to bowing the strings.

Jncuned C'latÅnetse
Horns Bassoons. Tuba
Trumpetse
per *Yana flutes and oboes

gnd cell
ou
violins —bass
$4 KNOWLEDGE

Other instrumental ensembles

z
A chamber orchestra is a group of up to about 50 players that specialises
in playing works written for smaller orchestras. A string orchestra is made
up of only string players. Most of the instruments in a brass band differ
z
from those in an orchestral brass section. They include cornets, flugelhorns,
z tenor horns and euphoniums, as well as trombones, three or four tubas and
a percussion section. A wind band (or concert band) includes woodwind
(with saxophones), brass and percussion. A military band is similar but plays
while marching or (in a few cases) on horseback.

Smaller ensembles are often named after the type and number of
instruments. For example, a string quartet consists of four stringed
instruments (two violins, viola and cello) while a brass quintet consists of

five brass instruments (usually two trumpets, horn, trombone and tuba).
A piano trio consists of violin, cello and piano.

Jazz bands vary in size, but most include a 'horn section' of saxophones,
trumpet(s) and trombone(s) plus a rhythm section of piano, bass, drums
and guitar or banjo. The bass could be a plucked upright bass (i.e. a double
bass) or bass guitar.

The traditional configuration for a rock band is lead guitar (playing

Guitar tab:
mostly melody lines), rhythm guitar (playing chords), bass guitar
and drums, with one of the guitarists singing the lead vocal line. 2 0
4
A keyboard player might substitute for one of the guitarists or be
included as a fifth member of the band. Some guitarists read tab
(short for tablature), which is a system of notation that shows finger
positions on the neck of the instrument, using a six-line stave to
represent the six strings. It is used mainly for lead guitar lines, while xo xxo

guitar diagrams are used for showing the finger positions of chords. Guitar diagrams:
Both are shown on the right.

A typical rock band

Historical periods
The names of the periods into which western
music is divided are art
shared with other arts such as painting and Dates are only literature.
a very approximate guide - new styles didn't appear overnight. It is
important to realise that classical music is not the pop music of its day.
It has always maintained a largely independent existence.

Notice that Classical (with a capital C) refers only to one specific

period within all of classical music. Also, remember how centuries are
expressed: we are in the 21st century but each year begins with 20.
Similarly, years in the 18th century begin with 17.

Although music has existed since the earliest times, we know little of
how it sounded monks developed a system of notation to preserve
until

music for religious services. Much of the surviving music from the
subsequent medieval period (1150-1450) was written for the church.
 KNOWLEDGE

Renaissance 1450-1600 o
'Renaissance' refers to a re-birth of the human spirit, and the age saw a new interest -in

secular (non religious) music, including madrigals, dance tunes, songs for voice with lute,
and keyboard music.
Church music remained important, with the Protestant reformation giving rise to new genres
such as the German chorale (hymn) and English anthem.
Composers include Josquin, Palestrina, Byrd and Victoria.

Baroque 1600-1750
This period begins with the invention of opera and before its end saw the foundation of the
modern orchestra.
7 Instrumental music became increasingly important, with new genres such as the sonata, suite
and concerto.
The sound of the harpsichord and exuberant contrapuntal textures are strong characteristics of
the Baroque era.
Composers include Monteverdi, Purcell, Vivaldi, Handel and Bach.

Classical 1750-1825
The Classical style emphasised clarity of line, elegance and melody-dominated homophony.
The piano displaced the harpsichord as the keyboard instrument of choice while clarinets and
horns helped swell the size of orchestras.
Instrumental music included symphonies, concertos, string quartets aqd piano sonatas, and
opera continued to grow in importance.
Composers include Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert.

Romantic 1825-1900
The Romantic style often emphasised emotional response in contrast to the balance and
moderation of the Classical period.
The orchestra reached its maximum size and virtuoso soloists dazzled audiences with their skill.

New genres emerged, such as Lieder (German song) and the descriptive tone poem.
Composers include Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Chopin, Schumann, Wagner, Verdi, Brahms,
Saint-Saénsj Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Elgar and Puccini.

Modern 1900-1975
The early 20th century saw many diverse trends in music. Composers increasingly used
dissonance, with some rejecting tonality entirely. Folk music, world music and jazz also became
strong influences.
Experimental approaches to composition included music formed through chance and the use of
electronically generated sounds.
Traditionalists continued to develop traditional forms, while music for film becomes a major force.
Composers include Debussy, Vaughan Williams, Schoenberg, Bartök, Stravinsky, Gershwin,
Copland, Shostakovich, Messiaen, Cage, Britten, Berio, Stockhausen, Birtwistle and Maxwell Davies.

Postmodernism 1975 onwards

Postmodernism means 'after modernism' and refers to a variety of styles,
The best-known new development is minimalism, although composers continue to experiment
in different directions.
Composers have continued to write opera and music theatre pieces, although economics
dictate that smaller-scale works often predominate. John Taverner, Arvo Pärt and Henryk Görecki
(the 'holy minimalists') are noted for their spiritual approach to sacred music.
Other composers include Ligetij Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, John Adams,
Judith Weir and James MacMillan.

Composers are listed in order of their date of birth

66 KNOWLEDGE

Test your knowledge

Lento

19

dim.
 KNOWLEDGE

Answer these questions about the piece of piano music printed opposite.

Give the meaning of each of the following:

Lento (bar 1) 'm/ (bar 8).

(bars 10-11)

> (over the uppermost note on the first beat of bar 12)

dim. (bar 20)

(over the uppermost note in bar 24)

Name the chord (e.g. C or Em) marked X in bar 1.

Give one word to describe the texture of the first four bars of the piece.

State the bar numbers in which the first two bars are given a varied repeat.

Bars to

How is bar 6 related to bar 5?

Name the cadence marked with a red bracket in bars 15-16. The key is G major.

Explain the difference between the curved lines marked Y and Z in bar 15.

Draw a bracket below seven notes next to each other on the bass stave that
form part of a chromatic scale.

How does the melody marked with a green bracket

in bars 16-18 differ when it is repeated two bars later?

Name the compositional device used in the bass of bars 16-24.

Complete this description of the dynamics from the last beat of bar 16 to the end
of the piece:

This passage starts loudly and then

12 For how many beats does the note D beginning in bar 22 last?

13. Use two technical terms to describe the metre of this music.

This piece was composed in 1878. In what musical period is this?

.68 KNOWLEDGE

Answers
z Activity 1 Activity 4
1.

2.

3.

4.

3.

5.
demisemiquaver / 32nd note

semibreve / whole note

7. DAD FED ED A BAD EGG

5. minim / half note
6. semibreve / whole note
8. 7. crotchet / quarter note

8.
Activity 2

2.

9. (4 1/2), 10, 6, 6, 51/2

3. A DEAD BEE in her BAG on the BED

10.

4.

Activity 3

Activity 5

This tune is in triple metre. Bar 4 has the same rhythm as

bar 3. The rest in bar 6 lasts for 3 beats.
G B E D
B D G
Activity 6
2.

Activity 7

( free choice)
 KNOWLEDGE

Activity 8 Activity 12 z

1. D flat, F sharp, A flat, D sharp

2 a F sharp, D flat, C sharp, G flat

Activity 13

2.

Activity 9
3, F sharp, B, B flat, B/ B natural
B,

2. E, B, B, B, Activity 14

1. F sharp, C sharp, E, E, C sharp F sharp

3.

2. D major, 4, last bar:

3. A major, 3rd / mediant.

Activity 10 Activity 15

1. B flat, A flat, D flat, C, E flat, F

2. Eb major, 2, bar 4:

etc.

3B Bb major.

Activity 11
1 4th 7th 2nd

etc.

5th 7th 2nd 1st 3rd 3rd 5th 6th

Activity 16

4th
2.

3. B minor, 9

2.

dominant tonic submediant

.70 KNOWLEDGE

Activity 17 Activity 22

Major pentatonic, Mixolydian, 1. Very slow; moderately loud

Chromatic scale, Whole tone Gradually get louder
Accent/emphasise the note or chord
Gradually get quieter
Activity 18 Hold/emphasise the note or chord

2.

3. Chordal/homophonic
major 3rd major 6th minor 7th
4. 9 to 10.

It is a descending (free) sequence

perfect 4th diminished 5th minor 2nd perfect

7. Y is a tie, Z is a slur

Activity 19 Bar beat 3 to bar 14, beat

8. II, 1

(Key) F major, (Chord) tonic / F 9. It is an octave lower

2. G D/F# G Am/C G/D D7 G or 10. (Tonic) pedal

G (major): I Vb I iib lc V7 |

11. Becomes gradually quieter until the end

3. Em B/F# Em/G B7/A Em/G Em B or
12. 8
E minor: i vc ib V7d ib V i

cm/Eb Ddim/F G cm or 13. Simple triple

C minor: ib iib V i

14. Romantic
4, Ab Fm Db Bbm Ab or

Ab major: I vi IV ii
(The music is the first piece in Tchaikovsky's
Album for the Young Op.39)

Activity 20
A major, plagal G minor, interrupted
E minor, imperfect D minor, perfect

Activity 21

1. D minor, C (major),

2. G minor, F (major)

3. B minor
 KNOWLEDGE

Index of terms
o
Accents 49 Dotted notes 10 Repeats 50—51
Acciaccatura 51 Duple 12 50
Accidentals 24- 25 Duplet 19 Rests 9-11, 13, 16, 51
Anacrusis 13 Dynamics 48 Riff 59
Antiphonal texture Eighth note 9- 10 Ritornello form 55
Appoggiatura 51 Enharmonic equivalents 37 Romantic period 65
Arco 63 Figuration 38 Rondo form 54
Arpeggios 38, 52 Form 53—55 Scales 22-23, 26-35
Articulation marks 49 Fragmentation 58 blues 35
Attacca 52 Glissando 52 chromatic 35
Augmentation 59 Half note 9-10 C major 22
Barlines 12 Harmonics 52 hexatonic 34
Baroque period 65 Harmony 38—43 pentatonic 34
Bars 12 Heterophony 57 Semibreve 9-10
Bass clef 7 Homophony 56 Semiquaver 9-10
Beaming 14- 15 Imitation 57 Semitone 21

Binary form 54 Intervallic expansion 58 58

Broken chords 38 Intervals 36-37 Seventh chords 39
Cadences 42 Inversion (of melody) 59 Simple time 18
Canon 57 Inversions (of chords) 38- 40 Sixteenth note 9-10
Chords 43 26-33 Slash chord 39
identifying chords 40 Key signatures 26-33 Slur 49
progressions 42—43 Leger lines 8 Sonata form 54
Chord symbols 39 Major keys 26- 30 Staccatissimo 49
Chromatic 35 Melisma 60 Staccato 49
Circle of fifths 30, 33, 43 Metre 18-19 Stave 4
Classical period 65 simple time 18 Strophic form 54
Clefs 5-7 irregular metre 18 Symphony 55
Coda 51, 54, 55 compound time 18 Syncopation 59
Compound time 18 Minim 9-10 Tempo 47
Concerto 55 Minor keys 31-33, 39 Ternary form 54
Conjunct 60 Modes 34-35 Texture 56—57
Contraction 58 Modulation 44—46 Theme 53
Contrapuntal texture 56 Motif 53 Time signatures 12-13, 18-19

Crescendo 48 Ornaments 51 Tonality 44—46

Cross rhythm 59 Ostinato 59 Tone 21

Crotchet 9- 10 Pedal 59 Transposing instruments 62

Da capo 50 Phrasing 53 Treble clef 5
Da capo form 54 Pizzicato 63 Triads 38-39
Degrees of the scale 23 Polyphonic texture 56 Trill 51

Demisemiquaver 9-10 Postmodernism 65 Triple metre 12

Diatonic 35 55 Triplets 17

Diminished intervals 36- 38 Quadruple metre 12 Tuplets 17

Diminuendo 48 Quarter note 9-10 Turn 51

Diminution 59 Quaver 9-10 Variation 58

Disjunct 60 Renaissance period 65 Whole note 9-10
 FURTHER READING

About the author:

PAUL TERRY studied music at the University of East been Chief Examiner in Music for both OCSEB (now
Anglia and trained as a teacher at Cambridge University. part of OCR) and Edexcel (for whom he pioneered the
He taught from primary to 6th-form level for 20 years, introduction of Music Technology as an A-level subject)
including 15 years as head of music at a welt-known He has also served as a member of the Secondary
public school, after which he combined examining with Examinations Council and its successor the Schools
part-time teaching at his local university. Examinations and Assessment Council, and has been
employed as a music consultant by several examining
Paul was an examiner for the Associated Board of the
boards.
Royal Schools of Music for nearly 30 years, and has

Available from Rhinegold You may find the following

Education for your course: books useful too:
GCSE Study Guide Go to www.rhinegoldeducation.co.uk for
(for AQA, Edexcel and OCR exam boards) a complete list of our resources.

GCSE Listening Tests GCSE Music Composition Workbook

AQA, Edexcel, OCR and WJEC/Eduqas
(for
GCSE Music Literacy Workbook
exam boards)
GCSE PerformancePieces:
GCSE Revision Guide
Piano, Voice, Alto Sax, Clarinet, Flute,
AQA, Edexcel, OCR and WJEC/Eduqas
(for
Guitar, Bass Guitar, Drums
exam boards)
Understanding Popular Music

Careers in Music

Music Technology from Scratch

Dictionary of Music in Sound

First published 2016 in Great Britain by

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0 2016 Rhinegold Education Editor: Thomas Cydon

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