Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

South La Union Campus

College Of Education
Agoo, La Union

Educ. 102 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

LEARNERS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES
I. What are Learning Disabilities?

Learning disabilities may be defined in practical, medical and legal terms. The common theme in all
three definitions is that a learning disability is a disorder in one or more basic psychological processes
that may manifest itself as an imperfect ability in certain areas of learning, such as reading, written
expression, or mathematics.

Practical Definition
The term “learning disabilities”, sometimes referred to as specific learning disabilities, is an umbrella
term that covers a range of neurologically based disorders in learning and various degrees of severity
of such disorders.

These disorders involve difficulty in one or more, but not uniformly in all, basic psychological
processes:
1. input (auditory and visual perception),
2. integration (sequencing, abstraction, and organization),
3. memory (working, short term, and long term memory),
4. output (expressive language), and
5. motor (fine and gross motor).

Learning disabilities vary from individual to individual and may present in a variety of ways. Learning
disabilities may manifest as difficulty:
1. processing information by visual and auditory, means, which may impact upon reading, spelling,
writing, and understanding or using language,
2. prioritizing, organizing, doing mathematics, and following instructions,
3. storing or retrieving information from short or long term memory,
4. using spoken language, and
5. clumsiness or difficulty with handwriting.

Learning disabilities are not emotional disturbances, intellectual disabilities, or sensory impairments.
They are not caused by inadequate parenting or lack of educational opportunity.

Cognitive assessment, including psychoeducational or neuropsychological evaluation, is of critical

importance in diagnosing a learning disability. Learning disabilities may be diagnosed by qualified
school or educational psychologists, by clinical psychologists, and by clinical neuropsychologists who
are trained and experienced in the assessment of learning disabilities.

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Medical Definition
The draft Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) contains a
section for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, and, within that section, a category for Specific Learning
Disorder. The Neurodevelopmental Disorders Section also contains categories for Communications
Disorders and Motor Disorders. Specific Learning Disorder in draft DSM-V includes difficulties in
reading, written expression, and mathematics.
DSM-IV-TR, which is currently in effect, includes: Reading Disorder, Mathematics Disorder, Disorder
of Written Expression, and Learning Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (NOS).

Legal Definition
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) provides that “specific learning disability” means
“a disorder in 1 or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.” Such term “includes such conditions as
perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.”
Such term does not include “a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor
disabilities, of intellectual disabilities, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage.” 20 U.S.C Section 1401 (30).

II. Prevalence
Specific learning disabilities are considered a high-incidence disability. The U.S. Department of
Education reports that there are over 2.8 million students being served for specific learning disabilities.
This number of students is approximately 47.4% of all children receiving special education services.
According to Statistics Canada, of all the children with disabilities in this country, more than half
(59.8%) have a learning disability.

III. Characteristics
Students with learning disabilities are very heterogeneous, meaning that no two students possess the
identical profile of strengths and weaknesses. The concept of learning disabilities covers an extremely
wide range of characteristics. One student may have a deficit in just one area while another may
exhibit deficits in numerous areas, yet both may be labeled as children with learning disabilities.
Over time, parents, educators, and other professionals have identified a wide variety of characteristics
associated with learning disabilities. These include:
 Academic problems
 Disorders of attention
 Poor motor abilities
 Psychological process deficits and information-processing problems
 Lack of cognitive strategies needed for efficient learning
 Oral language difficulties
 Reading difficulties
 Written language problems
 Mathematical disorders
 Social skill deficits

Not all students will exhibit these characteristics, and many pupils who demonstrate these same
behaviors are successful in the classroom. For students with a learning disability, it is the quantity,
intensity, and duration of these behaviors that lead to problems in school and elsewhere. It should also

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be noted that boys are four times more likely to be labeled with a learning disability than girls. The
reason for this has not yet been determined by researchers.

Impact on Learning
Learning disabilities are historically characterized as having a strong impact on psychological
processes, academic achievement, and social/emotional development.

A. Psychological Processes
Psychological processes is a broad term that incorporates the wide range of thinking skills we use to
process and learn information. The five psychological, or cognitive, processes that are affected by a
learning disability are perception, attention, memory, metacognition, and organization.
1. Perception
Perception is the ability to organize and interpret the information experienced through the sensory
channels, such as visual or auditory input. Perception is important to learning because it provides us
with our first sensory impressions about something we see or hear. A student relies on his perceptual
abilities to recognize, compare, and discriminate information. An example would be the ability to
distinguish the letter "B" from the letter "D" based on the overall shape, direction of the letter, and its
parts. Some children with learning disabilities reverse letters, words, or whole passages during
reading or writing.
2. Attention
Attention is a broad term that refers to the ability to receive and process information. Attention deficits
are one of the disorders teachers most frequently associate with individuals with learning disabilities.
Teachers may describe their students with learning disabilities as "distractible" or "in his own world."
The inability to focus on information can inhibit the student's ability to perform tasks in the classroom
at the appropriate achievement level.
3. Memory
Memory involves many different skills and processes such as encoding (the ability to organize
information for learning). Students with learning disabilities may experience deficits in working memory
which affects their ability to store new information and to retrieve previously processed information
from long-term memory.
4. Metacognition
Metacognition is the ability to monitor and evaluate performance. This process supplies many of the
keys to learning from experience, generalizing information and strategies, and applying what you have
learned. It requires the ability to:
 Identify and select learning skills and techniques to facilitate the acquisition of information
 Choose or create the setting in which you are most likely to receive material accurately
 Identify the most effective and efficient way to process and present information
 Evaluate and adapt your techniques for different materials and situations
A deficit in any of these skills can have a major impact on the ability of a student to learn new
information and apply it to any situation.
5. Organization
Organization is the underlying thread of all these cognitive processes. The inability to organize
information can affect the most superficial tasks or the most complex cognitive activities. Students with
learning disabilities may have difficulties organizing their thought processes, their classwork, and their
environment. Any deficit in these areas can have a detrimental effect on the academic success of the
student.

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B. Academic Achievement
Because of the effect on cognitive processes, students with learning disabilities may have difficulty in
a variety of academic areas as well as social and emotional development. While a student with a
learning disability may have difficulties in all academic areas, major problems are more often found in
reading, language arts, and mathematics.
1. Reading
Reading is the most difficult skill area for the majority of students with learning disabilities. Learning
disabilities in reading encompass a vast array of reading issues including dyslexia. Some of the most
common reading disabilities are word analysis, fluency, and reading comprehension.
 Word analysis includes the ability to associate sounds with the various letters and letter
combinations used to write them, to immediately recognize and remember words, and to use the
surrounding text to help figure out a specific word. Word analysis is a foundational skill for reading.
For students with learning disabilities, it is a major issue to overcome to be a successful reader.
 Fluency is the rate of accurate reading (correct words per minute). With processing and word
analysis issues, a high rate of reading fluency is often quite difficult for a student with a learning
disability.
 Reading comprehension is the ability to understand written material. If a student with learning
disabilities has difficulty reading written material, then comprehension will always be greatly
affected. While problems with word analysis can affect reading comprehension, other factors that
may contribute to problems with reading comprehension include the inability to successfully
identify and organize information from the material.
2. Language Arts
Language arts is often another problematic academic area for students with learning disabilities. While
language arts is a broad subject, students with learning disabilities have problems with three major
skill areas that affect the entire subject. These include spelling, spoken language, and written
language. Because of the close relationship of some of these skills to reading ability, they tend to be
areas of great difficulty for many students with learning disabilities.
 Spelling requires all the essential skills used in the word-analysis strategies of phonics and sight-
word reading. The difficulties students with learning disabilities have in learning and applying rules
of phonics, visualizing the word correctly, and evaluating spellings result in frequent misspellings,
even as they become more adept at reading.
 Spoken language, or oral language, is a deficit area for many students with learning disabilities,
impacting both academic and social performance. Spoken language issues may include problems
identifying and using appropriate speech sounds, using appropriate words and understanding
word meanings, using and understanding various sentence structures, and using appropriate
grammar and language. Other problem areas include understanding underlying meanings, such as
irony or figurative language, and adjusting language for different uses and purposes.
 Written language is often an area of great difficulty for students with learning disabilities. Specific
problems include inadequate planning, structure, and organization; immature or limited sentence
structure; limited and repetitive vocabulary; limited consideration of audience, unnecessary or
unrelated information or details; and errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and handwriting.
Students with learning disabilities often lack both the motivation and the monitoring and evaluation
skills considered necessary for good writing.
3. Mathematics
Mathematics does not receive the same attention as reading and language arts, but many students
with learning disabilities have unique difficulties in this subject area. Specific problems may include
difficulty understanding size and spatial relationships and concepts related to direction, place value,
decimals, fractions, and time and difficulty remembering math facts. Remembering and correctly
applying the steps in mathematical problems (such as the steps involved in long division) and reading
and solving word problems are significant problem areas.

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 C. Social and Emotional Development
It is important to realize that most social behaviors also involve learning. The characteristics that
interfere with a student's acquisition of reading or writing skills can also interfere with his or her ability
to acquire or interpret social behaviors. For example, individuals may have difficulties correctly
interpreting social situations and reading social cues, and they may act impulsively without identifying
the consequences of their behavior or recognizing the feelings and concerns of others.

IV. Why Provide Educational Services of Accommodations to Individuals with Learning

Disabilities?
Learning disabilities are lifelong impairments that may impact all areas of an individual’s life. It is
important to provide services and accommodations that are required by law, not just because of the
legal requirement, but also because providing these services and accommodations benefits
individuals with learning disabilities and society overall by facilitating full participation in society by
individuals with learning disabilities.

V. Specific Learning Disabilities

1. Auditory Processing Disorder - Adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the
ear is processed and interpreted by the brain. Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder,
individuals with Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) do not recognize subtle differences between
sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it
difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out
competing background noises.

Signs and Symptoms

 Has difficulty processing and remembering language-related tasks but may have no trouble
interpreting or recalling non-verbal environmental sounds, music, etc.
 May process thoughts and ideas slowly and have difficulty explaining them
 Misspells and mispronounces similar-sounding words or omits syllables; confuses similar-sounding
words (celery/salary; belt/built; three/free; jab/job; bash/batch)
 May be confused by figurative language (metaphor, similes) or misunderstand puns and jokes;
interprets words too literally
 Often is distracted by background sounds/noises
 Finds it difficult to stay focused on or remember a verbal presentation or lecture
 May misinterpret or have difficulty remembering oral directions; difficulty following directions in a series
 Has difficulty comprehending complex sentence structure or rapid speech
 “Ignores” people, especially if engrossed
 Says “What?” a lot, even when has heard much of what was said

Strategies
 Show rather than explain
 Supplement with more intact senses (use visual cues, signals, handouts, manipulatives)
 Reduce or space directions, give cues such as “ready?”
 Reword or help decipher confusing oral and/or written directions
 Teach abstract vocabulary, word roots, synonyms/antonyms
 Vary pitch and tone of voice, alter pace, stress key words
 Ask specific questions as you teach to find out if they do understand
 Allow them 5-6 seconds to respond (“think time”)
 Have the student constantly verbalize concepts, vocabulary words, rules, etc.
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 2. Dyscalculia - Affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math facts.
Individuals with this type of Learning Disability may also have poor comprehension of math symbols,
may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with
counting.

Signs and Symptoms

 Shows difficulty understanding concepts of place value, and quantity, number lines, positive and
negative value, carrying and borrowing
 Has difficulty understanding and doing word problems
 Has difficulty sequencing information or events
 Exhibits difficulty using steps involved in math operations
 Shows difficulty understanding fractions
 Is challenged making change and handling money
 Displays difficulty recognizing patterns when adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing
 Has difficulty putting language to math processes
 Has difficulty understanding concepts related to time such as days, weeks, months, seasons, quarters,
etc.
 Exhibits difficulty organizing problems on the page, keeping numbers lined up, following through on
long division problems

Strategies
 Allow use of fingers and scratch paper
 Use diagrams and draw math concepts
 Provide peer assistance
 Suggest use of graph paper
 Suggest use of colored pencils to differentiate problems
 Work with manipulatives
 Draw pictures of word problems
 Use mnemonic devices to learn steps of a math concept
 Use rhythm and music to teach math facts and to set steps to a beat
 Schedule computer time for the student for drill and practice

3. Dysgraphia - Affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.

A person with this specific learning disability may have problems including illegible handwriting,
inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as
well as thinking and writing at the same time.

Signs and Symptoms

 May have illegible printing and cursive writing (despite appropriate time and attention given the task)
 Shows inconsistencies: mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower case, or irregular sizes, shapes
or slant of letters
 Has unfinished words or letters, omitted words
 Inconsistent spacing between words and letters
 Exhibits strange wrist, body or paper position
 Has difficulty pre-visualizing letter formation
 Copying or writing is slow or labored, Shows poor spatial planning on paper
 Has cramped or unusual grip/may complain of sore hand
 Has great difficulty thinking and writing at the same time (taking notes, creative writing.)

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 Strategies
 Suggest use of word processor
 Avoid chastising student for sloppy, careless work
 Use oral exams
 Allow use of tape recorder for lectures
 Allow the use of a note taker
 Provide notes or outlines to reduce the amount of writing required
 Reduce copying aspects of work (pre-printed math problems)
 Allow use of wide rule paper and graph paper
 Suggest use of pencil grips and /or specially designed writing aids
 Provide alternatives to written assignments (video-taped reports, audio-taped reports)

4. Dyslexia - Affects reading and related language-based processing skills.

The severity of this specific learning disability can differ in each individual but can affect
reading fluency, decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech
and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language-
Based Learning Disability.

Signs and Symptoms

 Reads slowly and painfully
 Experiences decoding errors, especially with the order of letters
 Shows wide disparity between listening comprehension and reading comprehension of some text
 Has trouble with spelling
 May have difficulty with handwriting
 Exhibits difficulty recalling known words
 Has difficulty with written language
 May experience difficulty with math computations
 Decoding real words is better than nonsense words
 Substitutes one small sight word for another: a, I, he, the, there, was

Strategies
 Provide a quiet area for activities like reading, answering comprehension questions
 Use books on tape
 Use books with large print and big spaces between lines
 Provide a copy of lecture notes
 Don’t count spelling on history, science or other similar tests
 Allow alternative forms for book reports
 Allow the use of a laptop or other computer for in-class essays
 Use multi-sensory teaching methods
 Teach students to use logic rather than rote memory
 Present material in small units

5. Language Processing Disorder- Affects attaching meaning to sound groups that form words,
sentences and stories.
A specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD). While an APD affects the interpretation
of all sounds coming into the brain (e.g., processing sound in noisy backgrounds or the sequence of
sounds or where they come from), a Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the
processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language (what you say) and/or receptive
language (how you understand what others say).

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 Signs and Symptoms
 Has difficulty gaining meaning from spoken language
 Demonstrates poor written output
 Exhibits poor reading comprehension
 Shows difficulty expressing thoughts in verbal form
 Has difficulty labeling objects or recognizing labels
 Is often frustrated by having a lot to say and no way to say it
 Feels that words are “right on the tip of my tongue”
 Can describe an object and draw it, but can’t think of the word for it
 May be depressed or having feelings of sadness
 Has difficulty getting jokes

Strategies
 Speak slowly and clearly and use simple sentences to convey information
 Refer to a speech pathologist
 Allow tape recorder for note taking
 Write main concepts on board
 Provide support person or peer tutor
 Use visualization techniques to enhance listening and comprehension
 Use of graphic organizers for note taking from lectures or books
 Use story starters for creative writing assignments
 Practice story mapping
 Draw out details with questions and visualization strategies

6. Non Verbal Learning Disorder- Has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial
expressions or body language and may have poor coordination.
Non-Verbal Learning Disability (NVD or NVLD), is a disorder which is usually characterized by
a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social
skills.

Signs and Symptoms

 Has trouble recognizing nonverbal cues such as facial expression or body language
 Shows poor psycho-motor coordination; clumsy; seems to be constantly “getting in the way,” bumping
into people and objects
 Using fine motor skills a challenge: tying shoes, writing, using scissors
 Needs to verbally label everything that happens to comprehend circumstances, spatial orientation,
directional concepts and coordination; often lost or tardy
 Has difficulty coping with changes in routing and transitions
 Has difficulty generalizing previously learned information
 Has difficulty following multi-step instructions
 Make very literal translations
 Asks too many questions, may be repetitive and inappropriately interrupt the flow of a lesson
 Imparts the “illusion of competence” because of the student’s strong verbal skills

Strategies
 Rehearse getting from place to place
 Minimize transitions and give several verbal cues before transition
 Avoid assuming the student will automatically generalize instructions or concepts

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 Verbally point out similarities, differences and connections; number and present instructions in
sequence; simplify and break down abstract concepts, explain metaphors, nuances and multiple
meanings in reading material
 Answer the student’s questions when possible, but let them know a specific number (three vs. a few)
and that you can answer three more at recess, or after school
 Allow the child to abstain from participating in activities at signs of overload
 Thoroughly prepare the child in advance for field trips, or other changes, regardless of how minimal
 Implement a modified schedule or creative programming
 Never assume child understands something because he or she can “parrot back” what you’ve just said
 Offer added verbal explanations when the child seems lost or registers confusion

7. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit- Affects the understanding of information that a

person sees, or the ability to draw or copy.
A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD,
it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles
with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.

Signs and Symptoms

 May have reversals: b for d, p for q or inversions: u for n, w for m
 Has difficulty negotiating around campus
 Complains eyes hurt and itch, rubs eyes, complains print blurs while reading
 Turns head when reading across page or holds paper at odd angles
 Closes one eye while working, may yawn while reading
 Cannot copy accurately
 Loses place frequently
 Does not recognize an object/word if only part of it is shown
 Holds pencil too tightly; often breaks pencil point/crayons
 Struggles to cut or paste
 Misaligns letters; may have messy papers, which can include letters colliding, irregular spacing, letters
not on line

Strategies
 Avoid grading handwriting
 Allow students to dictate creative stories
 Provide alternative for written assignments
 Suggest use of pencil grips and specially designed pencils and pens
 Allow use of computer or word processor
 Restrict copying tasks
 Provide tracking tools: ruler, text windows
 Use large print books
 Plan to order or check out books on tape
 Experiment with different paper types: pastels, graph, embossed raised line paper

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 VI. Related Disorders to Learning Disabilities

1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder- Affects focus, attention and behavior and can make
learning challenging
A disorder that includes difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling
behavior and hyperactivity. Although ADHD is not considered a learning disability, research indicates
that from 30-50 percent of children with ADHD also have a specific learning disability, and that the two
conditions can interact to make learning extremely challenging. It is a condition that becomes apparent
in some children in the preschool and early school years. It is hard for these children to control their
behavior and/or pay attention. It is estimated that between 3 and 5 percent of children have attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or approximately 2 million children in the United States. This
means that in a classroom of 24 to 30 children, it is likely that at least one will have ADHD.
ADHD is not considered to be a learning disability. It can be determined to be a disability under
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), making a student eligible to receive special
education services. However, ADHD falls under the category “Other Health Impaired” and not under
“Specific Learning Disabilities.”
The principle characteristics of ADHD are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. There are
three subtypes of ADHD recognized by professionals. These are the predominantly
hyperactive/impulsive type (that does not show significant inattention); The predominantly inattentive
type (that does not show significant hyperactive-impulsive behavior) sometimes called ADD; and the
combined type (that displays both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive symptoms).
Other disorders that sometimes accompany ADHD are Tourette Syndrome (affecting a very
small proportion of people with ADHD); oppositional defiant disorder (affecting as many as one-third to
one-half of all children with ADHD); conduct disorder (about 20 to 40% of ADHD children); anxiety and
depression; and bipolar disorder.
*National Institute of Mental Health, 2003

2. Dyspraxia- Problems with movement and coordination, language and speech.

A disorder that is characterized by difficulty in muscle control, which causes problems with
movement and coordination, language and speech, and can affect learning. Although not a learning
disability, Dyspraxia often exists along with Dyslexia, Dyscalculia or ADHD.

Signs and Symptoms

 Exhibits poor balance; may appear clumsy; may frequently stumble
 Shows difficulty with motor planning
 Demonstrates inability to coordinate both sides of the body
 Has poor hand-eye coordination
 Exhibits weakness in the ability to organize self and belongings
 Shows possible sensitivity to touch
 May be distressed by loud noises or constant noises like the ticking of a clock or someone tapping a
pencil
 May break things or choose toys that do not require skilled manipulation
 Has difficulty with fine motor tasks such as coloring between the lines, putting puzzles together; cutting
accurately or pasting neatly
 Irritated by scratchy, rough, tight or heavy clothing

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 Strategies
 Pre-set students for touch with verbal prompts, “I’m going to touch your right hand.”
 Avoid touching from behind or getting too close and make sure peers are aware of this
 Provide a quiet place, without auditory or visual distractions, for testing, silent reading or work that
requires great concentration
 Warn the student when bells will ring or if a fire drill is scheduled
 Whisper when working one to one with the child
 Allow parents to provide earplugs or sterile waxes for noisy events such as assemblies
 Make sure the parent knows about what is observed about the student in the classroom
 Refer student for occupational therapy or sensory integration training
 Be cognizant of light and light sources that may be irritating to child
 Use manipulatives, but make sure they are in students field of vision and don’t force student to touch
them

Assistive Technology
Students with learning disabilities have a variety of difficulties in school. In order for many students
with learning disabilities to be successful in school, assistive technology devices are used to
accommodate the student's learning. Here are a few of the types of assistive technologies used for
students with learning disabilities:

Reading:

 Text to Speech software

 Screen Reading software
 Audio Books

Writing:

 Portable Word Processors

 Auditory Word Processing Software
 Word Prediction Programs
 Graphical Word Processors
 On-Screen Keyboards
 Voice Recognition Software
 Organizational/Outlining/Drafting Software
 Online Writing Support

References:
The LDA of California and UC Davis M.I.N.D. Institute “Q.U.I.L.T.S.” Calendar 2001-2002
http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/specific-learning-disabilities/

ACTIVITY # 1
EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 11
Name: ____________________________________________Course/Year/Section: ______
Instructions : Do what is being asked. Write your answer on a sheet of paper. WRITE LEGIBLY.

A. Define learning disabilities.

B. Read each statement carefully then write your answer on the space before each number.
__________1. It is the rate of accurate reading
__________2. It is the ability to understand written material
__________3. It is the ability to receive and process information.
__________4. It affects a person’s handwriting ability and fine motor skills.
__________5. It affects a person’s ability to understand numbers and learn math facts.
__________6. It affects focus, attention and behavior and can make learning challenging.
__________7. It affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to
draw or copy.
__________8. It affects attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and
stories.
__________9. It is the ability to associate sounds with the various letters and letter
combinations used to write them
__________10. It involves many different skills and processes such as the ability to organize
information for learning.

C. Below are characteristics of children with learning disabilities. Identify what specific learning
disability is being described. Write your answer on the space before each number.

____________1. Has trouble with spelling

____________2. Make very literal translations
____________3. Reads slowly and painfully
____________4. Confuses similar-sounding words
____________5. Has poor hand-eye coordination
____________6. Shows possible sensitivity to touch
____________7. May be confused by figurative language
____________8. Shows difficulty understanding fractions
____________9. Has difficulty following multi-step instructions
____________10. Exhibits strange wrist, body or paper position
____________11. Has unfinished words or letters, omitted words
____________12. Has difficulty sequencing information or events
____________13. Inconsistent spacing between words and letters
____________14. Feels that words are “right on the tip of my tongue”
____________15. Has difficulty labeling objects or recognizing labels

D. Make a quotation for learning disabilities.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 12

 Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University
South La Union Campus
College Of Education
Agoo, La Union

Educ. 102 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Learners Who are Gifted and Talented

What is Giftedness?
Children are gifted when their ability is significantly above the norm for their age.

Giftedness may manifest in one or more domains such as; intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership, or
in a specific academic field such as language arts, mathematics or science (National Association for
Gifted Children).
In early childhood, GIFTEDNESS involves:

 advanced development beyond age-typical expectations

 a potential for advanced learning and achievement in one or more areas.

TALENT

Talents are linked to specific domains or areas of expression, such as:

 music
 art
 athletics
 academic learning

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT GIFT AND TALENT

 Giftedness is identifiable in very young children.

 Early identification is essential for the long-term wellbeing of the gifted child.

 Giftedness is present equally in boys and girls and children from all socio-economic and cultural
backgrounds.

 Giftedness is not rare – it is estimated 10–15 per cent of the population is gifted.

 Gifted children can also have learning difficulties and disabilities.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 13

 TRAITS OF GIFTEDNESS

No gifted individual is exactly the same, each with his own unique patterns and traits.   There are
many traits that gifted individuals have in common, but no gifted learner exhibits traits in every area. 

COGNITIVE CREATIVE AFFECTIVE BEHAVIORAL

Keen power of Creativeness and Unusual emotional Spontaneity
abstraction inventiveness depth and intensity
Boundless enthusiasm
Interest in problem- Keen sense of humor Sensitivity or empathy
solving and applying to the feelings of others Intensely focused on
concepts Ability for fantasy passions—resists
High expectations of changing activities
Voracious and early Openness to stimuli, self and others, often when engrossed in own
reader wide interests leading to feelings of interests
frustration
Large vocabulary Intuitiveness Highly energetic—
Heightened self- needs little sleep or
Intellectual curiosity Flexibility awareness, down time
accompanied by
Power of critical Independence in feelings of being Constantly questions
thinking, skepticism, attitude and social different
self-criticism behavior Insatiable curiosity
Easily wounded, need
Persistent, goal- Self-acceptance and for emotional support Impulsive, eager and
directed behavior unconcern for social spirited
norms Need for consistency
Independence in work between abstract Perseverance—strong
and study Radicalism values and personal determination in areas
actions of importance
Diversity of interests Aesthetic and moral
and abilities commitment to self- Advanced levels of High levels of
selected work moral judgment frustration—particularly
when having difficulty
Idealism and sense of meeting standards of
justice performance (either
imposed by self or
others)

Volatile temper,
especially related to
perceptions of failure

Non-stop
talking/chattering

Source:  Clark, B. (2008). Growing up gifted (7th ed.)   Upper Saddle River, NJ:  Pearson Prentice Hall.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 14

 SOCIAL & EMOTIONAL ISSUES

Because gifted children demonstrate greater maturity in some domains over others, they may be at
greater risk for specific kinds of social-emotional difficulties if their needs are not met.

These aspects may include heightened awareness, anxiety, perfectionism, stress, issues with peer
relationships, and concerns with identity and fit.   Parents, adults, and caregivers in their lives need to
stay in tune with their specific child's needs, and help shape a strong framework for social-emotional
health.  
Keep in mind:

 A child gifted in one area does not mean gifted in all

 Giftedness can lead to the masking and misunderstanding of problem signs
 Not all gifted children are alike, including their own unique social-emotional profile
 There is no single, definitive recipe for maintaining a child's emotional equilibrium
 Parents need to model balance and set the tone to reduce stress/anxiety in the gifted child's life
 We can teach our children strategies and provide tools for dealing with the ebb and flow of life

SIX TYPES OF CHILDREN WHO ARE GIFTED

1. The Successful – Successful types are the most likely to be identified as gifted, as they are able to
learn the system and do what is expected of them to easily score high in school.

Eager to impress, these students usually have no behavior problems. However, they can grow bored,
becoming dependent on the system and begin only doing the minimum to get by. These types can
also be anxious or scared about failure because of their want to impress parents and teachers.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
Parents - Give your gifted child more independence and freedom. Provide them with chances to take
risks.

Teachers - Allow your gifted students to accelerate or have enriched curriculum. Make sure they are
able to interact with like-minded peers and allow them time to explore personal interests.

2. The Challenging/Creative – a divergent and disruptive creative thinker, possibly also a pessimist
and introvert. The Challenging can be noisy in class and too much group work may cause distress and
an eruption of emotion. This student stands up for his convictions, and may question rules. If he
isn’t challenged and engaged, he can exhibit inconsistent work habits, boredom, and
impatience. Teachers may feel frustrated with him, and he can have low self-esteem. If his abilities are
not understood and supported, he “may be ‘at risk’ for dropping out of school, ‘drug addiction
or delinquent behavior if appropriate interventions are not made by junior high.'”. Teachers are not
keen on too many of these types of students in class.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
Parents - Be your child's advocate at school. Accept them and try to understand them best you can.
Let them explore their interests.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 15

Teachers - Place students with a teacher that is able to understand and meet their needs. Have clear,
direct communication with the student. Help the student improve social and behavior skills.

3. The Underground – previously highly motivated and intensely interested in academic or creative
pursuits, the Underground begins to deny their talent as their need to belong rises dramatically. They
hide their giftedness to be with peers and simply do enough work to pass but may put time into peer
fashion/sport. They appear average.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Parents - Accept the "underground" for who she is. Giver her choices when it comes to her education
and allow her time with students of the same age. Provide gifted role-models.

Teachers - Provide same-sex role models. Let students take breaks from gifted classes if they want to.

4. The Dropout – an angry, frustrated student who is bitter with the system that has failed them and
causes anguish to everybody. They perceive that they are not accepted for who they are and that
society wants to change them. The Dropout will likely refuse any cooperation and any help but
counselling can help them. Their problems are not educational but relate to a belief and mindset within
them.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
Parents - Seek counseling - this can help your child resolve their anger.

Teachers - Create learning experiences outside the classroom for your student. Allow them the ability
to study subjects in-depth.

5. The Double-Labelled – These students are not only gifted, but also have a physical, mental or
emotional disability. They are usually never identified, as they are often ignored because they seem
"average" or have been placed in a remedial program instead. Weaknesses are focused on rather
than strengths. Students of this type may be disruptive or have low self-esteem. They call their
schoolwork boring or stupid to cover up the fact that is it difficult for them.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
Parents - Recognize and challenge your child. Be their advocate at school. Provide them with risk-
taking activities and experiences.

Teachers - Put students in a gifted program. Provide any resources that are needed, including
alternative learning experiences

6. The Autonomous Learner – independent and self-directed, the Autonomous Learner makes the
school system work for them and feels comfortable creating opportunities for themselves. They make
up their own minds about how hard to work in the circumstances and what else they have planned.
They are well respected by adults and peers and frequently serve in some leadership capacity within
their school or community but still need a good coach at the appropriate level.

RECOMMENDATIONS:
EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 16
Parents - Provide opportunities for your child to explore their passions. Allow your child to be friends
with people of all ages. Be your child's advocate at school.

Teachers - Allow acceleration or enrichment. Consider possibility of dual enrollment or early admission
into a college. Allow students to study subjects in-depth.

 No matter which of the six your gifted child or student is, all gifted students need three things -
acceptance, support and guidance

GIFTED EDUCATION STRATEGIES

 Why Gifted Programs are Needed

Gifted and talented students and those with high abilities need gifted education programs that
will challenge them in regular classroom settings and enrichment and accelerated programs to
enable them to make continuous progress in school

A. Acceleration
Educational acceleration is one of the cornerstones of exemplary gifted education practices,
with more research supporting this intervention than any other in the literature on gifted
individuals. The practice of educational acceleration has long been used to match high-level
students’ general abilities and specific talents with optimal learning opportunities.

B. Curriculum Compacting
This important instructional strategy condenses, modifies, or streamlines the regular curriculum
to reduce repetition of previously mastered material. “Compacting” what students already know
allows time for acceleration or enrichment beyond the basic curriculum for students who would
otherwise be simply practicing what they already know.

C. Grouping
The practice of grouping, or placing students with similar abilities and/or performance together
for instruction, has been shown to positively impact student learning gains. Grouping gifted
children together allows for more appropriate, rapid, and advanced instruction, which matches
the rapidly developing skills and capabilities of gifted students.

D. Pull-Out and Other Specialized Programs

Programming options for gifted and talented students occur in a variety of ways, and research
demonstrates the effectiveness of pull-out programs, specialized classes, and other special
programs and schools and the curriculum these services use in raising student achievement.

THINGS TO CONSIDER

In identifying if a child may be gifted and/or talented in young children, you should consider a number
of factors that can affect the process:

If you recognise that a child in your care may be showing signs of advanced development or learning
you will need to decide if formal testing is appropriate.

Where educators are appropriately planning for the child’s advanced potential, the child is progressing
well and their family is satisfied with their child’s learning and development, a formal assessment such
as an IQ test may not provide any additional benefit.
EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 17
 Formal identification through IQ tests might be more appropriate when the child is:
 older
 moving to primary school
 at primary school
IQ tests measure thinking processes such as: logical reasoning, language comprehension and
expression, understanding of concepts and levels of general knowledge.

Informal identification

These informal approaches can be used:

 across a whole group of children as a basic screening tool
 with individual children were gift or talent is suspected.

Informal assessments may include:

 anecdotes and narratives
 learning stories
 portfolios
 information from children and their families
 information from other professionals.

REFERENCES:

Anderson, C., College, M. (2016). These Are The 6 Types Of Gifted Students. Retrieved from
https://www.theodysseyonline.com/6-types-gifted-students

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-educationalpsychology/chapter/gifted-and-talented-students/

https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/how-to-engage-gifted-and-talented-students-in-the-
classroom/

https://www.nagc.org/resources-publications/resources/what-giftedness

https://www.wiseonesgifted.net/the-six-types-of-gifted-children

ACTIVITY # 2

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 18

Name: ____________________________________________Course/Year/Section: ______
Instructions: Do what is being asked. Write your answer on a sheet of paper. WRITE LEGIBLY.

A. What is the difference of giftedness and talent?

B. Identify what is being described in each item.

_______1. Independent and self-directed
_______2. Stands up for his convictions, and may question rules
_______3. He/She can exhibit inconsistent work habits, boredom, and impatience
_______4. Begins to deny his/her talent as his/her need to belong rises dramatically
_______5. Scared about failure because of their want to impress parents and teachers.
_______6. Divergent and disruptive creative thinker, possibly also a pessimist and introvert
_______7. They call their schoolwork boring or stupid to cover up the fact that is it difficult for them.
_______8. These students are not only gifted, but also have a physical, mental or emotional disability
_______9. Previously highly motivated and intensely interested in academic or creative pursuits,
_______10. Makes the school system work for them and feels comfortable creating opportunities for
themselves
_______11. They perceive that they are not accepted for who they are and that society wants to
change them
_______12. They make up their own minds about how hard to work in the circumstances and what
else they have planned
_______13. Angry, frustrated student who is bitter with the system that has failed them and causes
anguish to everybody
_______14. They hide their giftedness to be with peers and simply do enough work to pass but may
put time into peer fashion/sport
_______15. They are usually never identified, as they are often ignored because they seem "average"
or have been placed in a remedial program instead

C. Make a quotation for children who are gifted and talented.

Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University

South La Union Campus

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 19

 College Of Education
Agoo, La Union

Educ. 102 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder

WHAT IS AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD)?

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability  that can cause significant social,
communication and behavioral challenges. There is often nothing about how people with ASD look
that sets them apart from other people, but people with ASD may communicate, interact, behave, and
learn in ways that are different from most other people. The learning, thinking, and problem-solving
abilities of people with ASD can range from gifted to severely challenged. Some people with ASD
need a lot of help in their daily lives; others need less.

A diagnosis of ASD now includes several conditions that used to be diagnosed separately: autistic
disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), and Asperger
syndrome. These conditions are now all called autism spectrum disorder.

PREVALENCE

 About 1 in 54 children has been identified with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) according to
estimates from CDC’s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network.
 ASD is reported to occur in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups.
 ASD is more than 4 times more common among boys than among girls.
 Studies in Asia, Europe, and North America have identified individuals with ASD with an
average prevalence of between 1% and 2%.
 About 1 in 6 (17%) children aged 3–17 years were diagnosed with a developmental disability,
as reported by parents, during a study period of 2009-2017. These included autism, attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, blindness, and cerebral palsy, among others.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

People with ASD often have problems with social, emotional, and communication skills. They
might repeat certain behaviors and might not want change in their daily activities. Many people with
ASD also have different ways of learning, paying attention, or reacting to things. Signs of ASD begin
during early childhood and typically last throughout a person’s life.

Children or adults with ASD might:

 not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over)
 not look at objects when another person points at them
 have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all
 avoid eye contact and want to be alone
 have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings
 prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to
 appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds
 be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them
 repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal
language

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 20

  have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions
 not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll)
 repeat actions over and over again
 have trouble adapting when a routine changes
 have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound
 lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using)

CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS

Researchers don’t know all of the causes of ASD. However, they have learned that there are likely
many causes for multiple types of ASD. There may be many different factors that make a child more
likely to have an ASD, including environmental, biologic and genetic factors.

 Most scientists agree that genes are one of the risk factors that can make a person more likely
to develop ASD.
 Children who have a sibling with ASD are at a higher risk of also having ASD.
 Individuals with certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as Fragile X Syndrome or
Tuberous sclerosis, can have a greater chance of having ASD.
 When taken during pregnancy, the prescription drugs valproic acid and thalidomide have been
linked with a higher risk of ASD.
 There is some evidence that the critical period for developing ASD occurs before, during, and
immediately after birth.
 Children born to older parents are at greater risk for having ASD.

WHO IS AFFECTED
ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, but is about 4 times more common
among boys than among girls.

SCREENING AND DIAGNOSIS OF AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Diagnosing autism spectrum disorder (ASD) can be difficult because there is no medical test, like a
blood test, to diagnose the disorder. Doctors look at the child’s developmental history and behavior to
make a diagnosis.

ASD can sometimes be detected at 18 months or younger. By age 2, a diagnosis by an

experienced professional can be considered very reliable [. However, many children do not receive a
final diagnosis until much older. Some people are not diagnosed until they are adolescents or adults.
This delay means that children with ASD might not get the early help they need.

Early signs of ASD can include, but are not limited to

 Avoiding eye contact,

 Having little interest in other children or caretakers,
 Limited display of language (for example, having fewer words than peers or difficulty with use
of words for communication), or
 Getting upset by minor changes in routine.

As children with ASD become adolescents and young adults, they might have difficulties
developing and maintaining friendships, communicating with peers and adults, or understanding what
behaviors are expected in school or on the job. They may also come to the attention of healthcare

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 21

providers because they have co-occurring conditions such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,
obsessive compulsive disorder, anxiety or depression, or conduct disorder.

Monitoring, screening, evaluating, and diagnosing children with ASD as early as possible is
important to make sure children receive the services and supports they need to reach their full
potential . There are several steps in this process.

Developmental Monitoring
Developmental monitoring observes how your child grows and changes over time and whether
a child meets the typical developmental milestones in playing, learning, speaking, behaving, and
moving. Parents, grandparents, early childhood providers, and other caregivers can participate in
developmental monitoring. A brief checklist of milestones can be used to see how a child is
developing. If notice that that child is not meeting milestones, talk with a doctor or nurse about the
concerns.

Developmental Screening
Developmental screening takes a closer look at how your child is developing. Your child will
get a brief test, or you will complete a questionnaire about your child. The tools used for
developmental and behavioral screening are formal questionnaires or checklists based on research
that ask questions about a child’s development, including language, movement, thinking, behavior,
and emotions. Developmental screening can be done by a doctor or nurse, but also by other
professionals in healthcare, community, or school settings.

Developmental screening is more formal than developmental monitoring and normally done
less often than developmental monitoring. Your child should be screened if you or your doctor have a
concern. However, developmental screening is a regular part of some of the well-child visits for all
children even if there is not a known concern.

Not much is known about the best interventions for older children and adults with ASD. There
has been some research on social skills groups for older children, but there is not enough evidence to
show that these are effective. Additional research is needed to evaluate interventions designed to
improve outcomes in adulthood. In addition, services are important to help individuals with ASD
complete their education or job training, find employment, secure housing and transportation, take
care of their health, improve daily functioning, and participate as fully as possible in their communities

TREATMENT
There is currently no cure for ASD. However, research shows that early intervention treatment
services can improve a child’s development. Early intervention services help children from birth to 3
years old (36 months) learn important skills. Services can include therapy to help the child talk, walk,
and interact with others.

The differences in how ASD affects each person means that people with ASD have unique
strengths and challenges in social communication, behavior, and cognitive ability. Therefore,
treatment plans are usually multidisciplinary, may involve parent-mediated interventions, and target
the child’s individual needs.

Behavioral intervention strategies have focused on social communication skill development—

particularly at young ages when the child would naturally be gaining these skills—and reduction of
restricted interests and repetitive and challenging behaviors. For some children, occupational and
speech therapy may be helpful, as could social skills training and medication in older children. The

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 22

best treatment or intervention can vary depending on an individual’s age, strengths, challenges, and
differences.

It is also important to remember that children with ASD can get sick or injured just like children
without ASD. Regular medical and dental exams should be part of a child’s treatment plan. Often it is
hard to tell if a child’s behavior is related to the ASD or is caused by a separate health condition. For
instance, head banging could be a symptom of ASD, or it could be a sign the child is having
headaches or earaches. In those cases, a thorough physical examination is needed. Monitoring
healthy development means not only paying attention to symptoms related to ASD, but also to the
child’s physical and mental health.

Types of Treatments
There are many types of treatments available. These include applied behavior analysis, social
skills training, occupational therapy, physical therapy, sensory integration therapy, and the use of
assistive technology.

The types of treatments generally can be broken down into the following categories:

 Behavior and Communication Approaches

 Dietary Approaches
 Medication
 Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Behavior and Communication Approaches

According to reports by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the National Research
Council, behavior and communication approaches that help children with ASD are those that provide
structure, direction, and organization for the child in addition to family participation.

 Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

A notable treatment approach for people with ASD is called applied behavior analysis (ABA).
ABA has become widely accepted among healthcare professionals and used in many schools
and treatment clinics. ABA encourages positive behaviors and discourages negative behaviors
to improve a variety of skills. The child’s progress is tracked and measured.

There are different types of ABA. Here are some examples:

 Discrete Trial Training (DTT) . DTT is a style of teaching that uses a series of trials to teach
each step of a desired behavior or response. Lessons are broken down into their simplest
parts, and positive reinforcement is used to reward correct answers and behaviors. Incorrect
answers are ignored.

 Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI). This is a type of ABA for very young children
with ASD, usually younger than 5 and often younger than 3. EIBI uses a highly structured
teaching approach to build positive behaviors (such as social communication) and reduce
unwanted behaviors (such as tantrums, aggression, and self-injury). EIBI takes place in a one-
on-one adult-to-child environment under the supervision of a trained professional.

 Early Start Denver Model (ESDM). This is a type of ABA for children with ASD between the
ages of 12-48 months. Through ESDM, parents and therapists use play and joint activities to
help children advance their social, language, and cognitive skills.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 23

  Pivotal Response Training (PRT). PRT aims to increase a child’s motivation to learn, monitor
their own behavior, and initiate communication with others. Positive changes in these
behaviors are believed to have widespread effects on other behaviors.

 Verbal Behavior Intervention (VBI) . VBI is a type of ABA that focuses on teaching verbal
skills.

There are other therapies that can be part of a complete treatment program for a child with ASD:

 Assistive Technology
Assistive technology, including devices such as communication boards and electronic tablets,
can help people with ASD communicate and interact with others. For example, the Picture
Exchange Communication System (PECS) uses picture symbols to teach communication
skills. The person is taught to use picture symbols to ask and answer questions and have a
conversation. Other individuals may use a tablet as a speech-generating or communication
device.

 Developmental, Individual Differences, Relationship-Based Approach (also called

“Floortime”)
Floortime focuses on emotional and relational development (feelings and relationships with
caregivers). It also focuses on how the child deals with sights, sounds, and smells.
 Occupational Therapy
Occupational therapy teaches skills that help the person live as independently as possible.
Skills may include dressing, eating, bathing, and relating to people.
 Social Skills Training
Social skills training teaches children the skills they need to interact with others, including
conversation and problem-solving skills.

 Speech Therapy
Speech therapy helps to improve the person’s communication skills. Some people are able to
learn verbal communication skills. For others, using gestures or picture boards is more
realistic.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

What are the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism?

In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of its Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). 

The DSM-5 is now the standard reference that healthcare providers use to diagnose mental and
behavioral conditions, including autism. 

DSM-5 Autism Diagnostic Criteria

A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts,
as manifested by the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not
exhaustive, see text):

1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for example, from abnormal social approach
and failure of normal back-and-forth conversation; to reduced sharing of interests, emotions, or
affect; to failure to initiate or respond to social interactions.

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 24

 2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, ranging, for
example, from poorly integrated verbal and nonverbal communication; to abnormalities in eye
contact and body language or deficits in understanding and use of gestures; to a total lack of
facial expressions and nonverbal communication.
3. Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships, ranging, for example,
from difficulties adjusting behavior to suit various social contexts; to difficulties in  sharing
imaginative play or in making friends; to absence of interest in peers.

Specify current severity: Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted

repetitive patterns of behavior. (See table below.)

B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least

two of the following, currently or by history (examples are illustrative, not exhaustive):

1. Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech (e.g., simple motor
stereotypies, lining up toys or flipping objects, echolalia, idiosyncratic phrases).

2. Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns or verbal

nonverbal behavior (e.g., extreme distress at small changes, difficulties with transitions, rigid
thinking patterns, greeting rituals, need to take same route or eat food every day).

3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus (e.g, strong
attachment to or preoccupation with unusual objects, excessively circumscribed or
perseverative interest).
4. Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interests in sensory aspects of the
environment (e.g., apparent indifference to pain/temperature, adverse response to specific
sounds or textures, excessive smelling or touching of objects, visual fascination with lights or
movement).

Specify current severity: Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted,

repetitive patterns of behavior. (See table below.)

C. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully
manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities or may be masked by learned
strategies in later life).

D. Symptoms cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important

areas of current functioning.

E. These disturbances are not better explained by intellectual disability (intellectual

developmental disorder) or global developmental delay. Intellectual disability and autism
spectrum disorder frequently co-occur; to make comorbid diagnoses of autism spectrum
disorder and intellectual disability, social communication should be below that expected for
general developmental level.

Table: SEVERITY LEVELS FOR AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Severity Social communication Restricted, repetitive behaviors
level

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 25

Level 3 Severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal Inflexibility of behavior, extreme
"Requiring social communication skills cause severe difficulty coping with change, or other
very impairments in functioning, very limited restricted/repetitive behaviors markedly
substantial initiation of social interactions, and minimal interfere with functioning in all spheres.
support” response to social overtures from others. Great distress/difficulty changing focus
For example, a person with few words of or action.
intelligible speech who rarely initiates
interaction and, when he or she does,
makes unusual approaches to meet needs
only and responds to only very direct social
approaches

Level 2 Marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal Inflexibility of behavior, difficulty coping
"Requiring social communication skills; with change, or other
substantial social impairments apparent even with restricted/repetitive behaviors appear
support” supports in place; limited initiation of social frequently enough to be obvious to the
interactions; and reduced or  abnormal casual observer and interfere with
responses to social overtures from others. functioning in  a variety of contexts.
For example, a person who speaks simple Distress and/or difficulty changing focus
sentences, whose interaction is limited  to or action.
narrow special interests, and how has
markedly odd nonverbal communication.

Level 1 Without supports in place, deficits in social Inflexibility of behavior causes

"Requiring communication cause noticeable significant interference with functioning
support” impairments. Difficulty initiating social in one or more contexts. Difficulty
interactions, and clear examples of atypical switching between activities. Problems
or unsuccessful response to social of organization and planning hamper
overtures of others. May appear to have inde
decreased interest in social interactions.
For example, a person who is able to
speak in full sentences and engages in
communication but whose to- and-fro
conversation with others fails, and whose
attempts to make friends are odd and
typically unsuccessful.

REFERENCES:

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American
Psychiatric Association; 2013
National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2019. Autism
spectrum disorder. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/hcp-dsm.html
https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-diagnosis-criteria-dsm-5
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/screening.html
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University
South La Union Campus
College Of Education

EDUC.102 – FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL & INCLUSIVE EDUCATION Page 26

 Agoo, La Union

Educ. 102 – Foundation of Special and Inclusive Education

Learners with Hearing Impairment
WHAT IS HEARING IMPAIRMENT?

It refers to the reduced function or loss of the normal function of the hearing mechanism. The
impairment or disability limits the person’s sensitivity to tasks listening, understanding speech and
speaking in the same way those persons with normal hearing do

Hearing impairment is slightly more common among boys. Not recognizing and treating
impairment can seriously impair a child’s ability to speak and understand language. The impairment
can lead to failure in school, teasing by peers, social isolation, and emotional difficulties.

DEAF

A person who is deaf cannot use hearing to listen, understand speech and communicate orally
without special adaptations mainly in the visual mode. While a hearing aid amplifies the sounds by
increasing the volume to make the sounds louder, a person who is deaf cannot understand speech
through the ears alone. He/She may be able to perceive some sounds but his/her sense of hearing is
not enough or nonfunctional for the ordinary purposes in life.

HARD OF HEARING

A person who is hard of hearing has a significant loss of hearing sensitivity but he/she can hear
sounds, respond to speech and other auditory stimuli with or without the use of hearing aids. He/She
is more like a hearing person than one who is deaf because both of them use audition or listening to
auditory stimuli in the environment, unlike a deaf person who relies more on visual stimuli

TYPES OF DEAFNESS OR HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Deafness or hearing impairment can:

 happen at birth – this is congenital deafness or hearing impairment

 start after birth – this is acquired or progressive deafness or hearing impairment.

There are two main types of deafness or hearing impairment – conductive and sensorineural.

Conductive hearing impairment is when sounds from outside your child’s ear have trouble
getting to or going through the different parts inside the ear. Conductive hearing impairment is usually
caused by middle ear fluid from middle ear infections, and is usually temporary.

Sensorineural hearing impairment is when the nerves that are in charge of receiving sound and
sorting out what it means don’t work properly. Sensorineural hearing impairment can be mild,
moderate, severe or profound. Sensorineural hearing impairment usually lasts for life and can get
worse over time.

Mixed hearing loss is when a child has both conductive and sensorineural hearing impairment.

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 INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE

In the Philippines, the conservative estimate is that 2 % of the population has hearing
impairment and the number may increase if children below school age and persons who lose3 hearing
sensitivity due to old age are included.

In USA, at least 1 in every 22 newly born infants has some of hearing impairment. At least 3 in
1000 infants have a severe or profound hearing impairment.

CAUSES

The most common causes of hearing impairment in newborns are

 Genetic defects

Some genetic defects cause hearing loss that is evident at birth. Other genetic defects cause
hearing loss that develops over time.

The most common causes of hearing impairment in infants and older children are

 Ear infections and secretory otitis media

 Accumulation of earwax

In older children, other causes include head injury, loud noise (including loud music), use of
certain drugs (such as aminoglycoside antibiotics or thiazide diuretics), certain viral infections (such as
mumps), tumors, injury by pencils or other foreign objects that become stuck deep in the ear, and,
rarely, autoimmune disorders.

RISK FACTORS FOR HEARING IMPAIRMENT IN CHILDREN

 Newborns
 Low birth weight (especially less than 3.3 pounds, or 1.5 kilograms)
 Low Apgar score (lower than 5 at 1 minute or lower than 7 at 5 minutes after birth)
 Low blood oxygen levels or seizures resulting from a difficult delivery
 Infection before birth with rubella, syphilis, herpes, cytomegalovirus, or toxoplasmosis
 Abnormalities in the skull or face, especially those involving the outer ear and ear canal
 A high level of bilirubin (a waste product) in the blood
 Bacterial meningitis
 Bloodstream infection (sepsis)
 Use of a ventilator (a machine that helps air get in and out of the lungs) for a long time
 Use of certain drugs, such as aminoglycoside antibiotics and some diuretics
 History of early hearing loss in a parent or close relative

 Older children
All the above, plus the following:
 A head injury with a skull fracture or loss of consciousness
 Chronic middle ear infections or a cholesteatoma
 Some neurologic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis and neurodegenerative
disorders (such as Hunter syndrome)
 Exposure to noise at high levels or for long periods
 Perforation of the eardrum due to infection or injury

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 DID YOU KNOW THAT……
 Hearing loss most commonly results from genetic defects in newborns and from ear
infections or earwax in older children.
 If children ignore people who are talking to them some but not all of the time, their hearing
may be impaired.
 If children do not respond to sounds, have difficulty talking, or are slow starting to talk, their
hearing may be impaired
 Untreated hearing impairment can impede a child's verbal, social, and emotional
development.
 Hearing impairment can happen at birth or start after birth.
 In Australia, universal newborn hearing screening is an essential part of diagnosing hearing
impairment or deafness in children.
 If a child is deaf or hard of hearing, he might use spoken language, sign language or a
combination to talk.

SYMPTOMS

All typically developing babies and young children have the same developmental milestones. Babies
develop at different rates, but should reach the milestones in the same order.

If a baby is deaf or hard of hearing, he/she won’t hear people speaking, which means he/she might not
respond to voice and other noises in the way people expect. As he/she gets older, caregivers might
notice that his/her speech and language aren’t developing like other children’s.

As a guide, the following are expectations for typically developing babies

 At 0-4 months, the baby should startle at a loud noise, turn his/her head or move his/her eyes
to locate the source of the sound. If he’s/she’s upset, he/she should calm down when he/she
hears caregiver’s voice.
 At 4-8 months, the baby should notice sounds around him/her, smile when spoken to, babble
and understand simple words like ‘bye-bye’.
 At 8-14 months, the baby should respond to his/her name, say simple words like ‘mama’ and
‘dada’, copy simple sounds and use his/her voice to get attention from people nearby.
 At 14-24 months, the child will start to develop vocabulary, understand and follow simple
instructions, and put two words together.

SCREENING AND DIAGNOSIS

 For newborns, routine screening tests

 For older children, a doctor's evaluation and tympanometry
 Imaging tests

Because hearing plays such an important role in a child’s development, many doctors
recommend that all newborns be tested for hearing impairment by the age of 3 months.

Newborns are usually screened in two stages. First, newborns are tested for echoes produced
by healthy ears in response to soft clicks made by a handheld device (evoked otoacoustic emissions
testing). If this test raises questions about a newborn’s hearing, a second test is done to measure
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electrical signals from the brain in response to sounds (the auditory brain stem response test, or ABR).
The ABR is painless and usually done while newborns are sleeping. It can be used in children of any
age. If results of the ABR are abnormal, the test is repeated in 1 month. If hearing loss is still detected,
children may be fitted with hearing aids and may benefit from placement in an educational setting
responsive to children with impaired hearing.

If doctors suspect the child has a genetic defect, genetic testing can be done.

In older children, several techniques are used to diagnose hearing impairment:

 Asking a series of questions to detect delays in a child’s normal development or to

assess a parent’s concern about language and speech development
 Examining the ears for abnormalities
 For children aged 6 months to 2 years, testing their response to various sounds
 Testing the response of the eardrum to a range of sound frequencies (tympanometry),
which may indicate whether there is fluid in the middle ear
 After age 2 years, asking children to follow simple commands, which usually indicates
whether they hear and understand speech, or testing their responses to sounds using
earphones

Imaging tests are often done to identify the cause of hearing loss and guide prognosis.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is done for most children. If doctors suspect bone abnormalities,
computed tomography (CT) is done.

PROGNOSIS

Not recognizing and treating hearing impairment can seriously impair speech and
understanding of language. The impairment can lead to failure in school, teasing by peers, and
social and emotional problems.

TREATMENT

 Treating the cause when possible

 Hearing aids or cochlear implants
 Sign language

Treating reversible causes of hearing loss and ear defects can restore hearing. For example,
ear infections can be treated with antibiotics or surgery, earwax can be manually removed or dissolved
with ear drops, and cholesteatomas can be surgically removed.

Most often the cause of a child’s hearing loss cannot be reversed, and treatment involves use
of a hearing aid to compensate for the impairment as much as possible.

 Cochlear Implant

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 Cochlear implants (a surgically implanted system that sends electrical signals directly into the
auditory nerve in response to sounds) may be used for children whose hearing loss is severe enough
that it cannot be managed with hearing aids

 Hearing Aids

Hearing aids are available for infants as well as older children. If hearing loss is mild or
moderate or affects only one ear, a hearing aid or earphones can be used. Children who have hearing
impairment in only one ear can be helped by using an FM auditory trainer that transmits a teacher’s
voice to a hearing aid in the normal ear.

The behind-the-ear hearing aid is the most powerful but least attractive hearing aid. The in-the-
ear hearing aid is the best choice for severe hearing loss. It is easy to adjust but is difficult to use with
telephones. The in-the-canal hearing aid is used for mild to moderate hearing loss. This aid is
relatively inconspicuous but is difficult to use with telephones. The completely-in-the-canal hearing aid
is used for mild to moderate hearing loss. This aid has good sound, is nearly invisible, and can be
easily used with telephones. It is removed by pulling on a small string. However, it is the most
expensive and may be hard to adjust for some.

 Sign Language

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 It is a visual language that incorporates gestures, facial expressions, head movements,
body language and even the space around the speaker. Hand signs are the foundation of the
language

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING STUDENTS WITH HI IN A REGULAR CLASS

1. Promote the acceptance of the student with HI in the regular class.

2. Be sure that prescribed hearing aids and other amplification devices are used

3. Provide preferential setting

 Sit the student where he/she can easily watch your face without straining to look up
 Sit the student away from sources of noise
 Sit the student near the spot where you typically stay when teaching
 Sit the student where light is on your face and not in the student’s eyes
 Allow the student to transfer to other seats when necessary

4. Increase visual information

 Remember that your student reads your lips and must see your face in to do so
 Try to stay in one place while talking to the class so the student does not have to
lipread a “moving target”
 Avoid talking when your back is turned to the class
 Avoid covering your mouth or face when talking
 When reading in front of the class, be sure that the student can lipread you
 Avoid standing in front of windows where the glare will make it difficult to see your face
 Use visual aids, such as pictures and illustrations whenever possible
 Demonstrate what you want the student to understand

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  Use the chalkboard as much as possible

5. Minimize classroom noise.

 Seat the student away from noisy parts of the classroom
 Wait for the class to be quiet before talking to the students

6. Modify teaching procedures

 Be sure the student is watching and listening when you are talking
 Be sure the student understands what is said by asking him/her to repeat information or
answer questions
 Write keywords, new words or needed information on the board
 Repeat or rephrase things said by other students during the discussion
 Introduce new vocabulary words to the student in advance
 Ask the student to repeat if you cannot understand him/her
 Assign a student as “buddy” to alert to students with HI to listen and to be sure that
he/she understands the lesson correctly

7. Have realistic expectations

 Remember that the student cannot understand and grasp everything all the time, no
matter how hard he/she tries
 Be patient when the student asks for repetition
 Give the student a break from listening when he/she shows signs of fatigue
 Expect the student to follow routine
 Expect the student to abide all the school rules
 Be alert for fluctuations of hearing. Report any observation to the special education
teacher

REFERENCES

Shah, U., (2019). Hearing Impairment in Children . Retrieved from

https://www.msdmanuals.com/home/children-s-health-issues/ear,-nose,-and-throat-disorders-in-
children/hearing-impairment-in-children

https://www.webmd.com/parenting/help-for-parents-hearing-impaired-children#1

https://people.howstuffworks.com/sign-language2.htm

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