See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/333356861

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO

FIRE OR ELEVATED TEMPERATURES , ACCORDING TO NFPA-5000-
2015

Book · May 2016

CITATIONS READS

0 377

1 author:

Khaled Heiza
MONO UNI EGYPT
75 PUBLICATIONS   611 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Strengthening of Concrete Structures View project

STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING OF ROAD ELFARAG CABLE STAYED BRIDGE View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Khaled Heiza on 24 May 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Khaled Heiza

Third Edition 2016

About the Author
Dr. Khaled Heiza is a professor of reinforced concrete
structures and vice dean faculty of Eng., Minoufia
University and he was appointed as the executive
director of reinforced concrete laboratory facility,
faculty of Eng., Minoufia University from 2003 till now.
Dr. Heiza is the advisor and director of consultant and
research unit, Minoufia University, April 2012- till now.
Dr. Heiza joined the Minoufia University Civil Engineering department
as an Assistant Professor in 2003. He was promoted to Associate
professor in 2006. and full professor at 2012. Dr. Heiza served as the
acting engineering advisor for the Egyptian ministry of transportation
and Ministry of communication and information technology during
2006 to 2010. He was in charge of major industrial, commercial,
residential and municipal projects worth over $100 million.
Dr. Heiza has more than twenty five years of academic, research and
industrial experience. He conducts research in the areas of reinforced
concrete structures, high-strength concrete, self-compacted concrete,
Applications of FRP in building construction, and rehabilitation of
existing structures, He published over 100 professional and scientific
articles, 25 of them in refereed research journals in his interest field.
During his academic tenure at Zagazig, Minoufia, Ain Shams, Cairo
and Future Universities,
Dr. Heiza supervised 30 graduate students, including ten Ph.D.
students. Dr. Heiza taught 10 different undergraduate and graduate
courses in Structural Engineering.
Dr. Heiza is an active member of the Egyptian society of civil
engineering, Voting member of NFPA National Fire Protection
Association 2014 for “Building Construction and safety code -NFPA
5000”, and AVS “Associate Value Specialist” Member of SAVE
International 2014.
Dr. Heiza represent more than 22 intensive short and training courses
in the field of structural engineering specially repair and rehabilitation
of concrete structures subjected to fire, construction technology, and
value engineering.
•khheiza@yahoo.com, khheiza@hotmail.com, khheiza@gmail.com
 ~\tj~j;~])~
~~l4J! tl",,:,;.'1 ;;JI.)j

J~!
~I}...., ~I -'tl .v-'-JIJ ,-,-" ~...-.JI ",u,~IJ "'~ I r'-' c,c.
. \ '\ '\ 0 ~ t OY ~-'IS-"jyl-,I~IJ \'\ '\ T 4:.-Jj."rA ~J 0YWl \~~~l

~d-::xY..Jk.-I :;, " ' "I~J UyJl,...1

<.:.i l ~I.l..l.:.~I..l...1L
u· L.....JI
•.
~,_,.II ~,yJ l
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

To my fellows

… It has to be recognized that fire design must be envisaged as

part of the overall design of the structure and not an item to
be considered at the very end.

Cover Photo “Egyptian Opera house Fire 1971”.

I
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Contents Page
Abstract
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Report layout 3

CHAPTER 2: EFFECT OF FIRE ON CONSTITUTES OF CONCRETE

2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Effect of Fire or Elevated Temperatures on Concrete 4
2.2.1 Definitions 5
2.3 Effect of Fire on Normal Concrete 6
2.4 Effect of Fire on High Strength Concrete 11
2.5 Spalling of Concrete Exposed to Fire 14
2.6 Effect of Fire on Traditional Concrete 14
2.7 Effect of Fire on Dense concrete 17
2.8 Effect of Fire on Self Compact Concrete 18
2.9 Effect of Fire on FRP Reinforced Concrete 23
2.9.1 Thermal Effects 23
2.9.2 Fire Effects 29
2.10 Effect of Fire on Material Properties 34
2.10.1 Concrete 34
2.10.2 Reinforcement (steel) 39
2.10.3 Bond between Steel and Concrete 42
2.11 Effect of Temperature Treatment on Concrete Materials 42

CHAPTER 3: EFFECT OF FIRE ON REINFORCED CONCRETE ELEMENTS

3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Effect of Fire on RC Slabs 51
3.2.1 Fire Endurance of Concrete Slabs 53
3.3 Effect of Fire on RC Beams 57
3.4 Effect of Fire on RC Columns 60
3.5 Modeling of RC Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures 67
3.6 Effect of Fire on Mechanical and Structural Behaviour of RC Elements 70
3.6.1 Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal and Elevated 70

II
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Temperatures
3.6.2 Compressive Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal 71
Temperatures
3.6.3 Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal 71
Temperatures
3.6.4 Compressive Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Elevated 72
Temperatures
3.6.5 Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Elevated 73
Temperatures
3.6.6 Moment Redistribution of RC Frames 73
3.6.7 RC Frames 73
3.6.8 Moment Redistribution 74
3.6.9 Moment Redistribution According to Egyptian Code (2001) 75
3.7 Comparison of Different Codes for Fire Effect on Reinforced Concrete 76
Structures
3.7.1 British Code ( BS8110:part1:1997) 76
3.7.2 ACI Building Code (2000) 77
3.7.3 Egyptian Code (ECCS 203-2007) 77

CHAPTER 4: ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-DAMAGED RC STRUCTURES.

4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Visual Inspection 78
4.2.1 Stability 78
4.2.2 Estimation of fire severity 79
4.3 Damage Assessment 80
4.3.1 Structural survey 80
4.3.2 Materials testing 80
4.4 Strength Assessment of the Structure 91
4.4.1 Residual properties 91
4.4.2 Determination of temperatures within an element 97

CHAPTER 5: FIRE SAFETY OF RC STRUCTURES

5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Design Concerns 99
5.2.1 Control of ignition 99
5.2.2 Means of escape 100
5.2.3 Detection and control of the fire 100
5.2.4 Compartmentation 102

III
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

5.2.5 Fire spread between structures 102

5.2.6 Structure collapse 102
5.3 Fire Precautions during Construction and Maintenance 103
5.4 Design philosophies 103
5.4.1 Limit State Design 103
5.4.2 Fire Limit States 104
5.4.3 Load-bearing capacity criterion 104
5.4.4 Insulation criterion 105
5.4.5 Determination of partial safety factors 105
5.5 Assessment Models 105
5.6 Design approach 107
5.6.1 Standard Fire Test 107
5.6.2 Prescriptive Determination of Fire Resistance 108
5.7 Calculation approach 110
5.8 Design of concrete elements subjected to fires or elevated temperatures 111
5.8.1 Calculation of Temperatures 112
5.8.2 Comparisons between the Methods of Calculation 121
5.9 Design and Detailing Considerations 122
5.9.1 Shear 122
5.9.2 Bond 122
5.9.3 Spalling 122
5.9.4 Moisture content 123
5.9.5 Concrete porosity and permeability 123
5.9.6 Stress conditions 124
5.9.7 Aggregate type 124
5.9.8 Section profile and cover 125
5.9.9 Heating rate 125
5.9.10 Concrete strength 125
5.10 High strength concrete and self-compacting concrete 126
5.10.1 Detailing 126

Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusion.

6.1 Summary 127
6.2 Conclusions 127

References 130

IV
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

List of Figures

Figure Page
Fig. 2-1: Weight loss of the concrete specimens subjected to elevated temperatures 9
Fig. 2-2: Compressive strength of concrete after high temperature 13
Fig. 2-3: Splitting Tensile strength of concrete after high temperature 13
Fig. 2-4: Bending strength of concrete after high temperature 13
Fig. 2.5: Tensile strength retention at elevated temperature 33
Fig. 2.6: The effect of high temperature on the compressive of concrete 36
Fig. 2.7: Influence of the type of aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete 36
at elevated temperatures
Fig. 2.8: Modulus of elasticity of concrete at high temperature 37
Fig. 2.9: Shear modulus of concrete at high temperature 38
Fig. 2.10: Thermal expansion of concrete at high temperature 38
Fig. 2.11: Stress-strain curves for a lightweight masonary concrete at various high 39
temperature
Fig. 2.12: The effect of temperature and stress level on the creep of concrete 40
column
Fig. 2.13: strength of certain steels at high temperatures 41
Fig. 2.14: Modulus of elasticity of steel at high temperatures. 41
Fig. 2.15: Thermal expansion of ferrite steel at high temperatures 42
Fig. 2.16: Stress-strain curves for structural steels (ASTM A36) at various high 43
temperatures
Fig. 2.17: Stress-strain curves for prestressing steels (ASTM A421) at various high 43
temperatures
Fig. 2-18: Temperature of furnace and concrete 26C subjected to quenching 44
Fig.(2-19) Temperature of 26C subjected to natural cooling and water spraying for 45
60 min
Fig. (2-20) Temperature of furnace and concrete 26H1 subjected to quenching 45
Fig.(2-21) Temperature of 26H1 subjected to natural cooling and water spraying for 46
60 min
Fig. (2-22) Residual compressive strength of plain concrete 26C 46
Fig.(2-23) Residual compressive strength of polypropylene fiber concrete 26Pl 47
Fig.(2-24) Residual compressive strength of polypropylene fiber concrete 26P2 47
Fig.(2-25) Residual compressive strength of hybrid fiber concrete 26H 1 47
Fig.(2-26) Residual compressive strength of hybrid fiber concrete 26H2 48
Fig.(3.1) (a)-Simply supported reinforced concrete slab subjected to fire from 53
below

V
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Fig.(3.1) (b)-Moment diagrams for simply supported beam or slab before and 54
during fire exposure
Fig.(3.2) Moment diagrams for one-half of a continous three-span beam before and 54
during fire exposure
Fig.(3.3) Nomogrum relating thrust, strain, and Z’ ratio 55
Fig.(3.4) Effect of slab thickness and aggregate type on fire endurance of concrete 55
slabs
Fig.(3.5) Effect of dry unit weight and slab thickness on fire endurance of concrete 56
slabs
Fig.(3.6) Unexposed surface temperatures during fire tests of concrete slabs made 56
with carbonate aggregates (1.5 in.=38 mm, 2.5 in.= 64 mm, 4in. = 102 mm, 5 in. =
127 mm, 6 in. = 152 mm, 7 in. = 178 mm, 8.5 in. = 216 mm, 10 in. = 254 mm)
Fig.(3.7) Temperature gradients within the concrete columns under high heating 63
rate and low heating rate
Fig.(3.8) Axial displacement versus time 63
Fig.(3.9) Failure temperature as a function of load ratio 64
Fig.(3.10) Maximum generated forces as function of average column surface 64
temperature
Figure 4.1 The development of crack density with temperature for concretes made 82
with siliceous aggregate and: (a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC); (b) OPC/PFA;
(c) OPC/GGBS cements; (d) limestone and (e) granite.
Figure 4. 2 (a) Temperature distribution and (b) crack density for an OPC– 84
siliceous aggregate concrete cylinder heated from one end
Fig. 4.3 Comparison of curves obtained on heating by (a) DTA, (b) Power- 87
compensatig DSC, and (c) heat-flux DSC
Figure 4.4. DEA excitation and response. The mobility of ions and dipoles is 89
measured applying a sinusoidal voltage to the sample and measuring the current
Figure 4.5. Conduction calorimetry curves of hydrating tricalcium silicate and 90
cement
Figure 4.6. Conduction calorimetric curves of superplasticized cement at different 90
temperatures
Figure 4.7 Relationship between steel strengths and Brinell hardness number 91
(BHN)
Figure 4.8 Variation of residual strengths of concrete with temperature 92
Fig. 4.9: Compressive strength of siliceous aggregate concrete at high temperature 93
and after cooling
Fig. 4.10: Compressive strength of carbonate aggregate concrete at high 93
temperature and after cooling
Fig. 4.11: Compressive strength of lightweight aggregate concrete at high 94

VI
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

temperature and after cooling

Fig. 4.12: Stress relaxation of a carbonate aggregate concrete 94
Fig. 4.13: Creep of a carbonate aggregate concrete at various temperatures [applied 95
stress=1800psi (12Mpa), Fc=4000Psi(28Mpa)]
Fig. 4.14: Thermal conductivity of four “limiting” concretes and some experimental 95
thermal conductivity data
Fig. 4.15: Volumetric specific heats of normal weight and lightweight concretes 96
Fig. 4.16 Variation of residual strengths of reinforcing and pre-stressing 97
steels with temperature
Figure 5.1 Matrix of assessment models for structural fire safety design 106
Figure 5.2 Effect of member continuity on the fire affected performance of flexural 107
members: (a) basic structure; (b) decrease of moment capacity with time; (c) no
hogging moment and (d) hogging and sagging
Figure 5.3 Standard temperature–time responses 108
Figure 5.4 Prescriptive approach for determining the fire resistance of structural 109
elements
Figure 5.5 Redistribution of moments from midspan to support in a fire 110
Figure 5.6 Overall calculation procedure for the structural behaviour of fire affected 111
members
Figure 5.7 Design data for a RC slab 115
Figure 5.9 Design data for a concrete column 116
Figure 5.8 Design data for RC beam 120
Figure 5.10 Time and depth of spalling as function of permeability K (m2) for three 124
levels of initial free water content ρL.

VII
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

List of Tables

Table Page
Table (2-1): Maximum mechanical properties of protected and unprotected gravel 11
concrete at different temperatures and different heating durations
Table (2-2): Effect of fire or elevated temperatures on properties of concrete 11
Table (2.3): Typical Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for FRP Materials (*10-6 /°C) 25
Table (2-4) Coefficient for change in compressive strength (γc) of dense concrete on 35
heating
Table (2-5) Coefficient values of thermal expansion of different types of concrete (αc) at 39
temperature up to 100 °C
Table (3-1) Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Elements according to ECCS 302- 59
2001
Table (3-2) Minimum dimensions and cover for concrete for various periods of fire 60
resistance according to ECCS 302-2007
Table (3-3) Minimum dimensions and cover for columns in dense siliceous aggregate 61
concrete for various periods of fire resistance according to BS
Table (3-4) Minimum dimensions of concrete column (inches) according to ACI 61
Table (3-5) Specimens Group 70
Table (3-6): Coefficient of max flexural strength (Rmax), max reinforcement ratio 76
(Umax) and max neutral axis depth/effective depth ratio (cmax/d) corresponding to 0
percent redistribution.
Table 4.1 Melting point data 79
Table 4.2 Values of initial crack density and strength transition temperatures 81
Table 4.3 Colour changes in heated concrete 98
Table 5.1 Allowable probabilities of failure in the fire limit state 105
Table 5.2 Design criteria for structural members 107
Table 5.3 Fire resistance column test results 108
Table 5.4 Parameters required for temperature analysis of concrete members under 114
standard conditions
Table 5.5 Comparison of surface temperature rise between Wickstrom, Hertz and EN 114
1992-1-2
Table 5.6 Comparisons between the depth of the 500◦C isotherm (mm) determined using 115
Wickstrom, Hertz and EN 1992-1-2
Table 5.7 Values of temperature parameters and strength reduction factors for Bar 5 117
Table 5.8 Temperatures and strength reduction factors for Bars 1–4 117
Table 5.9 Determination of Mu1, Mu2 and M 117
Table 5.10 Determination of concrete temperatures, strength reduction factors and 118
section width reduction

VIII
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Table 5.11 Determination of temperature factors and strength reduction factors for Bar 5 118
Table 5.12 Temperatures and strength reduction factors for Bars 1–4 118
Table 5.13 Determination of Mu1, Mu2 and M 119
Table 5.14 Determination of loss in area due to isotherm rounding 120
Table 5.15 Determination of reinforcement temperatures and strength reduction factor 120
Table 5.16 Determination of load-carrying capacity 121
Table 5.17 Concrete zone temperatures and strength reduction factors 121
Table 5.18 Determination of reinforcement temperatures and strength loss 122

IX
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Abstract

ABSTRACT

The objective of this book is to provide an overview of the effects of fire or elevated
temperatures on the behavior of concrete materials and RC structures. In order to meet this
objective, the effects of fire or elevated temperatures on the properties of normal, concrete
constituent materials and RC structures are summarized. Also, the effects of fire or elevated
temperatures on high-strength and self-compacting concrete materials are noted and their
performance compared to normal concretes. A review of concrete materials for fire or
elevated temperature service is presented. Design considerations and analytical techniques for
evaluating the response of reinforced concrete structures subjected to fire or elevated-
temperatures conditions are also presented and disscused.
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 1

Introduction

X
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

The first introduction of concrete for building purposes can be traced back to Phoenician
masons, and later most of the remaining buildings of the Roman Empire were made of
concrete. This means that we have nearly 3500 years of experience in traditional concretes as
building materials and more than 100 years of experience in the intensive use of reinforced
concrete.
The basic fire safety objectives are to protect life and property. These objectives can be
achieved in buildings in various ways. One of the most important ways is the prevention of
the outbreak of the fire. If fire occurs, the objective is to reduce the growth of the fire.
However, in order to protect occupants and property at this stage of the fire, it is essential to
confine the fire and to provide means that permit safe evacuation of people from the fire area.
The effectiveness and cost of all these measures can be influenced by the building designer.
Measures to retard and combat fire growth in relation to the building design are, the use of
low fire hazard materials, providing fire detection and extinguishing systems, and provisions
of facilitating the fire department operation. These measures, in addition to those ones used to
control the combustibles, that are brought in a structure on a regular basis as part of the
function of a structure.
Measures to protect people against the hazards of the spread of fire and its combustion
products, strongly affect the design of building. Preventing the spread of smoke and hot gases
and providing adequate exists or safety areas, are part of these measures.
It is generally acknowledged that concrete elements behave satisfactorily under fire
conditions. As concrete is a semi-insulating material, the concrete cover surrounding
longitudinal reinforcement provides some degree of thermal insulation. The temperature
increase in the main reinforcement is rather slow, and consequently, the yield strength of the
steel bar decrease slowly.
Concrete elements have to be designed appropriately to ensure an adequate fire endurance to
decrease the risk of spalling. A suitable concrete mix design has to be chosen and an
appropriate reinforcement detailing has to be ensured, as well.
Under normal conditions, most concrete structures are subjected to a range of temperature,
that is not more severe the temperature imposed by ambient environmental conditions.
However, there are important cases where these structures may be exposed to much higher
temperatures (e.g., jet aircraft engine blasts, building fires, chemical and metallurgical
industrial applications in which the concrete is in close proximity to furnaces). Under such

1
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 1

applications the effect of fire or elevated temperatures on certain mechanical and physical
properties may determine whether the concrete will maintain its structural integrity.
The thermal properties of concrete are more complex than for most materials, not only
because the concrete is a composite material whose constituents have different properties, but
also properties depend on moisture and porosity. Exposing the concrete to fire or elevated
temperatures affect its mechanical and physical properties. Elements could be distorted and
displaced, and, under certain conditions, the concrete surfaces could due to the buildup of
steam pressure. This is because, thermally induced dimensional changes, loss of structural
integrity, and release of moisture and gases resulting from the migration of free water, could
adversely affect the structural behaviour of RC elements. As the properties of concrete change
with respect to time and the environment to which they are exposed, an assessment of the
effects of concrete aging is also important in implemenating safety evaluations.
This report focuses on: the effects of elevated temperatures on concrete materials, concrete
materials for elevated-temperatures service, code and design considerations for reinforced
concrete structures exposed to fire or elevated temperatures, and the performance of selected
RC structural members subjected to fire or elevated temperatures.

2
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 1

1.2 Report layout

This report containes the following chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter contains a general review, goals, objectives and main contents of the report.

Chapter 2: Effect of fire on constituentes of concrete

This chapter covers the available literature on the effect of fire or elevated temperatures on
constituentes of concrete. It also covers mechanical and structural behaviour of normal
strength concrete, high strength concrete and self compacting concrete constituentes.

Chapter 3: Effect of fire on reinforced concrete elements

This chapter covers the available literature on the effect of fire or elevated temperatures on
reinforced concrete elements. The structural behaviour of reinforced concrete slabs,
reinforced concrete beams and reinforced concrete columns subjected to fire or elevated
temperatures were discussed, as well.

Chapter 4: Assessment of fire-damaged RC structures

This chapter covers the available literature on the assessment of fire-damaged reinforced
concrete structures. The traditional and modern techniques were also calssified and specified
for assessming fire-damaged reinforced concrete elements.

Chapter 5: Fire safety of RC structures

This chapter covers the available literature on fire safety of reinforced concrete structures.
The design philosophies, design approach and calculation approach according to different
design codes for reinforced concrete structures subjected to fire or elevated temperatures,
were presented, too.

Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusions

This chapter contains a summary and conclusions of the accumulated literature presented in
this report.

References

The presented list of references contains nearly 179 materials.

3
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 2
Effect of fire on

constituentes of concrete

XI
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

CHAPTER 2

EFFECT OF FIRE ON CONSTITUENTES OF CONCRETE

2.1 Introduction

Fire has a significant effect on the deformation characteristics of various structural elements.
This highly depends on the thermal and the mechanical properties of the materials of which
the structure is composed. Materials will loose their strength and their ability to control the
deformation at a certain high temperature. Shrinkage and expansion may be formed in the
material and this may cause buckling or crushing of the concrete structure.Some important
definitions of the thermal properties will be given to facilitate the discussions of the concrete
behavior. Fire is one of the main reasons which causes loss of life and property. Some
capabilities exist but there is a lack of specific data such as material properties at elevated
temperature. Existing test methods like ISO 834 and ASTM E119 assess performance under a
singe, standard exposure, which is developed long ago when fuel characteristics were quite
different than today [1].

2.2 Effect of Fire or Elevated Temperatures on Concrete

Concrete is a composite material consists of aggregates and matrix as its basic components.
The effect of fire on heating both of these components individually as well as their
interaction, control the behavior of concrete at high temperatures, Purkiss [l]. Concrete is a
porous material that its pores filled with water and air, so that surface heating of the concrete
at elevated temperature during fire, not only results in deterioration of its properties like:
elastic modulus, tensile and compressive strength, but also in moisture migration in the
presence of liquid water, heat evolved from fire to the concrete, causes the evaporation of the
liquid water. With the rise in temperature, the aggregate expands. the expansion of the matrix,
on the other hand, is substantially offset of sometimes completely negated by shrinkage due to
the evaporation of water. The resultant expansion differential causes an internal cracking in
the concrete and a reduction in its stiffness. The extent of this phenomenon differs
considerably according to the type of aggregate and it is mostly pronounced in the case of
concrete with siliceous aggregate. Which at very high temperatures (575°C or above)
undergoes physical changes accompanied by a sudden expansion in volume, causing in some
cases aggregate splitting and / or spalling.

4
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.2.1 Definitions

2.2.1.1 Thermal Capacity

The product of specific heat and the density of material that decreases with the increase in
temperature

2.2.1.2 Thermal Conductivity

The amount of heat transferred through a unit area of a material in a unit time, through a unit
thickness With a unit of temperature difference between the surfaces of the two opposite sides

2.2.1.3 Specific Heat

The amount of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the material one
degree

2.2.1.4 Thermal Diffusivity

The material ability to conduct heat energy in relation to its thermal capacity. It is also an
important factor which will give some indications of how fast the structure will be heated in
fire.

Thermal diffusivity = Thermal conductivity / Thermal heat capacity

2.2.1.5 Fire Endurance

Measure of the elapsed time during which the material continues to exhibit fire resistance
under specified conditions of test and performance

2.2.1.6 Fire Resistance

The fire resistance is the property of material that enables it to resist decomposition or
deterioration when exposed to fire .

2.2.1.7 Fire Resistance Rating

(sometimes called fire rating, fire resistance or hourly rating) A legal term defined in
building codes, usually based on fire resistance endurance. Fire resistance ratings are assigned
by building codes for various types of construction and occupancies, and are usually given in
half an hour increments.

5
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.3 Effect of Fire on Normal Concrete

Concrete is a poor conductor of heat, but can suffer considerable damage when exposed to
fire. Unraveling the heating history of concrete is important to forensic research or to
determine whether a fire-exposed concrete structure and its components are still structurally
sound. Assessment of fire-damage concrete structures usually starts with visual observation of
color change, cracking and spalling. On heating, a change in color from normal to pink is
often observed and this is useful since it coincides with the onset of significant loss of
concrete strength. When reinforced concrete elements are subjected to fire or high
temperature as in fire, there is deterioration in its properties. Of particular importance are
losses in compressive strength, cracking and spalling of concrete, destruction of the bond
between the cement paste and the aggregates and the gradual deterioration of the hardened
cement paste. Concrete color provides a broad, general guide of temperatures. Whether the
color represents the original surface or one resulting from spalling. Crazing, cracking popouts
caused by quartz or chert aggregate particles, spalling and dehydration (crumbling and
powdering of paste) are general indications of temperatures to which concrete has been
exposed. On heating above 300°C the color of concrete can change from normal to pink (300-
600°C) to whitish gray (600-900 oC) and buff (900-1000 °C). [2], the pink discoloration
results from the presence of iron compound in the fine or coarse aggregates. The first effects
of a slow temperature rise in concrete will occur between 100 and 200°C when evaporation of
the free moisture, contained in the concrete mass, occurs. Instant exposure can result in
spalling through generation of high internal steam pressures. As the temperature approaches
250°C dehydration or loss of the non-evaporable water or water of hydration begins to take
place. The first sizable degradation in compressive strength is usually experienced between
200 and 250°C. At 300 °C strength reduction would be in the range of 15-40%. At 550°C
reduction in compressive strength would typically range from 55% to 70% of its original
value. Temperatures in the 550 °C range are critical because calcium hydroxide dehydration
takes place. Calcium hydroxide is a hydration product of most Portland cement, the amount
being dependent upon the particular cement being used. Aggregates also begin to deteriorate
at about 550°C. For example quartz expands at a higher rate around 300°C, [3]. Ten test
specimens examined were concrete cores from the first floor of a reinforced concrete building
(age: 15 years old) which had been exposed to fire on 5th February 2000. Five cylinder cores
(cyI. 1-5) were subjected to compressive strength test according to method ASTM C-39 and
three cylinder cores (cyl. 6-8) were subjected to "tensile splitting test" according to method
ISO 4108 (Brazilian test). The other two cores (cyI. 9-10) were used for the petrographic
analysis based on ASTM C-856: "petrographic examination of hardened concrete "was
carried out on two thin sections from each core. Their construction was made in such a way,

6
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

that the observation of the phenomena escalation due to fire exposed. The thin section were
manufactured by vacuum impregnation, of the selected sample (cut from the core) size 50 mm
x 50 mm x 10 mm with epoxy resin, followed by cutting, grinding, and polishing until a final
thickness of 20 mm was reached. During the process the thin section is mounted upon an
object glass. The thin sections were analyzed by polarization microscopy. The concrete
constituents, and its microstructure pastes/aggregates, microvoids/cracks, and separation of
the cement paste: from aggregates in fire exposed concrete samples, were examined and signs
of the deterioration process were noted. The quantification of the crack patterns was carried
out by measuring the crack, density of concrete, in units of "mm" of crack length per "cm2",
correlating the extent of cracking, because of temperature increase, with the depth from the
surface exposed to fire. The examination was carried out in filtered transmitted light, so that
the cracks present in an area of 3.2 mm x 3.2 mm could be observed. All samples received
from the fire-damaged concrete cores were studied microscopically giving the following
results:
1. At the surface near to the fire origin carbonate aggregate in concrete have been
transformed to CaO, a fact that indicates the temperature must have reached 900°C.
The rest of the aggregates in greater depth are seemed to have been preserved
relatively harmless.
2. The carbonation reaction has been completely developed in the cement paste, at the
surface near to the fire-exposed side, contrary to the inner side of the specimen, where
crystals of Ca (OH)2 has been detected.
3. Large amount of gaps has been observed in the whole area of examined specimens,
which are related with, either because of the pulverization of the aggregates, or
because of the cement paste fragmentation, by reason of its structure collapse.
4. Large amount of heavy cracking has been detected in the cement paste-aggregates
interface in the whole area of examined specimens. Moreover, in the main area of the
cement paste micro cracking, of various orientation, has been observed which
obviously, are not placed among these of self-restored. The absence of a
microscopically visible glassy layer, underlain by thin layers of altered paste and
aggregate, indicated that temperature exposure did not exceed 1000 oC.
Hertz [4], Concrete is possibly exposed to elevated temperatures during fire or when it is near
to furnaces and reactors. The mechanical properties such as strength, modulus of elasticity
and volume stability of concrete are significantly reduced during these exposures. This may
result in undesirable structural failures. Therefore, the properties of concrete retained after a
fire are of still importance for determining the load carrying capacity and for reinstating fire-
damaged constructions. When exposed to high temperature, the chemical composition and

7
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

physical structure of the concrete change considerably. The dehydration such as the release of
chemically bound water from the calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) becomes significant above
about 110°C. The dehydration of the hydrated calcium silicate and the thermal expansion of
the aggregate increase internal stresses and from 300°C micro cracks are induced through the
material. Yuzer N. [5], calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], which is one of the most important
compounds in cement paste, dissociates at around 530°C resulting in the shrinkage of
concrete. The fire is generally extinguished by water and CaO turns into [Ca(OH)2] causing
cracking and crumbling of concrete. Therefore, the effects of high temperatures are generally
visible in the form of surface cracking and spalling. Some changes in color may also occur
during the exposure. The alterations produced by high temperatures are more evident when
the temperature surpasses 500°C. Most changes experienced by concrete at this temperature
level are considered irreversible. CSH gel, which is the strength giving compound of cement
paste, decomposes further above 600°C. At 800 oC, concrete is usually crumbled and above
1150 °C feldspar melts and the other minerals of the cement paste turn into a glass phase [4].
As a result, severe micro structural changes are induced and concrete loses its strength and
durability. Concrete is a composite material produced from aggregate, cement, and water.
Therefore, the type and properties of aggregate also play an important role on the properties
of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. The strength degradations of concretes with
different aggregates are not same under high temperatures [5]. This is attributed to the mineral
structure of the aggregates. Quartz in siliceous aggregates polymorphically changes at 570°C
with a volume expansion and consequent damage. In limestone aggregate concrete, CaC03
turns into CaO at 800-900 °C, and expands with temperature. Shrinkage may also start due to
the decomposition of CaC03 into C02 and CaO with volume changes causing destructions
[5]. Consequently, elevated temperatures and fire may cause aesthetic and functional
deteriorations to the buildings. Aesthetic damage is generally easy to repair while functional
impairments are more profound and may require partial or total repair or replacement,
depending on their severity [5]. Orner [6], four different concrete mixtures were prepared by
using ordinary Portland cement, crushed limestone aggregate and siliceous river gravel with
maximum size of 15 mm. The damage to the concrete after being subjected to high
temperatures can be roughly detected by observing the concrete surface. Thus, assessment of
fire-damaged concrete usually starts with visual observation of color change, cracking and
spalling of concrete surface. Illustrates the concrete surfaces after treatment at elevated
temperatures. There was no visible effect on the surface of the specimens heated up to 400°C.
The concrete started to crack when the temperature increased to 600 °C but the effect was not
significant at that temperature level. The cracks became very pronounced at 800°C and
extensively increased at 1000 °C. The specimens completely decomposed and lost their

8
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

binding properties after exposure to 1200 °C where the spalling of the samples due to
excessive cracking was observed. This was attributed to continuous crack formation. Sakr [7],
states that failure of heated concrete surface occurs most likely by crack formation parallel to
the hot surface, degradation of concrete strength and pressuration of concrete pores, It is
stated that spalling may cause a violent effect to fire-exposed concrete reducing the load
bearing capacity of a construction. Further more, the explosive thermal spalling is
characterized as explosively breaking of concrete into pieces, often without advance notice
[8]. The effect of elevated temperatures on the weight loss of the concrete specimens is shown
in Fig. (2-1). It increased with temperature increase. These losses were about 5% and45%
after subjecting to 200 and 1200 °C, respectively.

Fig. (2-1) Weight loss of the concrete specimens subjected to elevated temperatures [6].

A concrete shield is exposed to two sources of heat: heat transferred from the hot parts of the
reactor systems and heat produced internally by the attenuation of neutrons and gamma rays.
Radiations attenuated by the shield do not have a significantly deleterious effect on the shield
itself. Different types of concrete seem to hold up well, although if heated, they will lose
water from crystallization, becoming somewhat weaker and less effective in neutron
attenuation, Sakr [7]. Energy captured from the slowed down fast neutron sand gamma rays
entering the shield from a reactor core is deposited within the shielding material and liberated
as heat. The total amount of heat generated in the shielding material is thus quite
considerable. Its effect can be significant; especially that most of the heat is produced in the
layers of the shield nearest to the reactor core. The determination of heat distribution and heat
effect or thermal stress is an important aspect of the shield design. The effect of accidental
fire or high temperature (ranging from 250 to 950°C) and gamma rays on physical,
mechanical and radiation properties of different types of concrete (gravel, baryte and ilmenite

9
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

concrete) used as shields in nuclear facilities. Cooling on concrete properties was studied.
Where the effects of heating duration at different degrees of temperature on mechanical
properties of protected and unprotected gravel concrete specimens are given in Table (2-1),
The compressive strength of gravel concrete showed a minor reduction of 9% and 16%, and
5% and 11% when heated at 250 °C for 1 and 2 h in both cases of protected and unprotected
concrete samples, respectively, but it was extremely affected (50%) when heated at 500°C for
1 h in the case of unprotected ordinary concrete. On the other hand, the protected concrete
was mildly affected compared with the unprotected concrete. The reduction in bending
strength of gravel concrete was higher than that of compressive strength when heated at the
same temperature and for the same duration. The bending strength of gravel concrete was
extremely affected by exposure to heat at 250°C for 2 and 3h for protected and unprotected
specimens, respectively. In general, when gravel concrete was exposed to temperatures of
250°C for more than 1 h, the rate of loss of strength increased. At temperatures above 500 °C
for 1 h duration, the high strength of protected and unprotected gravel concrete progressively
lost its compressive strength, which dropped to more than 55% of the room temperature
strength. Generally, the mechanical properties of concrete (compressive, tensile, bending and
bonding strengths) were inversely proportional to heating temperatures (more than 500) or °C
firing time (more than I h). From this study, it can be concluded that ilmenite concrete is more
suitable as a shielding material than gravel or barite concrete because of its high physical,
mechanical and radiation properties. Ilmenite concrete is more resistant to elevated
temperature than gravel or baryte concrete. It can be stated that ilmenite concrete is the
suitable one to attenuate gamma rays as shielding material and there is a minor significance
effect of high temperatures on concrete properties. Abu-Elmagad [9], reported that concrete
loses its strength dramatically when exposed to elevated temperatures for long duration.
Generally concrete pariatially loses its strength at temperature of 200-250 °C, but cracks start
to occur at about 300 °C where the concrete loses 30% of its compressive strength. If the
temperature does not exceed 300 °C the concrete will return most of its strength by time, but
if the degree of temperature exceed 300 °C, this loss in compressive strength increase, in case
of temperature range 500 °C 600 °C the compressive strength losses of concrete become (20-
40%) of its original strength as shown in Table (2-2).

10
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Table (2-1): Maximum mechanical properties of protected and unprotected gravel

concrete at different temperatures and different heating durations.

Table (2-2): Effect of fire or elevated temperatures on properties of concrete [9].

2.4 Effect of Fire on High Strength Concrete

The fire resistance capacity of concrete is very complicated because not only is concrete a
composite material with components having different thermal characteristics, it also has
properties that' depend on moisture and porosity [10]. Various performances of normal-
strength concrete (NSC) after fire has been researched exhaustively. Although the thermal
parameters of high-strength concrete (HSC) components are similar to those of NSC, such as

11
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

specific heat, diffusivity, thermal conductivity, and coefficient of thermal expansion, some
studies have shown that HSC has such disadvantages as poor fire resistance, being more
prone to explosive spalling due to their low permeability and high brittleness compared to
NSC. With the growth of engineering structure towards large span, higher rise, and ultra-high
rise, the applications of HSC are increasing day by day. Therefore, questions about the
performance of HPC at elevated temperature need to be examined. The average values of
compressive strength of C40, C60, and C70 after curing for 28 days are 42.5, 68.0, and 76.
MPa. respectively, [11]. After curing for 28 days at 20°C and 90% RH, the specimens were
tested. The sizes of specimens include 100xl00xl00, 150x150x150, and 100xl00x415 mm.
The strength was tested according to Chinese standard OBI 81-85.
Fig. (2-2) shows that, the compressive strength of concrete drops with temperature starting
from 200°C in this research. With the example of C70, the compressive strength after 200°C
is retained at 82.3%. The retained compressive strength after 400°C is 63.2% compared to the
unfired strength, while after 600°C, the strength is 58.1%. The compressive strength value
drops sharply to 21.3% compared to that of specimens unfired after 1000 °C. For concrete
subjected to 200°C, color does not change, while straw yellow, off-white, and red appear
when the concrete are exposed to temperature of 400, 800, and 1000 °C, respectively.
Therefore, by combining changes in rules of strength, color, and temperature during fire, the
retained compressive strength can be inferred primarily. This will provide some reference for
structure in practice. The reduction in compressive strength and the change in color of
concrete result from the change in structure and composition of concrete during firing. From
Fig. (2-2), it can be seen that the strength loss of HSC (C60 and C70) surpasses that of NSC
(C40). This difference is noteworthy, especially at the range of 400°C. For compressive
strength grade of C70, the retained compressive strength at 400°C is 63.2%, while for
compressive strength grade of C40, the value is 71.2%. From Fig. (2-3) it can be seen that,
splitting tensile strength is reduced after elevated temperature. After 1000 °C, the retained
splitting tensile strength is only 16.9% compared to the unfired. For the C70 concrete, the
dense structure induces thermal stress that results in many microcracks and even a few
macrocracks. The decompositions of Ca(OH)2 and other ingredients also induce the
appearance of cracks. Bending strength is reduced with' the temperature elevated. Bending
strength of C70 is reduced to 16.3% after 800°C. However, after 1000 °C, only 7.4% is
retained; that is, the reduction of bending strength is much higher than that of compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength. Fig. (2-4) shows that, the bending strength of HSC
(C60 and C70) drops more sharply than that of NSC (C40), especially within the range of
200-400 °C.

12
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig. (2-2) Compressive strength of concrete after high temperature [11].

Fig. (2-3) Splitting Tensile strength of concrete after high temperature [11].

Fig. (2-4) Bending strength of concrete after high temperature [11].

13
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.5 Spalling of Concrete Exposed to Fire

Many traditional concrete constructions have been exposed to fires, but only relatively limited
number of fires have given rise to damage of structural significance due to spalling.
Furthermore, in the known cases the concrete has been moist or fresh or it has been observed
that the building has contained a wet activity. Some cases of fires at erection sites have been
reported, where explosive spalling of the fresh concrete has occurred. A few fires at outdoor
structures or at constructions in wet factories have given rise to explosive spalling. A majority
of the reported observations of spalling of traditional concrete have been made at laboratory
tests where researchers have fire tested their specimens within a few months after casting in
order to fit the research plan. -In the 1970s the introduction of superplasticising additives
made it possible to create dense concretes by mixing micro-silica fume in between the cement
grains. Where these new materials suffered from explosive spalling to an extent, which was
never seen before, Hertz, [12]. This means for example that spalling occurred at a heating rate
of only 1 °C Imin. Since then, the public has witnessed a number of cases of severe damage
due to spalling of dense concretes in real fires among which are the fire in the tunnel between
Britain and France and that in the Danish tunnel under the Great Belt [13].

2.6 Effect of Fire on Traditional Concrete

For traditional concretes, the effect of explosive spalling is mostly seen within the first 20 min
of a fire and the following have been stated as reasons for spalling, as for example listed in
Hertz KD. [14]:
(1) Extinguishing water; (9) Variable thickness of parts of the same cross-section;

(2) Quartz aggregate expansion; (10) Fixed ends;

(3) Aggregate spalling; (11) Thermal stresses;

(4) Low tensile strength; (12) Corners and curved surfaces;

(5) Dense reinforcement; (13) Prestress and compression stresses;

(6) Rapid heating; (14) Free water and moisture gradients in the concrete;

(7) Asymmetric heating; (15)Low permeability; and

(8) Thin parts of the cross-sections; (16) Closed pores with water.

1- Several authors showed explicitly that extinguishing water did not increase the
spalling effect. As a fire fighter the author has seen some surface deterioration due to
this, which can be explained by the sudden cooling of the outmost millimeters of the
concrete, but the effect is of no structural significance and is not the same
phenomenon as spalling.

14
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2- The expansion of the quartz crystal may give rise to formation of supplementary
micro-cracks around the stone and there by contribute to the deterioration of the
concrete, but not to a sudden spalling effect.
3- Aggregate spalling is the phenomenon that single pieces of aggregate burst and leave
small craters in the surface without consequences for the load-bearing capacity. The
reason may be inclusions of water in aggregates such as flint and sandstone and the
effect is local near the stone and has in general no structural significance.
4- Low tensile strength will increase the risk of spalling because it decreases the energy
and the pressure necessary to explode the material. Porous aggregate can cause a low
tensile strength, and they may also contain more water. This can be an additional
reason for an increased risk of spalling; see [14]. But as discussed later for some
dense materials low tensile strength can lead to formation of thermal cracks, which in
some cases can prevent sapling.
5- Dense reinforcement and large aggregates can increase the tensile stresses in the
cement matrix because of its thermal expansion and thereby contribute to spalling but
not be a reason in itself.
6- It is well known that a rapid heating is necessary for spalling of traditional concrete.
During large tests series, all spalling occurred within the first15-20 min of the fires.
The rapid heating gives rise to large temperature and moisture gradients in the fire-
exposed parts, and both may as indicated later influence the problem.
7- Asymmetric heating gives rise to thermal stresses (see [11]) and moisture gradients
(see [14]).
8- In thin parts of a cross-section rapid heating and large moisture gradients may be
developed. This is therefore explained by [6] and [14].
9- Variable thickness causes thermal stresses; see [11].
10- Fixed ends can hinder thermal expansion and give rise to thermal stresses and
additional loads depending on the other members of the structure.
11- Thermal stresses arise from thermal gradients which may be increased by
asymmetric heating, variable thickness and fixed ends. Compression stresses are
introduced at the fire exposed surface and tensile stresses at some distance from this.
Saito, [15] thought that spalling was a compression failure at the surface. But he
shows by means of simple elastic calculations that the compression stresses in two-
sided exposed plates cannot give rise to compression failure even when rather high
static stresses. In addition the theory of compression failure would not explain the
fact that the traditional concrete will not spall unless the moisture content is above 3-
4% by weight. Thermal stresses can be a contributing reason for spalling. As later

15
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

explained for dense concretes, thermal stresses and external load may be decisive for
spalling of these materials [15].
12- Comer spalling or sloughing-off is a phenomenon, where convex comers of beams
and columns falloff after a long time of fire exposure (more than30 min). Many
examples of this phenomenon have been seen in real fires, and it is often possible to
loosen comers by the fingers after a fire. Connolly, [16] stated that, this phenomenon
is caused by the formation of cracks in the material combined with thermal stresses in
the surface giving rise to a crack pattern where the comer falls off due to its weight. If
this means that the comer bar is exposed, the bar would be deemed to have no
anchorage capacity in a proper anchorage calculation, Hertz, [17]. This means that
comer spalling does not give rise to unforeseen loss of load-bearing capacity.
13- Prestress and compression stresses seem to increase the risk of spalling just as
thermal stresses do. Andersen, [18] stated that the top flange of fire-exposed TT
beams exploded in spalling leading to holes through the flange and no spalling
occurred at the bottom of the beams. However, in this and in some other cases the
lack of coherence of the thin flange is more likely to be responsible for the damage.
14- Free water and moisture gradients in the concrete must be considered to be the main
reason for explosive spalling. Traditional concrete will not spall if it is dry, and all
other reasons mentioned may contribute to the effect of spalling, but cannot cause
spalling without moisture. Harmathy, [19] stated that, the most basic theory about this
effect. They have noted that only concrete of certain humidity will suffer from
spalling, and that concrete which originally was susceptible to spalling did not spall if
it was dried to a depth of 20-30 mm from the surface. They have also noted that dry
materials did not spall even if large temperature gradients were introduced, and they
concluded that thermal gradient and thermal stresses cannot give rise to spalling
without the presence of moisture. This and visual observations lead to their theory
which says that an evaporation front penetrates the cross-section from the surface.
Free water evaporates in the zone of the front. Some of it is transported to the surface
helped by the gradients, and some of it penetrates further into the deeper and cooler
parts of the cross-section, where it is cooled down and condensed. This mechanism
gives rise to a still more wet zone at the edge of the evaporation front and this leads to
a steam explosion.
15- The theory is extended and it is indicated that low permeability increases the risk of
spalling.
16- The pores of the material are as a rough model considered to be either open or
closed. In a zone near behind the progressing evaporation front the closed pores still

16
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

contain water and steam, which is heated further. When the temperature rises the
pressure is increased in the closed pores, and the pressure difference over the
separating walls between open and closed pores causes a breakdown of some of these
walls. The sudden release of superheated water gives rise to boiling and a
considerable increase in volume initiating the spalling. [16] states that, concrete with
less than 4% moisture by weight has a much reduced susceptibility to spalling.
Tensile stresses caused by steam streaming to the surface is an important reason for
spalling, and thermal compressive stresses and compression from the static load
parallel to the surface increases the risk of collapse and explosive spalling. As seen
from the discussion, a number of factors contribute to increase the risk of spalling,
but moisture is the most important factor. It can be concluded that constructions of
traditional concrete with less than 3 wt % moisture will not give rise to spalling and
that traditional concrete in the range 3-4 wt % moisture has a limited risk of spalling.

2.7 Effect of Fire on Dense concrete

Some papers and reports use the term high strength concrete. However, the increased
problems of explosive spalling have also been observed for low strength concretes with a
dense microstructure. For example experimental columns of light aggregate concrete
densified with silica fume and a compressive strength of 30MPa spalled in fire tests where the
author was a consultant, and similar results are known from fire tests of constructions for oil
rigs and tunnels. For some dense concretes spalling phenomena have been observed which
would never occur in a traditional concrete. Specimens have exploded at heating rates as slow
as 1 °C /min (where ordinary fires have heating rates of 10-20 °C /min and more). This
performance is unthinkable for traditional concretes. Specimens have exploded even if they
were dried out on beforehand. By measuring the weight loss it was proved that only the
crystal water remained at the time of test, and it is therefore concluded that crystal water is
sufficient for causing an explosive spalling if the material is dense enough. Explosions were
observed after 6 h of heating, which is also different from the experiences for traditional
concrete. Ten specimens were made of dense concretes of variable composition close to the
one used for the Great Belt tunnel project Hertz, [20]. The specimens were tiles of
600x600x20 mm3 heated in a limited area of 200x200 mm2 at the centre of a side, so that the
unheated part of the specimen around the exposed area could resist the thermal expansion.
The heating source was a sudden exposure from a hole in an oven of constant temperature.
All specimens spalled heavily for about 20 min until the thermal stresses caused them to
crack. Then the spalling stopped immediately. Explosive spalling was observed about 5 min
later for exposure at a constant temperature of 700°C than for exposure with 800 °C that
explosion of slow-heated specimens of dense concrete occurs when the temperature of the

17
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

exploding layer is in the range 350-400 °C, unless the specimens are fiber reinforced, which
can delay the explosion to about 450°C. This indicates that spalling often occurs near the
critical point of steam at 374°C. Beyond this point a pore cannot contain liquid and vapour at
the same time, and the pressure increases dramatically. The tests show clearly that some
dense concrete need thermal or external stresses in order to spall, while more dense concretes
for example (14% silica fume and about 200MPa compressive strength) are able to spall
without external load or thermal stresses. This means that the dense concretes can be divided
into two classes--dense and super dense, where dense need thermal or external stresses to
show spalling. In order to investigate the possible effect of thermal stresses in free and
unloaded walls, we have recently made a full-scale test of 4 wall elements of length x height
=1200 mm x1200 mm and a thickness of 300 mm. The wall elements were placed in the
middle of a fire furnace so that both sides of the specimens were exposed to a standard fire
and the edges were insulated. Some of the concretes contained silica fume and have shown
spalling in a small scale test with hindered thermal expansion, but at the full-scale test none of
the wall elements were subjected to spalling. All the four wall elements showed severe cracks
after the fire, in the centre plane and across the thickness of the wall spalling of a tile and
thermal cracks causing the spalling to stop. Calculating the thermal stresses in a wall by
dividing the cross-section into 100 lamellas and taking the reduction of the E-modulus into
account and initially presuming unlimited strength it is seen that the tensile stresses will cause
crack formation in a zone from 30mm from the fire-exposed surface. The same pattern has
been observed for example in fire-exposed slabs. Where the thermal cracks start in a depth of
30-40 mm influencing the moisture movement, and later during the cooling phase opens to
the surface. As soon as the internal thermal cracks are developed, the thermal compression
stresses at the surface are unloaded, and consequently spalling will be prevented unless the
concrete is super dense or external load or hindered thermal expansion of the entire cross-
section causes additional stresses. This effect is for example seen in the circular constructions
of drilled tunnels. Because the tunnel elements are placed in a full ring, the single elements
cannot change curvature, and thermal stresses cannot be unloaded by change of curvature and
related internal crack formation.

2.8 Effect of Fire on Self Compact Concrete

The use of self- compacted concrete (SCC) increased significantly during the last few
decades. Self-compacted concrete exhibits significantly higher compressive strength than
normal concrete, which allows structural members to carry higher loads. Fire resistance of
self-compacting concretes (SCC) containing limestone and quartz powders, with two different
compressive strengths, were evaluated and compared with normal concretes (NC) [21]. The

18
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

residual mechanical strengths of the mixes at different temperatures were measured. The
changes in the phase composition of the cement pastes at high temperatures were examined
with thermal analysis and X-ray diffractometry methods. The SCC mixes showed a higher
susceptibility to spalling at high temperatures but the NC mixes suffered much more from
loss of the mechanical strengths. Both the powder types and the compressive strength notably
influenced the fire behavior of the SCC. The quartz powder accelerated the hydration of the
SCC cement paste at high temperatures, up to 500 ◦C. However, the quartz-contained SCC
showed the highest risk of spalling among all the mixes. The results showed that, the thermal
analysis could be a useful device for evaluating the fire behavior of building materials [21].
An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the performance of self-compacting
concrete (SCC) subjected to elevated temperatures [22]. Experimental results indicate that, a
severe strength loss was observed for all of the SCC mixtures after exposure to 600 oC,
particularly the concretes containing polypropylene fibers though they reduce and eliminate
the risk of the explosive spalling. At higher replacement levels of LP, BP and BP further
lower resudial strength was observed. In terms of percent residual properties, control mixture
specimens performed better than filler additive specimens for all heating cycles [22]. Neelam,
[23] aimed to study the properties of Self-Compacting-Concrete (SCC) such as compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, rapid chloride permeability, porosity, and mass loss when
exposed to elevated temperatures. Test results clearly show that, there is little improvement in
compressive strength within temperature range of 200-300 oC as compared to 20-200 oC but
there is little reduction in splitting tensile strength ranging from 20 to 300 oC and with the
increase in percentage of fly ash [23]. Self-compacting/consolidating concrete (SCC) is
certainly one the most innovative material used today by the construction industry, because of
its astonishing workability and low permeability, both properties being ensured by the large
amounts of fine aggregates, the special additives and the fillers, that characterize SCC's mix
compared to traditionally vibrated concrete (VC) [24]. The objective is to synthesize the test
results available in the literature and to make systematic comparisons, something that is not as
simple as one may expect, because of the different heating rates, specimen types, and
procedures in data treatment and presentation. The agreement, however, is more than
satisfactory and confirms what has been more or less overtly indicated in previous studies,
that the thermal and mechanical behavior of SCC at high temperature is hardly different from
that of VC, at least in quasi-static thermal conditions and uniaxial loading [24]. The study
[25] deals with the strains developed in a traditional vibrated and a self-compacting concrete
during heating, as well as the stress-strain relationship after the heating cycle. Information
about the strains occurring during fire is necessary to calculate the structural response,
whereas the mechanical properties after fire are needed to assess the remaining load bearing

19
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

capacity. It is observed that during heating under compressive stress, the free thermal
expansion is partly compensated, resulting in smaller expansions and a relaxation of the
thermal stresses. Besides these load related phenomena, also the cooling method and the post-
cooling storage have an influence on the mechanical properties of the concrete after fire.
From the experiments, several stress-strain models are derived, taking into account the
temperature, the load level and a post-cooling storage in moist air during several weeks [25].
The effect of high temperature on the properties of self-compacted concrete (SCC) compared
with the ordinary concrete (NC) was investigated [26]. The effect of cooling technique on the
properties of SCC and NC was discussed. The properties of SCC and NC were measured after
exposed to 200 oC, 400 oC and 600 oC for two hours. Results from these tests show that the
mechanical properties decreased with increasing temperatures. The mechanical properties of
SCC cooled gradually are better than that cooled suddenly by water. In their [27] research
Self-Compacting concretes designed as Powder Type, Viscosity-Agent Type and
Combination Type were investigated with respect to their behaviour at fire conditions. The
spalling of the concretes depended on the (w/c)eq-ratio and the cement-powder ratio (c!p). The
concretes showed a relatively high residual compressive strength which depended also on the
(w/c)eq-ratio and the cement-powder ratio (c/p) of the mix [27]. Report [28] presents a state-
of-the-art literature survey of recent developments on the structural fire performance and fire
protection engineering. An introduction is provided on current research progress of
performance-based design and assessment methodologies and techniques and their
applications in building codes and standards. A review of recent studies on the behaviour of
structures in fire is provided and includes: past fire collapses of buildings, effects of structural
thermal expansion on the behaviour of structures exposed to fire, performance of reinforced
concrete and steel structures in fire and response and performance of structures in fire and
earthquake. Furthermore, a brief review is carried out on the current available analytical tools
and programs and recent development on analytical and numerical modeling approaches.
Fire-resistance experimental and test approaches are also reviewed and a cost-effective hybrid
fire test and experimental approach is suggested for further studies and investigations. Finally,
concluding remarks and suggestions for future researches and studies on the fire performance
and safety engineering of structures are addressed. The study [29] provides a state of the art
review of research into the effects of high temperature on concrete and concrete structures,
extending to a range of forms of construction, including novel developments. The nature of
concrete-based structures means that they generally perform very well in fire. However,
concrete is fundamentally a complex material and its properties can change dramatically
when exposed to high temperatures. The principal effects of fire on concrete are loss of
compressive strength, and spalling -the forcible ejection of material from the surface of a

20
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

member. Though a lot of information has been gathered on both phenomena, there remains a
need for more systematic studies of the effects of thermal exposures. Progress has been made
on modelling the thermo mechanical behaviour but the treatment of detailed behaviours,
including hygral effects and spalling, remains a challenge. Furthermore, there is still a severe
lack of data from real structures for validation, though some valuable insights may also be
gained from study of the performance of concrete structures in real fires [29]. The chemical
and mechanical stability of slag activated with two different concentrations of sodium sulfate
(Na2SO4) after exposure to elevated temperatures ranging from 200 to 800 °C with an
increment of 200 °C has been examined [30]. Compressive strengths and pH of the hardened
pastes before and after the exposure were determined. The various decomposition phases
formed were identified using X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis and scanning
electron microscopy. The results indicated that Na2SO4 activated slag has a better resistance
to the degradation caused by exposure to elevated temperature up to 600 °C than Portland
cement system as its relative strengths are superior. The finer slag and higher Na2SO4
concentration gave better temperature resistance. Whilst the pH of the hardened pastes
decreased with an increase in temperature, it still maintained a sufficiently high pH for the
protection of reinforcing bar against corrosion [30]. The moisture transport in concrete
subjected to fire is one of the most important processes with respect to fire spalling [31]. The
research on fire spalling of concrete is currently lacking experimental information of the
moisture transport processes. The temperatures measured at the boiling front indicate a
vapour pressure in the order of 1.8 MPa. A simple vapour transport model was successfully
used to describe the speed of the boiling front. Preparation of the article entailed authors
analyzing the contents of quite a number of papers, although the main objective was never to
review the state of the art of new cements. Rather authors intend to discuss why they believe
alkaline activated cement can be positioned at the epicentre of a new and necessary transition
from today's Portland cement to the new cements of the future. A brief history of alkaline
cements serves as an introduction to the technology itself. The interest roused around calcium
sulfoaluminate-based cements is also reviewed, albeit summarily. The greater part of the
article focuses, however, on alkaline cements which are classified into five categories. The
fundamental chemical and structural characteristics of aluminosilicate based alkaline cements
are also described, and the key advances made in the understanding of synthetic gels are
discussed. The paper ultimately finds hybrid cements to be technologically viable materials
for contemporary construction [32]. Concrete mechanical properties are determined under
laboratory conditions of ideal air temperatures between 20 and 22 oC and relative humidity
between 40% and 60%. The study describes the development of concrete mechanical
properties when cured under different environmental conditions. The results indicate that

21
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

concrete strength and modulus of elasticity are inversely related to temperature as well as
moisture content in the concrete. Concrete modulus of elasticity was directly related to
concrete compressive strength in both temperature and moisture testing. Mathematical
formulas were developed for modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, tensile strength, and
Poisson’s ratio [33]. The study [34] reviews the literature related to the properties of fresh and
hardened concrete published after the previous (12th) International Congress on the
Chemistry of Cement held in Montreal in 2007. Workability and fundamental rheological
properties, reversible and non-reversible evolution, thixotropy, slump loss, setting time,
bleeding, segregation and practical issues related to formwork filling and pressure, are
addressed among the properties of fresh concrete. Among hardened concrete properties
compressive strength and other mechanical and physical properties of hardened concrete,
such as tensile strength, elastic properties, shrinkage, creep, cracking resistance, electrical,
thermal, transport and other properties are covered. Testing, interpretation, modeling and
prediction of properties are addressed, as well as correlation with properties of fresh concrete
and durability, effects of special binders, recycled and natural aggregates, fiber reinforcement,
mineral and chemical admixtures. Special attention is given to the properties of hardened
lightweight and self-compacting concrete [34]. Normal strength concrete (NSC) and high-
performance concretes (HPC) are being used extensively in the construction of structures that
might be subjected to elevated temperatures. The behaviour of concrete structures at elevated
temperatures is of significant importance in predicting the safety of structures in response to
certain accidents or particular service conditions. Measurements were taken for mass loss,
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity. The investigation
developed some important data on the properties of concrete exposed to elevated
temperatures up to 350 oC [35]. Steel fibered high-strength concrete (SFHSC) became in the
recent decades a very popular material in structural engineering. An additional goal is to limit
development and propagation of macrocracks in the body of SFHSC elements. SFHSC is
tough and demonstrates high residual strengths after appearance of the first crack. Proper
selection of other materials like silica fume, fly ash and super plasticizer has also high
importance because of the influence on the fresh and hardened concrete properties.
Combination of normal-strength concrete with SFHSC composite two-layer beams leads to
effective and low cost solutions that may be used in new structures as well as for retrofitting
existing ones. Using modern nondestructive testing techniques like acoustic emission and
nonlinear ultrasound allows verification of most design parameters and control of SFHSC
properties during casting and after hardening. The study presents recent experimental results,
obtained in the field SFHSC and non-destructive testing. It reviews the experimental data and
provisions of existing codes and standards. Possible ways for developing modern design

22
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

techniques for SFHSC structures are emphasized [36]. The effect of temperature on
compressive strength, spalling and mass loss of High Strength Concretes (HSCs) by f′c > 65
MPa is discussed [37]. The study presents results of measurement that indicate the effect of
sf, cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water on residual strength, spalling and mass
loss of the HSCs. The presence of silica fume had no statistically significant effect on the
relative compressive strength while it had an overall statistically significant effect on
increasing spalling. The type of aggregate had a significant influence on the thermal
properties of HSCs at elevated temperatures. In most cases, by increasing sand ratio, residual
compressive strength increased while this trend is inversed for coarse aggregate [37]. The
weight loss used for assessing moisture migration in high performance concrete was
continuously monitored during the heating process and its effects on the fracture properties of
the concrete subjected to various heating temperatures and exposure times were investigated
[38]. Experimental programs were carried out to study compressive strength and
microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) subjected to high temperature compared
with normal strength concrete (NSC) [39]. Variations in pore structure of high performance
concrete after high temperature indicated the degradation of the mechanical properties. A
model by optimizing the parameters in Ryshkewitch model was developed to predict the
relationship between porosity and compressive strength of the high performance concrete
[39]. A finite element method using a proposed mesoscopic thermoelastic damage model
(MTED) is verified for simulating the cracking process of a concrete section reinforced with
fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars [40]. The cracking was due to the significant difference
in thermal expansion properties between the concrete and the FRP materials at elevated
temperatures. The numerical study reveals that although a conventional elastic analytical
method can provide good estimates of the critical temperature increment of concrete cover
failure of a cylindrical concrete section that is reinforced with a single bar, it gives too
conservative predictions for typical rectangular sections with multiple bars. The study also
shows that the concrete cover and the horizontal bar spacing have more influence than the
vertical bar spacing on the determination of the critical temperature increments. Horizontal
lapping of bars significantly lowers the critical temperature increment [40].

2.9 Effect of Fire on FRP Reinforced Concrete

2.9.1 Thermal Effects
2.9.1.1 general
FRP composites are subjected to thermal effects both during processing and throughout their
lives. This section considers post-processing effects of thermal exposure and hence will be
restricted to a discussion of effects over that period. However, it must be acknowledged that
process related effects in conjunction with post processing thermal exposure can have a

23
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

significant effect on overall response and life cycle durability. Thermal effects considered in
this chapter include response changes due to:
 temperatures above the cure temperature,
 freezing and freeze-thaw conditions, and
 temperature variations and cycles.
It is acknowledged at the outset that not all thermal exposure is deleterious since in a number
of cases it can actually result in much needed post-cure of FRP components. Since the FRP
composites will often be used in conjunction with a concrete substrate in the form of external
reinforcement, the response of both the resin and adhesive needs to be considered. It is noted
that resins and adhesives soften over a temperature range, which causes an increase in
viscoelastic response, a consequent reduction in elastic mechanical performance levels, and in
a number of cases, an increased susceptibility to moisture absorption. Prior research, materials
testing, and anecdotal data has shown that in general:
 Sub-zero temperature exposure can result in matrix hardening, matrix microcracking,
and fiber matrix bond degradation.
 Freeze-thaw in the presence of salt can result in accelerated degradation due to the
formation and expansion of salt deposits in addition to effects of moisture induced
swelling and drying.
 Exposure to temperature above that of processing can result in an initial post-cure
followed by degradation due to thermal effects.
 Coefficients of thermal expansion of GFRP are similar to that of concrete, whereas
those of CFRP and AFRP are not. This could cause systems level concerns and
should be considered during design.
 The coefficients of thermal expansion of adhesives can be orders of magnitude
different from those of bulk resins and/or composites, and hence thermal
gradients/exposure can cause premature debonding along the FRP composite-
adhesive-concrete interfaces.

2.9.1.2 Thermal Expansion

Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the rebars acts as the strengthening
fiber and the concrete as a matrix. It is therefore imperative that the behavior under thermal
stresses for the two materials be similar so that the deferential deformations of concrete and
the reinforcing rebars are minimized. Depending on the mix proportions, the linear coefficient
of thermal expansion for concrete varies from 6*10-6 to 12*10-6 per °C [40]. The coefficient
of thermal expansion for GFRP rebars is very similar to that of steel and therefore compatible

24
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

for concrete construction. Table (2.3) shows typical coefficient of thermal expansion for FRP
materials [41].

Table (2.3): Typical Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for FRP Materials (*10-6 /°C).

direction concrete steel GFRP CFRP AFRP

longitudinal 7-11 11.7 6-10 (-1)-0 (-6)-(-2)

transverse 7-11 11.7 19-23 22-50 60-80

 fiber volume fraction ranging from 0.5 to 0.7

The bond properties of fiber reinforced polymer FRP reinforcing bars (rebars) at temperatures
rang from room temperature (25°C) to high temperature of up to 250°C were discussed by
Katz, et al [42]. The bond strength of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcing rebar at
temperatures ranging from room temperature (20°C) to temperatures up to 250°C were
measured using pull-out tests. The bond properties in this temperature range were studied for
a number of commercially-produced rebar. Test results showed a reduction of between 80%
and 90% in the bond strength as the temperature increased from 20°C to 250°C. In
comparison, steel rebar showed a reduction of only 38%. Greater sensitivity to high
temperatures in FRP rebar is attributed to the fact that the bond relies mainly on the polymer
at the surface of the rod. A low glass transition temperature and a thick polymer layer at the
rebar surface negatively affect the bond strength and its retention at elevated temperatures.
Also, Katz, et al [43] studied the effect of high temperature on the bond between fiber
reinforced polymers (FRP) reinforcing bars (rebars) and concrete. The bond strength
exhibited a severe reduction of 80–90% at relatively low temperature (up to 200°C),
accompanied by changes in the pullout load-slip behavior. A semi-empirical model was
developed in order to describe the extent of reduction in the bond strength as the temperature
rises. The model is based on the following parameters: glass transition temperature of the
polymer layer at the surface of the rod; polymer's degree of crosslinking; the residual bond
strength at high temperature after the polymer of the external layer of the rebar ceased to
contribute to the bond. The parameters of the rods that were tested for pullout at various
temperatures were introduced into the model. The output curves of bond–temperature
relationships showed good agreement with the test results.

Soudki, et al [44] tested 42 circular concrete columns (152*305 mm), 28 column were
wrapped with CFRP sheet in either one or two layers. Preimprenated carbon sheets were
applied to the concrete columns, further impregnated with epoxy, and allowed to cure for one
week at room temperature before testing. Six columns were submerged under water for 200
days. Six columns were kept at a temperature of –18°C for 200 days and 15 columns were

25
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

subjected to 200 freeze/thaw cycles. The columns subjected to thermal cycling were kept at –
18°C for 16 h and then put in a water bath at a temperature of 18°C to thaw for 8 h. All
specimens were tested for axial strength after exposure. It was concluded that the carbon fiber
wraps provided more strength , stiffness, and ductility than for control columns subjected to
the same environment. At room temperature, CFRP sheets increased strength by 20% for one
layer and 30 % for two layers. With thermal cycling, one layer of CFRP tripled the strength of
the unwrapped columns exposed to the same environment, while a second layer caused the
column to fail at the same load as an unwrapped column kept at room temperature [45]. The
axial strength of an unwrapped column kept at room temperature was 65 % more than an
unwrapped column put through thermal cycling [45]. Nguyen, et al [46] investigated the role
of the polymer interfacial water layer on the shear strength of polymer\glass fiber composites.
The strength of the composite was determined from the short-beam test of unidirectional
composites made of E-glass fiber and the same epoxy matrix. Shear strength loss of the
untreated composites was twice that of silance-treated material after a 3- month immersion in
60°C water. Further, the treated specimens remained tansparent but the untreated specimens
become opaque after water exposure. Evidence from mechanical and spectroscopic analysis
and visual observation indicated that water at the polymer/fiber interface was responsible for
the difference in the loss of the shear strength of the untreated and surface-treated composites.
Aiello [47] presented an analysis of possible failure mechanisms of the concrete cover under
thermal loading, where an analytical model able to evaluate the critical concrete cover and the
minimum amount of the transversal reinforcement in order to avoid concrete cover failure
caused by the splitting, were described for aramid FRP reinforced concrete. Beyond the Tg,
the elastic modulus of a polymer is significantly reduced due to change in its molecular
structure. The value of Tg depends on the type of resin, in FRP composite material, fibers
which exhibit better thermal properties than the resin, can continue to support some load in
the longitudinal direction until the temperature threshold of the fiber reached. This can occur
at temperature near 100°C for glass fibers and 175°C for aramid fibers. Carbon fibers are
capable of resisting temperature in excess of 275°C, due to a reduction in force transfer
between fibers through bond to the resin, however, the tensile properties of the overall
composite are reduced. Wang, et al [48] showed in their study that, the bending strength were
reduced significantly at lower temperature than 250°C because of shear transfer through the
resin. Test results carried by Kumahara, et al [49] had indicated that temperatures of 250°C
much higher than the resin Tg, will reduce the tensile strength of GFRP and CFRP materials
in excess of 20 %. For bond critical applications of FRP systems, the properties of the
polymer at the fiber-concrete interface are essential in maintaining the bond between FRP and
concrete. At a temperature close to Tg, however, the mechanical properties of the polymer are

26
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

significantly reduced, and polymer begin to loose its ability to transfer stresses from concrete
to the fibers. Adimi, et al [50] performed Fatigue tests on circular (d=7.8 mm) pultruded
carbon/epoxy bars at temperatures of 20°C, 40°C, and 60°C and, separately, at various
frequencies with T=20°C. It was found that between 20°C and 40°C the fatigue life reduced
by about one decade, with a smaller further reduction at 60°C. The tensile strengths of
cylindrical cementitious specimens coated with epoxy and wrapped with three kinds of fiber-
reinforced plastics were tested by Toutanji, et al [51] under the reference (room
temperature/dry) state and cyclic wet/dry and freeze-thaw exposure. It was found that carbon
fiber systems exhibit at most small degradations due to the foregoing exposures. However, the
glass fiber composite sustained a 20% loss in strength under wet/dry cycling and 5% loss due
to freeze-thaw exposures. Steckel, et al [52] reported the results of a comprehensive
experimental program involving twelve composite over wrap systems under a variety of
exposure conditions. The systems included carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy materials, and the
exposures included dry heat at 60°C for 1000 and 3000 hours and freeze-thaw cycling
between –18°C and 38°C. No loss of property was noted regarding stiffness, strength, or
failure strain, although one glass and one carbon system lost about 15% and 23%,
respectively of their short beam shear stress when subjected to freeze/thaw cycling. Tannous
[53] tested two carbon and one Aramid fiber tendon, all utilizing epoxy resin, in tension under
a variety of exposure conditions. These included dry temperature cycling between –30°C and
60°C at five-hour intervals. No property losses were noted. It is presumed that further thermal
cyclic tests, conducted in conjunction with exposure to fluids, may be needed. Karbhari, et al
[54] examined the concept of external strengthening of concrete beams with composite plates.
Wet laid-up unidirectional carbon and glass fiber reinforced Tonen and Epon epoxies were
examined. The glass transition temperatures (Tg) for the Tonen and Epon epoxies cured at
room temperature were approximately 54°C and 92°C, respectively. As the resin serves the
dual purpose of impregnating and holding the fibers in the composite in place and bonding the
composite to the concrete, its integrity and load-bearing capability in the intended
environmental conditions for the strengthened structure are very important. Beams were
tested in ambient conditions, fresh water, and synthetic sea water at room temperature, low
temperature (-15°C), and freeze-thaw cycling. Both the Tonen and Epon resins displayed a
loss in their Tgs after water immersion, but the Tonen system (with the lowest dry Tg)
displayed most loss. Although the environmental durability was shown to be influenced also
by the fiber type used, it was demonstrated that the environmental degradation of flexural
strength of the strengthened beams was much larger for the low Tg Tonen resin system than
for the Epon system. Ferrier, et al [55] investigated concrete slabs joined by two
symmetrically arranged carbon/epoxy composite-strips bonded to the slabs. Three kinds of

27
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

epoxy polymers with glass transition temperatures (Tgs) of 40°C, 50°C, and 60°C were
examined. Static tension and creep tests were performed at room temperature, 40°C, and
60°C. The static tension and tensile creep responses were degraded by elevated temperature,
but using the polymer with the highest Tg minimized the decrease of mechanical response.
The authors recommend using a polymer resin with Tg above 50°C for civil engineering
applications. El-Hacha, et al [56] presented the results of an experimental investigation that
examined the feasibility and effectiveness of using bonded prestressed CFRP sheets to
strengthen precracked concrete beams at both room (+22°C) and low(-28°C) temperatures.
Test results showed that the long-term and the low temperature effects did not adversely
affect the strength of the beams. Low temperature exposure and long-term loading reduced
prestress levels in prestressed CFRP sheets. These losses affected the behavior by increasing
deflections for any given load. No damage in the bond between the prestressed CFRP sheets
and the concrete was observed at low temperature under short and long-term exposure as well
under long-term loading. Bonding prestressed FRP sheets to the tensile face of a precracked
concrete beam not only provides extensive crack control and limits deflection in the concrete
beam, but also improves the durability of the concrete structures. The strengthened
precracked beams showed significant increases in flexural stiffness and ultimate capacity as
compared to unstrengthened control beams at both room and low temperatures. Failure of
strengthened beams was by tensile rupture of the prestressed CFRP sheets after yielding of
the reinforcing steel. Baumert, et al [57] reviewed available information and tests conducted
on the low-temperature behavior of FRP externally reinforced and found a very little research
has been done in this area. They cited only two previous works. One is a single test on an
unreinforced concrete beam, strengthened with CFRP laminate. Adhesive was thinly applied
to the smooth concrete surface. The beam was subjected to a temperature of –60°C. The
investigators were concerned that the adhesive bond would be damaged and the laminate
would peel after being subjected to the low temperature, however the laminate remained in
contact. The other work was on unreinforced and reinforced concrete beams that were
strengthened with CFRP sheets and tested until failure at temperature of 21°C and –27°C at
low temperature, the CFRP sheets increased the flexural capacity of the beam up to shear
peeling failure of the sheets indicating a premature failure of the bond. The transverse
coefficient of thermal expansion of FRP reinforcing or prestressing elements can be 5 to 8
times higher than the corresponding value for concrete. This may create significant bursting
stresses within the concrete under uniform temperature increase. Mathhys, et al [58] studied
the influence of the transverse thermal expansion of FRP reinforcement; a finite element
model (FEM) analysis has been performed. Three basic cases had been studied to evaluate the
behavior of Arapree prestressing bars and strips. As a result of the analysis, it was found that

28
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

the critical concrete cover equals 3.5 to 5 times the bar diameter depending on the concrete
strength and the shape of prestressing element. Ulaga, et al [59] investigated long-term
behavior of CFRP-laminate-strengthened concrete at elevated temperature and high
humidities. Where, two post-strengthened, steel-reinforced concrete beams with a span of 2.3
m, were exposed to sustain flexural loads. The temperature and humidity were increase over a
period of several months. Results showed that the CFRP-concrete bond started to soften when
the temperature was increased from 40°C to 45°C. Bilotti, et al [60] analyzed some aspects of
a theoretical and experimental investigation of the influence of temperature on adhesive bond
plate-concrete joint system. The test results showed a reduction in the ultimate bond force and
different failure mechanics depending on variation in temperature. The bi-dimensional model
generated showed good correlation of the experimental results with those of a pre-established
theoretical model. Godonou, et al [61] presented the results of an investigation on how the
climatic conditions during the curing of a strengthened concrete structure with carbon fiber
reinforced polymers CFRP do effect the bonding quality and quensequentely the durability of
the repaired structures. The curing of the concrete-epoxy-CFRP system occurred under the
temperatures 50, 150, 200°C and RH 15 % or 85 %. The experimental results showed that
high RH in combination with low temperature has a negative effect on the ultimate stress of
the bonding between concrete and CFRP. Mosallam, et al [62] presented the results of a pilot
experimental study on evaluating the structural behavior of structural adhesives, used in repair
and rehabilitation of concrete structures, under extreme temperatures environments. They
concluded that the strength of an adhesive bonded was entirely dependent on cure time and
temperature with temperature playing the more significant role. Also both time and
temperature increase, the epoxy bond strength increases. Temperature strength relationship in
general was near-linear and may be illustrated by introducing a constant of proportionality
between the two variables. Dai et al presented a finite element (FE) model for the thermo-
mechanieal analysis of insulated FRP-strengthened reinforeed eonerete (RC) beams exposed
to fire [63]. In their model, the effeets of loading, thermal expansion of materials, and
degradations in both the mechanical properties of materials and the bond behavior at FRP-to-
concrete and steel-to-concrete interfaces due to elevated temperatures are all considered. The
validity of the FE model is demonstrated through comparisons of FE predictions with results
from existing standard fire tests on insulated FRP-strengthened RC beams [63].

2.9.2 Fire Effects

A significant concern in any application utilizing composite materials with organic based
matrices is the possibility that the material may ignite and release potentially harmful toxic
smoke. The resin component of most FRP's is undoubtedly combustible, and as this forms a
significant proportion of the material, it must be taken seriously in any consideration of fire.

29
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Different resins exhibit various characteristics and ranges of retarding low smoke additives
are available to customize fire response still further. Many composites have well to excellent
properties at elevated temperatures. Most composites do not start to burn easily. The effect of
the high temperature is more severe on the resin matrix than the fiber. Resins contain large
amounts of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen which are flammable and research is continuing on
the development of more fire-resistant [64]. Tests conducted in Germany have shown that
when composite rods of E-glass have been stressed to 50 % of their tensile strength, after 0.5
h of exposure to a temperature of 300°C, the bars can maintain 85 % of their room
temperature [65]. While this performance is better than that of prestressing steel, the decrease
in strength increases at higher temperatures and approaches that of steel. At 500°C, for
example, GFRP rebars maintain 50 % of their ambient temperature strength. The problem of
fire for concrete members reinforced with GFRP rebars is different from that of composite
materials subjected to direct fire. In this case, the concrete will serve as a barrier to protect the
GFRP rebars from direct contact with flames. However, as the temperature in the interior of
the member increases, the mechanical properties of the GFRP rebar may change significantly.
It is therefore recommended that the user obtain information on the performance of the
particular GFRP rebar and resin system at elevated temperatures when potential for fire
exists. Saafi [66] obtained and presented preliminary results from GFRP wrapped concrete
cylinders exposed to fire. It was found that the response of GFRP wrapped concrete cylinders
depend mainly on the fire resistance of epoxy resin. At a temperature equal to or higher than
the glass transition temperature Tg of resin, GFRP jackets experienced severe damage
resulting from creep and melting of the epoxy. This damage was more pronounced after 3
hours of fire exposure. Specimens heated at a temperature T1= 2 T g for a period of 3 hours
exhibited a significant reduction in strength and ductility and GFRP delamination occur. Even
though a reduction in strength of 50 % was observed after 3 hours of exposure, the residual
strength was still higher than the service strength. Bisby, et al [67] presented preliminary
results from a study to investigate the effects of fire on FRP-wrapped reinforced concrete
columns and FRP bar or grid reinforced concrete slabs. Preliminary numerical modeling
indicated that FRP reinforcements are particularly sensitive to fire and that special fire design
considerations are both warranted and necessary when using FRP as either internal or external
reinforcement for concrete. The results also, indicated that fire protection for the wraps, in the
form of an insulating cover, will increase the time to loss of confinement. Slab modeling
indicated that substantially larger concrete cover thickness will be required in order to provide
thermal protection for FRP reinforcing bars in FRP reinforced concrete slabs subjected to fire.
Morsy [68] studied the effect of fire on structural behavior of RC beams strengthened with
unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymers laminates (CFRPL) and protected from fire

30
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

using different materials and techniques. Experimental results of his study showed that, the
use of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) mortars as a fire protection material for CFRPL
proved to be a reliable material. The applying of gypsum paste over OPC was able to protect
significantly the strengthening gained by CFRPL. The addition of polypropylene fibers to
OPC mortar was not only able to protect the strengthening gained by the use of CFRPL but
also to produce additional strengthening effect to the beams. Helmy [69] carried out an
experimental study on the effect of different protection materials on the structural response of
retrofitted RC columns using FRP wraps. Columns were subjected to fire at 600°C for two
hours. The results revealed that the compressive strength was reduced to 2/3 of that of control
specimens. Protection materials were able to maintain and surpass the ultimate load carrying
capacity. Gypsum plaster proved to produce the best protection performance. Saad [70]
studied the fire protection of CFRP laminates used in reinforcing and stiffening of r/c slab,
where experimental tests were carried out to study the behavior of different coatings system.
The fire coating system used were; high performance mortar; glass fiber reinforced high-
performance cement mortar; glass cement mortar and composite systems of GF reinforced
cement mortar; and reinforced gypsum. The results showed that, the glass cement mortar
application was an excellent application. However, with an optimized grading of crushed
glass as well as mortar thickness of about 50 mm. Gypsum coating was very low fire
resistance. The use of FRP composites in building structures, upon which stringent fire
regulations are placed, shows they are in compliance as with other more conventional
construction materials. Moreover, FRP composites are generally poor conductors and
discourage the spread of fire. In fact, if suitable filler is utilized, these materials can exhibit
superior fire resistance than many conventional materials. Another inherent safety aspect
becomes apparent when the outermost layers of a composite lose their resin from heat
exposure. They then act as an insulating layer, slowing heat penetration and internal evolution
of gases. Saffi [71] carried out a study on fire resistance of concrete members reinforced with
fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) rebars, which was an externally crucial area that needs to be
investigated prior to implementing FRP composite materials in buildings and other fire
vulnerable structures. This work examined analytically the performance of FRP reinforced
concrete beams subjected to fire for certain duration of time was developed. The proposed
methods are based on the assessment of the reduction in the initial strengths of concrete and
FRP reinforcement resulting from the high temperatures developed inside the beam. A
parametric study was carried out to study the effect of concrete cover, fire exposed time on
the FRP temperatures and shear and flexural capacities of reinforced beams. It was found that
the FRP temperatures decrease with increasing the concrete cover, and FRP reinforced
concrete beams exhibited significant degradation in shear and flexural strength. Finally, this

31
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

study recommends a minimum concrete cover for fire resistance of 64 mm (2.5 in.) for FRP
reinforced concrete. The effect of high temperature on the bond between FRP reinforcing bars
and concrete was studied by Katz [72]. The bond strength exhibited a severe reduction of
80%-90% at relatively low temperature (up to 200°C), accompanied by changes in the pullout
load- slip behavior. A semi-empirical model was developed. The parameters of the rods that
were tested for pullout at various temperatures were introduced into the model. The output
relationships showed good agreement with the test results. Tests conducted in Germany by
Franke [73] had shown that E-glass FRP bars could sustain 85% of their room-temperature
strength, after half an hour of exposure to 300°C temperature while stressed to 50 % of their
tensile strength. While this performance was better than that of prestressing steel, the strength
loss increased at higher temperatures and approaches that of steel. The problem of fire for
concrete members reinforced with FRP composites was different from that of composite
materials subjected to direct fire. In this case, the concrete cover serves as a barrier to protect
the FRP from direct contact with flames. However, as the temperature in the interior of the
member increases, the mechanical properties of the FRP may change significantly. Blontrock,
et al [74] carried out fire tests on strengthened and protected slabs, loaded to service load, to
evaluate fire resistance of these elements. The testing parameters include the use of different
thermal protections of the glued reinforcement. The results showed that, FRP rods are used as
replacement for steel rebar with low levels of permanent stress, the surface temperature of the
rods should be kept below 250°C. Therefore, FRP rod can continue to be used after a fire
provided this temperature was not exceeded. While, FRP rods are used with levels of high
permanent stress, the surface temperature of the rod should be kept below 100°C.
Improvement in heat resistance of FRP rods will require development of resin with better
properties at higher temperatures. In fire tests on structural elements carried out at Brunswick
University, an exposure time of over 100 min at 1000°C in a fire chamber as reported in [75]
could be achieved using the minimum concrete covering for the prestressing tendon. Glass
fibers themselves are relatively insensitive to high or low temperature. However there was
partial loss of strength in the matrix sheath at approximately 250°C. the glass-fiber bars
therefore have to protected against overheating wherever the composite properties of the
matrix are a statically required, hence, particularly in the anchorage zone, by structural means,
e.g. thicker concrete cover. The dependency of temperature on the tensile strength of glass-
fiber composite material sections is shown in Fig. 2.5 which shows that the response is similar
to that of pretressing steels.

32
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig. 2.5. Tensile strength retention at elevated temperature [23]

Hshieh [76] tested flame-retarded epoxy composites and phenolic composites containing
fiberglass, aramid (Kevlar™ 49), and graphite fiber-reinforcements using the NASA upward
flame propagation test, the controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter test, and the liquid oxygen
(LOX) mechanical impact test. The upward flame propagation test showed that
phenolic/graphite had the highest flame resistance and epoxy/graphite had the lowest flame
resistance. The controlled-atmosphere Cone Calorimeter was used to investigate the effect of
oxygen concentration and fiber reinforcement on the burning behavior of composites. The
LOX mechanical impact test showed that epoxy/fiberglass had the lowest ignition resistance
and phenolic/aramid had the highest ignition resistance in LOX. The composites containing
epoxy resin and/or aramid fiber reinforcement reacted very violently in LOX upon
mechanical impact. Ohlemiller [77] carried out a study focuses mainly on the issue of fire
growth; in particular, on the ability of various commercial coatings to prevent flame spread.
The issue of fire resistance is examined briefly by applying thermocouples to the back surface
of test specimens. Four commercial coatings have been tested over an unretarded
vinylester/glass composite. In addition, an uncoated phenolic/glass composite and a polyester
glass composite coated with a fire retarded resin were tested. In all cases the configuration
was a 3.3 m high corner with a 53 cm square propane gas burner at its base, operated at 250
kW as the fire exposure. The results show that, with the proper choice of coating and coating
thickness, fire growth can be suppressed quite effectively. Two of the coatings, applied at a
substantial thickness, were reasonably effective at slowing the penetration of heat to the back
of the composite panels. The other coatings, much thinner in application, were notably less
effective at slowing heat penetration. Lyon, et al [78] measured the fire response of an
inorganic aluminosilicate resin-carbon fiber composite and compared to conventional organic

33
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

resin composites being considered for infrastructure. At high irradiance levels typical of fire
exposure, the aluminosilicate resin composite did not burn or smoke, while all of the organic
resin composites ignited readily and released considerable heat and smoke. The Geopolymer
composite retained 63% of its strength after fire exposure compared to zero percent for
organic resin composites. Scudamore [79] compared polyester, epoxy, and phenolic glass-
reinforced laminates in terms of their fire properties in the Cone Calorimeter. The presence
of a gel coat on the polyester and epoxy products had some effect, mainly in the flame-
retarded (FR) grades. The FR polyester with a brominated flame retardant showed a marked
decrease in rate of heat release and in rate of smoke production. Aluminum trihydrate (ATH)
caused a significant delay in ignition time for the epoxy product and some reduction in rate of
heat release, but rate of smoke release was still relatively high. Phenolic laminates showed a
long ignition time and relatively low rate of heat release (RHR). The peak RHR was further
reduced by the presence of aluminum hydroxide and by changing the type of glass
reinforcement. The influence of thickness was explored for a series of phenolic laminates in
both Cone Calorimeter and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) surface
flammability test. Ignition delay time was significantly affected and the Cone Calorimeter
results showed that the shape of the RHR curve was also changed as the thickness increased.
However, the heat release measurements in the IMO test were not sensitive enough to pick up
the differences in this property.

2.10 Effect of Fire on Material Properties

While the construction materials (steel – concrete) are exposed to fire some changes in its
properties will take place. The changes may be creep, dehydration, decomposition, less in
modules of elasticity and losses of its compression strength. The effect of fire on the material
properties of concrete and steel and also the interfacial between them will be presented [80].

2.10.1 Concrete

Concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, aggregates, and water as a basic

components, and admixtures as secondary components. When the concrete is exposed to high
temperature due to fire, the behavior of concrete depends on the characteristics of its
components. When the temperature increase due to fire, the aggregates expand, the expansion
of the matrix, on the other hand is completely negated by shrinkage due to the evaporation of
water. The resultant expansion differential causes internal cracking and reduces concrete
strength and stiffness [80-82].

34
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.10.1.1 Concrete Compressive Strength

When exposed to fire due to elevated temperature, concrete begins to lose its compressive
strength. It loses about 30% from its compressive strength when heated up to 300°C and it
loses about 70% from its compressive strength when heated up to 600°C.The reduction in
strength of concrete owing to fire and elevated temperature depends on many factors such
aggregate type, water cement ratio and exposure time.

Reference [80] and [83] introduced Coefficient for change in compressive strength (γc) of
dense concrete on heating as in table (2-4).

Table (2-4) Coefficient for change in compressive strength (γc) of dense concrete on heating

Type of Coefficient γc at the temperature of, °C

Concrete

Aggregate ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

20 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Limestone 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.09 0.67 0.45 0.22 0

Granite 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.92 0.70 0.46 0.25 0 0

Fig. (2-6) shows the effect of high temperature on the compressive strength of concrete.
Emam [81] and El Mahrouky [82] studied the effect of high temperature on normal concrete
where they used a test program to measure the changes in compressive strength for both
normal strength concrete (NSC) and high strength concrete (HSC) with using test specimens
of 100x200 mm concrete cylinders and exposed to high temperature. The results for residual
compressive strength were that for non heat- treated concrete specimens residual
compressive strength for both NSC and HSC equal( 52 and 64 % MPa) respectively while for
concrete heated up to 600°C residual compressive strength equal (22 and 20 %MPa) for
both NSC and HSC respectively.

35
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig. 2.6: The effect of high temperature on the compressive

of concrete [82].

Fig. (2-7) gives the general pattern of the change in concrete strength at high temperature for
different type of aggregate [82].

Fig. 2.7: Influence of the type of aggregate on the

compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperatures [82].

36
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.10.1.2 Concrete Modulus of Elasticity and Shear Modulus

ACI-216 [80] obtained values for modulus of elasticity of a carbonate aggregate concrete
using a dynamic method. The results agree closely with those obtained by El Mahrouky [82]
up to about 700 F (370°C) from700 to 1200 F (370 to 650°C), philleo obtained higher values.
The data obtained by El Mahrouky [82] using optical method show the effect of high
temperature on the modulus of elasticity and shear of concrete with three types of aggregate
which indicated that; the type of aggregate and the concrete characteristic strength don't affect
so much the concrete shear modulus. Also, it is seen that the modulus of elasticity for
concrete reaches 60 % from its original value at 300 C and researches to 15 % from its
original value at 600 °C as shown in Fig. (2.8) and (2.9), [82].

2.10.1.3 Poisson's Ratio

ACI [80], Emam [81] and El Mahrouky [82] reported data on Poisson's ratio of concrete at
high temperatures. Even though Philleo indicated a decrease in Poisson's ratio, both he and
Cruz pointed out that results were erratic and no general trend of the effect of temperature
was clearly evident.

Fig. 2.8: Modulus of elasticity of concrete at high temperature [82].

37
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig. 2.9: Shear modulus of concrete at high temperature [82].

2.10.1.4 Linear Thermal Expansion

Fig (2.10) shows data obtained on linear thermal expanstion of concrete made with different
aggregate. El Mahrouky [82] studied the transient thermal strain behavior of concrete during
elevated temperature up to 600 oC under load. The conclusions showed that, free thermal
strain of concrete was a nonlinear function of temperature, dominated by the aggregate type
and content, it was increased progressively for light weight concrete, basalt, limestone, and
gravel concrete with concrete containing quartez sxpanding markedly above 550°C. Table (2-
5) Shows coefficient values of thermal expansion of different types of concrete (αc) at
temperature up to 100 °C [82].

Fig. 2.10: Thermal expansion of concrete at high temperature.

38
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Table (2-5) Coefficient values of thermal expansion of different types of concrete (αc) at
temperature up to 100 °C [82].

Aggregate αc IN Degree‾¹ Aggregate αc IN Degree‾¹

Quartez 0000119 Granite 0.0000095

Sandstone 0.0000117 Besalt 0.0000086

Gravel 0.0000108 Limestone 0.0000068

2.10.1.5 Stress- Strain Relationships

ACI 216 Committee [80] show Fig (2.11) stress- strain curves for a lightweight masonry
concrete at various high temperature.

Fig. 2.11: Stress-strain curves for a lightweight masonary

concrete at various high temperature [80].

2.10.1.6 Stress Relaxation and Creep

ACI 216 [80] reported that: the age, the moisture condition, the type and, the strength of
concrete and stress-strain ratio affect creep of concrete at high temperature. Fig. (2.12) shows
the effect of temperature and the stress level on the creep of concrete. It was found that, creep
of concrete heated under atmospheric pressure increases with increasing temperature up to
71°C and there after decreases .

2.10.2 Reinforcement (steel)

Because steel play an important role in the structure where it resist the tension stress in the

39
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

analysis of structure. The magnitude of loss in steel strength depends on the type of steel, its
manufacturing process and exposure time. The effect of high temperature due to fire on the
behavior of steel reinforcement will be discussed.

2.10.2.1 Strength

According to ACI Committee 216 [80] the influence of temperature on the strength of certain
steel as shown in Fig (2.13). Generally; it is found that the strength of steel decrease with
increasing temperature but ultimate strength of hot rolled steels are often slightly higher at
temperatures up to about 500 F (260°C) than they are at room temperature.

Fig. 2.12: The effect of temperature and stress level on the creep
of concrete column.

40
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig. 2.13: strength of certain steels at high temperatures.

2.10.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of steel decreases with increasing temperature as shown in Fig
(2.14) [82]. Modulus of elasticity for ferritic steels decreases linearly to about 750 F (400°C)
and above 750 F (400°C) modulus of elasticity decreases at a higher rate.

2.10.2.3 Thermal Expansion

ACI Committee 216 [80] reported that the thermal expansion of steel increases with the
increase of temperature as shown in Fig (2-15). The value of thermal expansion of steel
between 200 C to 650C can be determined from the following equation:-

γ =(11+0.0036)*10E-6 for (200C < T < 650 °C)

where : γ = is the coefficient of thermal expansion

T = is the degree of temperature

Fig. 2.14: Modulus of elasticity of steel at high temperatures.

41
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

2.10.2.4 Stress Strain Relationship

ACI Committee 216 [80] show stress strain curves for steel and prestressing steel at various
temperatures as shown in Fig (2-16) and (2-17).

2.10.3 Bond between Steel and Concrete

El Mahrouky [82] through [85] investigated the bond between different types of steel and
concrete at high temperature and the results were:-

- Bond strength depends on temperature level, test procedure and shape of steel bars.

- The losses of the bond strength for ribbed bars at constant elevated temperature is of the
same order of the magnitude as the losses in the compressive strength of concrete.

- The plain round bars showed a sharper decrease in the bond strength at the same
temperature.

Fig. 2.15: Thermal expansion of ferrite steel at high

temperatures.

2.11 Effect of Temperature Treatment on Concrete Materials

Gai-Fei [86] study the effect of cooling regimes, including natural cooling, spraying water for
a series of durations from 5 to 60 min, and quenching in water, on residual mechanical
properties of high-performance concrete incorporating hybrid fiber after exposure to high
temperatures from 200 to 800°C. Temperature was determined on two types of 100 mm
concrete cubes designated by 26C and 26Hl, which were heated in an electric furnace. The

42
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

target temperature was maintained at 800°C for 1 hr.

Fig. 2.16: Stress-strain curves for structural steels (ASTM

A36) at various high temperatures.

Fig. 2.17: Stress-strain curves for prestressing steels (ASTM

A421) at various high temperatures.

After heating, from three cubes a batch, one was subjected to quenching by immersion in
water, another was subjected to water spraying for 1 hr, and the other was cooled naturally in
the furnace. Thermocouples were cast at three locations inside the cubes, i.e. at depths of 1, 3,

43
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

and 5 cm, the height (h) of the section of each specimen exposed to quenching or spraying
was 85 mm. Temperature at the various locations inside the cubes were determined
continuously throughout heating and cooling. The temperature determination results are
shown in Figs. (2-18) and (2-19) for concrete 26C, and in Figs. (2-20) and (2-21) for 26Hl.
These results indicate that the inner temperature decreasing rate of a specimen during cooling,
either under quenching or under water spraying for 60 min, was significantly higher than that
of the specimen subjected to natural cooling. In general, the specimens subjected to
quenching, or water spraying for 60 min, could cool to 100 °C within 20 min. For 26C
subjected to quenching, temperature at l0 mm depth dropped from 754 to 103°C within 15.5
min; temperature at 30 mm depth dropped from 745 to 102°C within 17.5 min; and
temperature at 50 mm depth dropped from 727 to 102°C within 19.5 min. These results prove
that the cooling regimes such as quenching in water, or water spraying for 30 min or more,
caused an action of "thermal shock" to concrete under elevated temperature, characterized by
a high rate of temperature decreasing ranged from 25 to 44 mini °C, which was calculated
from Figs. (2-18 to 2-21). It can be concluded that, in terms of thermal shock, water spraying
for duration of 30 min or more is in consistency with quenching in water. Nevertheless, if the
duration for water spraying was too short, for example 5 min, it can be seen from Figs. (2-20)
and (2-21) that temperature would drop from 761 to 582°C at l0 mm depth in 26Hl, and from
743 to 681°C at 10mmdepth in 26C, after which the specimens would still undergo natural
cooling from 582 to 681°C, respectively.

Fig.(2-18) Temperature of furnace and concrete 26C subjected

to quenching [86].

It can be found from the results in Figs. (18-21), that there was only a slight difference
between the temperature dropping rate of the specimens under quenching in water and that
under water spraying for 60 min, i.e. quenching caused the temperature dropping rate slightly

44
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

higher. Moreover, 26H1 incorporating both PP fiber and steel fiber had both a temperature
rising rate during heating and a temperature dropping rate during cooling slightly higher than
those of plain concrete 26C, as steel fiber could increase thermal conductivity of hybrid fiber
concrete 26Hl. The results of residual compressive strength of the five types of concrete
subjected to various cooling regimes are given from Figs (2-22 to 2-26), respectively.

Fig.(2-19) Temperature of 26C subjected to natural cooling

and water spraying for 60 min [86].

It is obvious in these figures that residual compressive strength· of concrete was significantly
influenced by the cooling regimes. For each type of concrete under an identical target
temperature, among the five cooling regimes, natural cooling maintained a relatively higher
value of residual compressive strength, while both quenching in water or spraying over 30
min caused compressive strength approximately 20 MPa lower.

Fig. (2-20) Temperature of furnace and concrete 26H1 subjected

to quenching [86].

45
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig.(2-21) Temperature of26H1 subjected to natural cooling

and water spraying for 60 min [86].

It should be noted that, as a few specimens were severely damaged by thermal shock, so that
these specimens were unavailable for strength testing and their results are unavailable in the
present figures, e.g. the results for water quenching of 26 Pl under 800 °C in Fig. (2-23) and
for that of 26P2 in Fig. (2-24).Water spraying for duration over 30 min can have an effect on
compressive strength similar to quenching in water. Under natural cooling after exposure to
200 °C residual compressive strength was even higher than original strength at room
temperature, which might be attributed to additional hydration of residual cement in concrete
activated by elevated temperature. However, the increase in compressive strength was rather
insignificant in the case of quenching, or water spraying over 30 min, after exposure to 200
°C. It is estimated that, as these specimens cooled down rather rapidly, such additional cement
hydration occurred to a fairly little degree.

Fig. (2-22) Residual compressive strength

of plain concrete 26C [86].

46
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig.(2-23) Residual compressive strength

of polypropylene fiber concrete 26Pl [86].

Fig.(2-24) Residual compressive strength

of polypropylene fiber concrete 26P2 [86].

Fig.(2-25) Residual compressive strength

of hybrid fiber concrete 26H 1 [86].

47
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 2

Fig.(2-26) Residual compressive strength

of hybrid fiber concrete 26H2 [86].

48
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 3
Effect of fire on

reinforced concrete elements

XII
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Chapter 3
EFFECT OF FIRE ON REINFORCED CONCRETE ELEMENTS

3.1 Introduction
When a flexural member-reinforced or prestressed is exposed to fire (exposure to undesired
assumed), the bottom fibers of the member expand more than the top owing to the
temperature differential and consequently a downward deflection occurs. During the initial
stages of heating, the behaviour of an element is dominated by the material properties, which
are still broadly similar to those at normal temperatures. This may tend to cause a brittle mode
of failure in a structure. However, after the initial period of exposure, the properties are much
affected by heating and high temperatures in the sense that the strain capacity is increased,
more ductility and redistribution of stresses occur with the-result that large deformations can
be accommodated before collapse, and the possibility of brittle failure diminishes [87]. If the
member is freely supported, expansion takes place without any resistance and no reactive
forces due to restraint develop. The temperature in the concrete, and also in the steel
embedded in the concrete, continues to rise with consequent reduction in strength. The extent
of the increase in the steel temperatures depends on its position in the concrete. The severity
of fire, the number of exposed surfaces and the heat-penetration properties of the type of
concrete used. When the temperature in tensile steel reaches the critical limit which reduces
its strength to the actual stress due to loading, flexural collapse occurs. If the heated member
is restrained by the surrounding structures from free expansion, a compressive force or thrust
is, in fact, induced in the heated member [81] and [82]. In actual fire conditions, this will be
possible if the fire is confined to a compartment area containing the flexural member. The line
of action of the thrust is near the bottom of the member initially, but moves upwards as the
fire progresses. The thrusts act as an external prestressing force which increases the moment
capacity of the flexural member and hence its resistance [86]. If, however due to undercut or
similar detailing at bearing, the line of action of the force goes above the neutral axis of the
critical point, the moment capacity may indeed be reduced. The magnitude of this thrust
depends on many factors and is very difficult, if not impossible, to assess accurately. Owing
to a sharp decrease of stiffens and E-values of concrete at elevated temperatures and
accelerated creep and consequent relaxation stresses, the magnitude of the thrust, in actual
fact, is considerably less than that calculated by the use of the elastic properties of concrete
and steel together with appropriate coefficients of expansion [88]. The top steel being at the
remote end from the expose surface remains relatively cool, even after prolonged exposure,
and retains a high percentage of its normal temperature strength and thus increases the
resistance of the member. In a continuous flexural member, downward deflection due to

49
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

differential heating causes a rapid· redistribution of moment until a hinge forms over the
support by the yielding of the top steel. As stated earlier, the top steel being remote from the
exposed surface virtually retains its original strength. A considerable moment of resistance
can therefore be developed at supports to counteract the load effect. The increase in the
support moment, however, causes the point of contra flexure to move further away from the
support, and if the continuity reinforcement at the top is not extended sufficiently beyond the
support to accommodate the complete redistributed moment and the change in the position of
inflection points, cracks will develop leading to an early failure in fire [89]. When the
member contains some reinforcement with sufficient development length, a substantial
reserve of strength can be mobilized from the continuity effect, or ultimately even from the
membrane as well as the supporting structure [90]. If effectively uninterrupted top
reinforcement runs from support to support and the detailing at anchorage is adequate, the
membrane tension state or suspension effect may also develop, considerably increasing its
resistance to fire attack. Expansion of vertical members may increase the load in these
members (and therefore of members below and above them) and in localized fire the
horizontal members near the top of the affected column may be deflected upwards. The
expansion of roof or floor at the top of the column may cause excessive lateral movement of
the column and unless it is made relatively flexible, so that, a kind of hinge is formed, such a
movement is likely to induce very high stresses in the column and result in apprectale near
distortion and ultimately in failure [89]. The study of the fire test as well as actual cases
shows that for simply supported members the stability failure is governed by the time at
which the temperature of steel reaches its critical value. In turn this is influenced by the
thickness of concrete cover to reinforcement, the shape of the member and the type of
concrete. In the case of a slab, the heat enters through one surface only, and so the shape is of
little consequence. In the case of a column, heat penetrates from all four directions and for
normal T-beams from three directions (for I-beams it is more complex). The width of the
section in these cases greatly influences the temperature distribution in concrete. If a wide
beam is used and the main reinforcement in it, is placed further inside the section, increased
fire resistance results from the increased protection. In the continuous or restrained structure,
the major part of the resistance is developed by the top steel and the reactive forces due to
restrained of expansion rotation, and as a result the importance of the bottom steel is
diminished and hence, in most cases, the concrete cover becomes relatively unimportant. The
fire resistance is generally assessed by tests and the interpretation of test results conducted on
the representative individual elements. It should be borne in mind that the performance of the
whole structure is often quite different from that of an individual element or member because
of the possible beneficial interaction of various members and also the possibility of alternative

50
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

path of load transfer. Detailing therefore plays a very important part in the enhancement of
the fire ratings of a structure. Broadly speaking, in the former the strength of the materials
(concrete and steel) remains constant, and the load is gradually increased until failure occurs.
Whereas in fire test the load remains constant and the collapse is caused by reducing the
strength of the materials by an increase of temperature. The modes of failure, however remain
in similar in either case. For example, if a flexural member (beam or slab) is load-tested at
normal temperature, the failure mode will most probably be pure flexure or the combined
effects of shear and flexure or pure shear, depending on the detailing, geometry of cross-
section and pattern of loading. For a similar element in the fire test, the mode of failure is not
likely to be different with a similar pattern of loading. However, in past investigations of the
fire resistance of beams and slabs, not a great deal of attention was paid to the role of shear as
a critical factor of the limit state of stability [90].

3.2 Effect of Fire on RC Slabs

An experimental investigation on explosive spalling of six full-scale normal strength

reinforced concrete slabs subjected to conventional fire curve IS0 834 and severe
hydrocarbon fire curve were performed by Faris, et al [91], focusing on concrete thermal
behaviour and the explosive spalling phenomenon. Each slab was loaded with 65% of its BS
8110 design load and was heated from the bottom side only. The concrete slabs were
modelled including the embedded reinforcement to conduct a non-linear transient structural
analysis taking into account cracks appearance and creep. A comparison between the
experimental and the FEM results is presented in the study [91]. Large-scale fire tests in the
multi-storey steel framed building at Cardington have shown large reserves of fire resistance
in unprotected composite floor systems [92]. Their study presents the results from a number
of such tests conducted on horizontally unrestrained slabs. The purpose of these tests is to
investigate the influence of thermal curvature on the failure' mechanisms of rectangular slabs,
since this is not explicitly allowed for in the simplified design method. The observed slab
behaviour at high temperatures is that high double-curvature deflection is created quickly, and
this leads to full-depth cracking across the short span of the slab, but the association with a
yield-line mechanism is much less obvious. Some numerical modelling studies have
accompanied the testing, and comparisons have been made with the simplified design method
[92]. It has been observed from a series of tests on simply supported reinforced concrete slabs
that the main failure mode of the slabs at large deflections is due to the formation of large
discrete tension cracks [93]. A layered procedure with embedded weak discontinuity is
developed to model localised failure in reinforced concrete slabs subjected to extreme loading
conditions. It can be seen that the numerical predictions of this model, in terms of both

51
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

deflection and cracking pattern, agree well with test results at both ambient and elevated
temperatures. The model developed is not sensitive to the mesh size or to the aspect ratio of
the slab [93]. In their study a robust model is presented based on the previous layer procedure
developed by Zhaohui [94] to also take into account the effects of concrete spalling on the
behaviour of concrete slabs under fire conditions. It is clear that adjacent cool structures
provide considerable thermal restraint to the floor slabs within the fire compartment, and it is
evident that the compressive membrane force within the slabs is a major player in reducing
the impact of concrete spalling on the structural behaviour of floor slabs in fire [94]. Their
study [95] detailed analyses of a reinforced concrete structure subject to a standard fire
regime are carried out. The building is designed to Euro code 2 and represents a commercial
office building. It is clear that adjacent cool structure provides considerable restraint and
continuity, increasing the fire resistance of the structure within the fire compartment.
Eventual structural collapse in the studies is always due to column failure, and it is clear that
the performance of columns is vitally important to the survival of reinforced concrete
buildings in fire [95]. As retrofitting techniques are seeing widespread implementation in
modern concrete infrastructure [96], a major concern in the construction industry is the
residual material properties of retrofitting techniques after exposure to fire. This presents the
performance of these residual properties for a number of retrofitting methods subjected to
dynamic loading conditions after fire exposure [96]. The results demonstrate that ferrocement
reinforced with polyethylene mesh best sustains its strength and stiffness after exposure to fire
and impact [96]. Sixteen under-reinforced high strength concrete one-way slabs were cast,
heated at 600 oC for 2 h, repaired, and then tested under four-point loading to investigate the
coupling effect of water recuring and repairing with advance composite materials on
increasing the flexural capacity of heat-damaged slabs [97]. RC slabs repaired with SFRC
layers failed in flexural through a single crack, propagated throughout the compression zone,
whereas those repaired with CFRP and GFRP experience yielding failure of steel prior to the
composites failure [97]. While recent studies on structures subject to fire have focused on
individual structural members, sub-frames, or entire structures, issues of robustness due to the
possible loss of columns exposed to fire have received less attention. Based on the undertaken
nonlinear analysis, three major failure modes, specifically single-span failure, double-span
failure, and shear failure, are identified which can potentially trigger progressive collapse
Fang, et al [98]. The significance of dynamic effects along with column buckling under fire is
evaluated, where it is found that the actual ductility demands fall between two idealised
extreme cases, namely ‘static column loss’ and ‘sudden column loss [98]. In their study
Ellobody, [99] highlighted the structural performance of a bonded post-tensioned concrete
floor subject to fires that travel horizontally between zones within the floorplate. Based on the

52
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

analysis of the results presented, it is shown that the worst case in terms of maximum vertical
defection or maximum residual deflection, at a given point in the floorplate, could occur
either under the assumption of a uniform fire or a travelling fire. It is therefore recommended
that designers should consider the integrity of floorplates using various travelling fires [99].
Rustin and Kodur [100] presented a strategy for achieving the required fire resistance in
composite floor systems through the use of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) [100].
Preliminary results indicate that the combined effect of composite construction, tensile
membrane action, and the improved properties of SFRC under realistic fire, loading, and
restraint conditions can provide sufficient fire resistance in steel beam–concrete deck slabs
without the need for external fire protection on the floor assembly [100].

3.2.1 Fire Endurance of Concrete Slabs

Fig. 3.1(a) and (b) illustrate a simply supported reinforced concrete slab. The rocker and roller
supports indicate that the ends of the slab are free to rotate and expansion can occur without
resistance. The reinforcement consists of straight bars located near the bottom of the slab. If
the underside of the slab is exposed to fire, the bottom of the slab will expand more than the
top, resulting in a deflection of the slab. The tensile strength of the concrete and steel near the
bottom of the slab will decrease as the temperature increases. When the strength of the steel at
elevated temperature reduces to that of the stress in the steel, flexural collapse will occur
(Gustaferro and). Fig. 3.1(b) illustrates the behavior of a simply supported slab exposed to fire
from beneath. If the reinforcement is straight and uniform throughout the length, the nominal
moment strength will be constant throughout the length. Moment diagrams for one-half of a
continous three-span slab before and during fire exposure are illustrated in Fig 3.2.

Fig.(3.1) (a)-Simply supported reinforced concrete slab subjected

to fire from below.

53
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Fig.(3.1) (b)-Moment diagrams for simply supported beam or slab

before and during fire exposure.

Fig.(3.2) Moment diagrams for one-half of a continous three-span

slab before and during fire exposure.

Fig. 3.3 through 3.6 illustrates the effect of slab thickness, aggregate type and dry unit weight
on fire endurance of concrete slabs.

54
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Fig.(3.3) Nomogrum relating thrust, strain, and Z’ ratio [80].

Fig.(3.4) Effect of slab thickness and aggregate type on fire

endurance of concrete slabs [80].

55
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Fig.(3.5) Effect of dry unit weight and slab thickness on fire

endurance of concrete slabs [80].

Fig.(3.6) Unexposed surface temperatures during fire tests of

concrete slabs made with carbonate aggregates (1.5 in.=38 mm, 2.5
in.= 64 mm, 4in. = 102 mm, 5 in. = 127 mm, 6 in. = 152 mm, 7 in. =
178 mm, 8.5 in. = 216 mm, 10 in. = 254 mm) [80].

56
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

3.3 Effect of Fire on RC Beams

The flexural behavior of R.C beams subjected to fire and cooled by water is investigated
Moetaz, [101]. Four R.C. beams of 180 cm length, 20 cm depth and 12 cm breath were
subjected to fire of 650°C for different periods of time 30, 60, and 120 minutes. The concrete
compressive strength of the beams was determined nondestructively using Schmidt hammer
in the next day after exposure to fire. The beams were installed in the fire test chamber after
40 days of casting them. During the fire test, the beams were not loaded and the heat input
into the fire chamber was controlled, so that the same average temperature-time curve was
followed for all beams. One day before the flexural test, small copper plugs, used for
measuring beams longitudinal strain by using 200 mm extensometer, were fixed at one side of
each beam at mid span. Beams were then placed in 25 ton testing machine. The results
indicate that for all beams, the relation is almost linear and the slope of the lines decreases as
the fire exposure time increases. For all beams, the deflection curves recorded up to failure
are smooth and symmetric about the beam center. The strains distribution for all beams was
measured at mid span sections of the beams. The results indicate that, the compressive strains
of the beams subjected to fire at all stages of loading are higher than the compressive strain of
the reference beam. After ten minutes of fire exposure, initial random cracks appeared on
beams. The random cracks were increased, after the beam had been sprayed with water.
Crushing failure occurred at the compressive zone and no flexural cracks were recorded
[101]. The current prescriptive approaches for evaluating fire resistance of reinforced concrete
beams under standard fire exposure have a number of drawbacks and do not provide realistic
performance assessment, [102]. It is shown that the proposed energy based method is capable
of predicting equivalent fire resistance under design fire scenarios with an accuracy that is
sufficient for practical purposes [102]. In their study Yining et al [103] analyzed the effect of
different fibres on the residual compressive strength, the ultimate load and flexural toughness,
the failure pattern and the fracture energy of self compacting high performance concrete
(SCHPC) after exposure to various high temperature. The use of hybrid fibre can be effective
in providing the residual strength and failure pattern and in improving the toughness and
fracture energy of SCHPC after high temperature [103]. The objective of their study is to
investigate the effects of concrete compressive strength and cover thickness on the structural
behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) beams under fire [104]. They showed that the rates of
deflection increase for both normal strength and high-strength concrete beams is very similar
before spalling but becomes remarkably high for high-strength concrete beams after spalling.
A simplified model was proposed to determine the effect of spalling on the temperature
gradient of a high-strength concrete beam. The results of finite difference method (FDM)
analysis using this proposed model showed a section temperature gradient that was similar to

57
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

that of the test results [104]. An approach for evaluating the fire resistance of reinforced
concrete (RC) beams is presented by Kodur, et al [105]. A macroscopic finite element model
is applied to study the influence of various parameters on the fire resistance of RC beams. The
proposed approach provides better estimates than those from current codes of practice and
thus can be used to evaluate the fire resistance of RC beams with an accuracy that is adequate
for design purposes [105]. A study was carried out to generate experimental data on residual
strength of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) beams subjected to fire for long duration
(exceeding fire resistance) [106]. The reduction found in initial stiffness of fire exposed RCC
beams were more than the reduction in near ultimate stiffness. Also, amount of this reduction
in stiffness increased with the increase in fire exposed duration [106]. In order to assure the
safety of an RCC in a severe accident beyond its assumed design limits, it is necessary to
establish an estimation method of the ultimate strength of the RCC in severe conditions, such
as it would receive under heavy internal pressure in a markedly elevated atmospheric
temperature [107]. Through the test, many useful experimental data were obtained to examine
the availability of an analytical method for estimating the ultimate strength of an RCC in a
severe accident [107]. In order to analyze and simulate the collapse of reinforced concrete
(RC) elements under fire, a novel numerical model based on the fiber beam model is
proposed by Chen, et al [108]. The explicit tangential stiffness matrix is deduced for proposed
fiber beam with Total Lagrangian (TL) description, and the incremental equilibrium equations
are also established. Finally, the proposed fiber model is validated by comparing with various
experimental results [108]. Combines thermal and structural analyses to assessing the residual
bearing capabilities, flexural and shear capacities of reinforced concrete beams after fire
exposure were investigated by H Su and Lin [109]. The comparison results indicated that the
calculation procedure in their study assessed the residual bearing capabilities of reinforced
concrete beams exposed to fire with sufficient accuracy. As no two fires are the same, this
novel scheme for predicting residual bearing capabilities of fire-exposed reinforced concrete
beams is very promising in that is eliminates the extensive testing otherwise required when
determining fire ratings for structural assemblies [109]. The effectiveness of a repair work for
the restoration of spalled reinforced concrete (R.C.) structures d' ends to a great extent, Zamin
et al [110] on their ability to restore the structural integrity of the RC element, to restore its
serviceability and to protect the reinforcements from further deterioration [110]. The results
showed that the repair materials applied on the various zones of the beams were able to
restore more than 100% of the beams capacity with a better overall performance [110]. A
model to predict the influence of fire induced restraints on the fire resistance of reinforced
concrete (RC) beams is presented by Dwaikat and Kodur [111]. A simplified approach to
account for spalling under fire conditions is incorporated into the model. Through these case

58
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

studies, it is shown that the restraint, both rotational and axial, has significant influence on the
fire resistance of the RC beams [111]. FRP-strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) members
experience significant loss of strength and stiffness properties when exposed to fire, Ahmed
and kodur [112].The results from the analysis indicate that significant bond degradation
occurs close to glass transition temperature of the adhesive leading to initiation of FRP
delamination. The time at which bond degradation occurs depend on the fire insulation
thickness and glass transition temperature of the adhesive. However, variation of adhesive
thickness does not significantly influence fire resistance of FRP-strengthened RC beams
[112]. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are known to be susceptible to
deterioration at elevated temperature, Aniello, et al [113]. The tests results on fire indicated
that insulated NSM FRP strengthened beams can achieve a fire endurance of at least 2 h.
Moreover structural testing to failure at room temperature of the fire testes beams has shown
that well insulated members are able to retain (part of) their original strengthened flexural
capacity [113]. A computationally efficient fiber element approach has been developed to
evaluate the thermo- structural response of non-uniformly heated structural frames, Ann and
Elisa [114]. The proposed model further simplifies the transfer of thermal data from the heat
transfer analysis to the structural model because the thermal and structural elements have the
same mesh [114].

Table (3-1) Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Elements according to ECCS 302-2001 [170]

Reinforced Concrete description and its Control Min. Dimension (mm) of Concrete to give fire resistance in Hours
Materials

1-Siliceous Concrete

- Average concrete cover to main 65 55 45 35 25 15

reinforcement

- Beam width 280 240 180 140 110 80

2-Concrete covered with 15mm thick. Cement or

gypsum plaster

- Average concrete cover to main reinforcement 50 40 30 20 15 15

- Beam width
250 210 170 110 85 70

2-Concrete covered with 15mm thick.

Vermiculite or gypsum plaster or sprayed
asbestos

- Average concrete cover to main reinforcement 25 15 15 15 15 15

- Beam width 170 145 125 85 60 60

Fire Time 4.0 h 3.0 h 2.0 h 1.5 h 1.0 h 0.5h

59
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Table (3-2) Minimum dimensions and cover for concrete for various periods of
fire resistance according to ECCS 302-2007 [174]
Exposure time (hour) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0

Minimum dimension of column 200 200 250 300 400 450

Width of simple beam 120 120 150 200 240 280

Least concrete Width of continuous beam 120 120 120 150 200 240
dimension (mm)
Slab thickness 80 100 110 130 150 170

Concrete wall thickness 0.4%>µ 150 150 180 --- --- ---

0.4%<µ<1% 120 120 140 160 200 240

µ>1% 120 120 120 120 150 180

Cover of column reinf. 20 20 20 25 25 25

Cover of simple beam reinf. 20 20 30 24 60 70

Cover thickness Cover of continuous beam reinf. 20 20 25 40 50 60

outside stirrups
(mm) Cover of simple slab reinf 15 20 25 35 45 55

Cover of continuous slab reinf 15 20 20 25 35 45

Cover of concrete wall 0.4%<µ<1% 25 25 25 25 25 25

reinf.
µ>1% 15 15 25 25 25 25

3.4 Effect of Fire on RC Columns

Reinforced concrete columns have performed well during exposure to fire throughout the
history of concrete construction. Columns larger than 12 in. (305 mm) in diameter or 12 in.
(305 mm) square are assigned 3 hr and 4 hr fire resistance classifications in most building
codes in America [171]. It is suggested that the information in Table 3.3 and 3.4 have been
used for designing reinforced concrete columns for exposure to fire. This information is based
on the results of a comprehensive series of fire tests on concrete columns [115]. The entire
series of the test program consists of 38 full-size concrete columns. Columns designed in
accordance with the requirements of Table 3.3 have been used in concrete buildings for years.
These ratings combined with requirements for structural adequacy have given economical
column sizes that have performed well [80-82]. When a column in a frame is under fire, the
surrounding structure has two opposing effects. These are provided by rotational restraint

60
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

from the continuous part of the column and from incoming beams, and restraint to thermal
expansion. Consequently, additional axial forces are generated in the column.

Table (3-3) Minimum dimensions and cover for columns in dense siliceous aggregate
concrete for various periods of fire resistance according to BS [83]

Minimum Minimum dimension to give the following fire

resistance in hours
Columns End dimension
Condition 4.0 hr 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
(mm)

Columns fully NA Width 450 410 300 250 200

exposed
NA Cover 35 35 35 30 25

Columns 50% NA Width 350 300 200 200 260

exposed NA Cover 35 30 25 25 25

Table (3-4) Minimum dimensions of concrete column (inches) according to ACI [80]

Type of concrete Fire- Resistance rating (hours)

1 1.5 2a 3a 4b

Siliceous 8 9 10 12 14

Carbonate 8 9 10 11 12

Sand-light weight 8 8.5 9 10.5 12

a: the minimum dimension is permitted to be reduced to 8 inches for rectangular column with two parallel sides at
least 36 inches in length.

b: the minimum dimension is permitted to be reduced to 10 inches for rectangular column with two parallel sides
at least 36 inches in length.

The greater the number of floors above the column, the greater the increase in load. This may
have an adverse effect on the fire resistance of the column. Studies undertaken indicated that
restraint against thermal expansion of reinforced concrete columns has little influence on the
fire performance of reinforced concrete columns. It states that restraint is probably beneficial
for the performance, as when the column contracts the surrounding structure should

61
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

redistribute some of the load [115]. Columns of dimensions 125 x 125 mm cross sections and
1.80 m height were studied [116]. The height of the specimen was limited by the height of the
furnace. Each column was reinforced with four 12-mm diameter steel bars and connected
with ties (6mm diameter) at 10-cm intervals in the middle and 20 cm at the ends. Ties were
located near the ends to prevent any possible local failure near the loading points. The test
apparatus consisted of a frame that was capable of applying the static load as well as
imposing axial restraint to the expanding column. The simply supported columns at both ends
were tested under load ratio (LR) 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 of their designed loads as per BS 8110 and
restraint ratio (RR) = 0.1 and 0.2. Each column was tested under two heating regimes. There
are two extremes of natural fires to be used in this experimental work. The first curve
represents the BS476 [117], defined as the high heating rate (HH) with high energy, high
temperatures and short duration, likely to induce high surface gradients, promoting spalling.
The other curve represents the ISO standard heating, defined as low heating rate (LH),
producing lower peak temperatures but is of longer duration sufficient to permit significant
heat conduction. It is worth noting that most of the additional forces have generated less than
15% of the design load, under both high heating rates. The additional generated forces depend
on the load ratio but are independent on the restraint ratio. The temperature gradients, within
the concrete columns exposed to both high and low heating rates is shown in Fig (3.7). From
this, it can be seen that the low rate of heating results in lower thermal gradients within the
element. Fig. (3.8) shows the axial displacement of High Strength Concrete Columns with
respect to time during the tests. Upon examination, it is noticed that the peak value of axial
deformation occurs just as the temperature of the concrete centre reaches 180°C. During this
phase, the water was boiling and evaporating through these points releasing by that the
internal pressure and causing the explosive spalling. Hence, loss of cover, promoting
reduction in column cross-section area, permitting reinforcement to be exposed to high
temperatures, with associated strength loss. The maximum value of axial displacement is
independent of the rate of heating and it is dependent on the load that has been applied during
the test. It can be seen from this figure that the rate of heating declines after the maximum
axial displacement occurs and it is much quicker for columns experiencing the high heating
rate rather than columns under low heating rate.

62
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Fig.(3.7) Temperature gradients within the concrete columns under high heating rate
and low heating rate [117].

Fig.(3.8) Axial displacement versus time [117].

The failure temperature against load ratio is plotted in Fig. (3.9). The fall in failure
temperatures was anticipated as higher applied load produced earlier failure, through less
restraint force being required for failure load to be reached. Fig. (3.10) shows the additional
generated force as a function of the average column surface temperature. The maximum force
value of 42.7kN was reached at column temperature of 600°C after 25 min of heating.

63
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Fig.(3.9) Failure temperature as a function of load ratio [117].

High strength concrete (HSC), is being increasingly used in a number of building

applications, where structural fire safety is one of the major design considerations [118]. An
understanding of various factors influencing fire performance will aid in developing
appropriate solutions for mitigating spalling and enhancing fire resistance of HSC members
[118]. Explosive spalling of concrete elements under fire is still an important issue within the
research community [119].

Fig.(3.10) Maximum generated forces as function of average column surface

temperature [117].

In their study, Faris et al includes a useful comparison between the performance of high and
normal strength concrete columns in fire. The study illustrates a method of preventing

64
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

explosive spalling using polypropylene fibres in the concrete [119]. A numerical model, in the
form of a computer program, for tracing the behaviour of high performance concrete (HPC)
columns exposed to fire is presented, Kodur, et al [120]. The computer program can be used
to predict the fire resistance of HPC columns for any value of the significant parameters, such
as load, section dimensions, fiber reinforcement, column length, concrete strength, aggregate
type, and fiber reinforcement [120]. The Building Regulations governing the design of
structures to resist fire are changing. A distinction is being made between life safety and
property protection. As a result traditional requirements for high levels of passive fire
resistance are being reduced [121]. It is concluded that the existing requirements for fire
resistance of reinforced concrete columns are overly conservative, the results of the research
are presented, and an alternative method for fire design has been developed [121]. Strength
interaction diagrams are common tools for reinforced concrete (RC) cross-section analysis
and design, Rodrigo, et al [122]. The purpose of their study is to present an algorithm for the
construction of strength interaction diagrams for arbitrary-shaped RC sections subjected to
fire action. The diagrams are obtained by a stepwise variation of the deformed configuration,
under assumptions of conventional ultimate strain values for concrete and steel [122]. Four
full-scale reinforced concrete (RC) columns with L-shaped cross-sections, four full-scale RC
columns with T-shaped cross-sections, three full-scale RC columns with shaped cross-
sections, and one full-scale RC column with a square cross-section were experimentally
investigated for fire resistance following the IS0834 standard heating process Yu and Bo
[123]. The results of the numerical simulation were compared with those of the full-scale fire
resistance tests [123]. The effects of elevated temperatures on the concentric compressive
behavior of confined concrete are presented by Zoidi, et al [124]. The results indicate that the
residual strength, strain corresponding to the peak stress and the post-peak strains of confined
concrete are not affected significantly up to an exposure temperature of 400 oC. However, the
peak confined stress falls and the corresponding strain increases considerably in the
temperature range of 500–800 oC. It is shown that an increase in the degree of confinement
reinforcement results in an increased residual strength and deformability of confined concrete
[124]. In their study, Wen and Kuo [125] investigated the behavior of corner columns under
axial loading, biaxial bending and asymmetric fire loading [125]. It was also found that the
temperature distribution across the cross-section is not affected by concrete cover thickness
and steel ratio. The residual strengths can be used for future evaluation, repair and
strengthening [125]. An experimental study was undertaken to investigate the axial capacity
of post-heated circular reinforced concrete columns repaired with glass and carbon fibre
reinforced polymers [126]. It was shown that the load-carrying capacity of post-heated
columns can be restored up to the original level or greater than those of un-heated columns.

65
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

However, it was shown that the effect of a single layer of glass or carbon fibre reinforced
polymer on the axial stiffness was not significant [126]. Moss and Brooker [127] use Euro
codes2, Part 1-2: Structural fire designs, give choice advanced, simplified or tabular methods
for determining fire resistance of columns [127]. The simplified method may give more
economic columns, especially for small columns and/or high fire resistance periods. Rather
than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal axis distance; this is
the distance from the centre of the main reinforcing bar to the member. It is a nominal (not
minimum) dimension [127]. The increased use of high strength concrete (HSC) in buildings
has resulted in concern regarding the behaviour of such concrete in fire [128]. The results
presented will generate data on the fire resistance of high performance concrete columns and
contribute to identifying the difference in behaviour between HSC and NSC columns [128].
In their study Park and Nogouchi presented the development of a computational program to
predict the temperature and stress distribution in high-strength concrete columns [129].
Predicted temperature and stress curves are in good agreement with experimental data. The
behaviour of composite columns made of partially encased steel sections subjected to fire has
been studied numerically by several researchers. Experimental studies are scarce and there are
still many phenomena to study [130]. The main conclusion of their work is that for low load
levels the stiffness of the surrounding structure has a major influence on the behaviour of the
column subjected to fire. Increasing the stiffness of the surrounding structure led to reductions
in the critical times. The same behaviour was not observed for the high load levels [130].
Concrete filled steel tubular columns have been extensively used in modern construction
owing to that they utilise the most favourable properties of both constituent materials [131]. It
shows concrete steel tubular column with circular section possesses the best structural fire
behaviour, followed by columns with elliptical, square and rectangular sections. Based on this
research study, a simplified equation for the design of concrete filled columns at elevated
temperature is proposed [131]. In their study Young et al, used a construction application of a
technique to improve the fire resistance of high strength concrete is presented [132]. The
concrete quality was examined and the behaviour of the concrete was observed.
Consequently, it was verified that this new spalling resistance technique is feasible in practice
[132]. Extensive research has shown that fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) wraps are very
effective for strengthening concrete columns for increased axial and flexural load and
deformation capacity, and this technique is now widely used around the world Bisby et al
[133]. The results show that FRP confinement is highly effective for enhancing the load-
carrying capacity of even severely fire-damaged concrete columns. A modified version of a
pre-existing confinement model is proposed for use in designing FRP strengthening schemes
for fire-damaged concrete columns [133]. Fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) have

66
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

demonstrated good performance in retrofitting deteriorated reinforced concrete structures. In

their study Ershad, et al [134] presented the development and partial verification of a
computational model that can simulate the structural behaviour of a short or slender,
concentrically or eccentrically loaded, unwrapped or FRP wrapped column under both
ambient and fire conditions. Results of initial analytical studies, including validation of the
model using test data available in the literature, are presented [134]. Theoretical investigation
on the fire performance of concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) column and reinforced
concrete (RC) beam frames were performed by lin, et al [135]. The influence of important
parameters on the load bearing mechanism of the composite framed structures investigated
specifically and suggestions are made regarding calculation of the fire resistance of the frame
[135]. The effects of elevated temperatures on the concentric compressive behavior of
confined concrete are presented [136]. The results indicate that the residual strength, strain
corresponding to the peak stress and the post-peak strains of confined concrete are not
affected significantly up to an exposure temperature of 400 oC. However, the peak confined
stress falls and the corresponding strain increases considerably in the temperature range of
500-800 oC. An increase in the temperature of exposure makes the stress-strain curve of
confined concrete flatter. It is shown that an increase in the degree of confinement
reinforcement results in an increased residual strength and deformability of confined concrete
[136].

3.5 Modeling of RC Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures

A nonlinear structural analysis of cross-sections of three-dimensional reinforced concrete

frames exposed to fire is presented by Daniel and Antonio [137]. The agreement found is in
both cases, fairly good. In addition, a numerical example of the structural analysis of several
cross-sections of a reinforced concrete waffle slab under external load and fire is shown
[137]. The first objective of their study is to highlight the capabilities and limitations of
concrete uniaxial constitutive models at elevated temperatures for thermo-mechanical
behavior modeling, depending on the implicit or explicit consideration of transient creep
strain in the model [138]. It is shown that the actual material behavior is better matched with
the new explicit model than with the current implicit Euro code 2 model. A comparison is
given between experimental and computed results on a centrally loaded concrete column
submitted to heating–cooling sequence. A numerical model, in the form of a computer
program, for tracing the behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) beams exposed to fire is
presented by Kodur and Dwaikat [139]. Through the results of numerical study, it is shown
that the type of failure criterion has significant influence on predicting the fire resistance of
RC beams. Artificial neural network (ANN) and fuzzy logic (FL) models have been

67
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

developed for predicting the compressive strength (fc) and dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed)
of the crushed tile concretes (CTC) exposed to elevated temperatures. In the models, the
training and testing results have shown that ANN and FL methods have strong potential for
predicting the fc and Ed of crushed tile concretes exposed to elevated temperatures [140].
Heating of concrete leads to decrease of mechanical properties due to different damage
processes: thermal strain gradients, chemical reactions, increase of vapour pressure (which is
not taken and strain incompatibilities between cement paste and aggregates, which is not
taken into account explicitly here) [141]. The study concludes, using numerical analysis and
comparisons to experimental results, on relevances and performances of these different
mechanical models. A one-dimensional numerical model to predict fire-induced spalling in
concrete structures is presented [142]. The model is based on pore pressure calculations in
concrete, as a function of time. Through these case studies, it is shown that permeability;
tensile strength of concrete and heating rate has a significant influence on fire-induced
spalling in concrete. It is also shown that relative humidity has a marginal influence on fire-
induced spalling in concrete. Their study [143] is concerned with the application of a
proposed approach, denoted as SAAFE Program (System for Advanced Analysis for Fire
Engineering), developed to provide inelastic analysis of steel and composite (steelconcrete)
2D framed-structures exposed to fire. A proposed multi-storey composite framed structure is
assessed by SAAFE, outlining the advantage of considering advanced analysis in the current
fire-design practice of structures. A macroscopic finite element model for tracing the fire
response of reinforced concrete (RC) structural members is presented [144]. Through the
results of the case studies, it is shown that the fire scenario has a significant effect on the fire
resistance of RC columns and beams. It is also shown that macroscopic finite element models
are capable of predicting the fire response of RC structural members with an adequate
accuracy for practical applications. Casanova et al presented a new finite element approach to
model the steel–concrete bond effects [145]. It clearly shows how the introduction of the bond
model can improve the description of the cracking process (finite number of cracks). The
study deals with modelling of hygro-thermal performance and thermo-chemical degradation
of concrete exposed to high temperature. Several possible simplifications in modelling of heat
and mass transport phenomena in heated concrete are considered and their effect on the
results of numerical simulations is analyzed [146]. The study will concern hygric, thermal and
degradation performance of 1-D and 2-D axisymmetric concrete elements during fast and
slow heating. The analysis will allow engineers to indicate which simplifications in modeling
of concrete at high temperature are practically and physically possible, without generating
excessive errors with respect to the full reference model [146] and [147]. An overview of fire
hazard in bridges was performed by Maria, et al [148]. A detailed review of actual fire

68
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

incidents, case studies related to fire hazards, and post-fire assessment and repair strategies in
bridges is presented and summarized. This review points to the importance of fire hazard in
bridges, aids practicing engineers with practical tools for developing strategies for repairing
fire damage in bridges and identifies areas where further research is needed. The fire-safe
design of concrete structures, which incorporate post-tensioned prestressing tendons, has
recently been the subject of debate within the structural engineering community. Case studies
showing the response of real UPT structures in severe building fires are also discussed. In
both cases, the intent is to highlight inadequacies in the current state of knowledge for UPT
buildings in fire and to prioritize areas for future research [149]. It is stated in Eurocode 2
(EN 1992-1-2, 2004 that is an important question is whether load redistributions between
different sections of a member in bending can be accepted in case of fire, these redistributions
being allowed by the plastic behaviour of both the reinforcement and the concrete. Note that
the ductility increases significantly in a fire situation, as also observed in a 140 mm-thick
slab, where ductility increased much less than in beams [150]. The bond strength between the
steel exposed to fire and then used as reinforcement with new concrete as usually followed in
repair problems was studied [151]. Two types of steel bars, plain bars of grade (24/35) and
deformed bars of grade (40/60) of diameter 13 mm were used after exposure to fire
temperatures 300, 600, 900 and 1200 °C. Specimens of group (1& 2) as shown in Table (3-5)
are exposed to high temperatures after casting the concrete to determine the effect of fire
temperatures on the bond between steel and concrete. Bond strength of group (1) of concrete
specimens reinforced with steel (24/35) shows a noticeable reduction at higher temperature
than those specimens of group (2) reinforced with steel (40/60). The bond strength of
specimens of plain bars of group (1) decreases as the temperatures increase. For these
specimens the loss of bond strength reaches about 69% and 50% at 300 °C, for specimens
cooled by water and air respectively relative to the bond of specimens at ambient temperature.
The bond strength is completely lost between steel and concrete at fire temperatures 600 and
900 °C for the specimens of group (1) cooled with air and water respectively. The bond
strength for the specimens of ribbed bars, group (2), of steel (40/60) reaches it maximum
value at 300 °C Which increases by 75% and 50% than that of specimens at ambient
temperature after 300 °C, the bond strength decreases where it reaches zero at 600 °C and 900
°C for the specimens cooled by air and water respectively. Royles and Morely [152], studied
bond strength over a temperature range of 20 °C -750 °C, they found that the reduction in
bond strength with temperature was greater than the corresponding reduction in the concrete
compressive strength and as the cover decreased, the maximum bond stress and maximum
bond slip decreased.

69
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Table (3-5) Specimens Group [151].

3.6 Effect of Fire on Mechanical and Structural Behaviour of RC Elements

3.6.1 Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal and Elevated Temperatures
Engineers generally satisfy fire safety requirements by choosing floor and wall assemblies
that satisfy specific fire ratings. Such a method does not require any temperature dependent
calculations. However, new codes are moving towards performance-based design and
temperature-dependent calculations are expected to be required to satisfy certain performance
criteria. A general stress-strain relationship for concrete when subjected to high temperatures
is thus needed. Such a relationship will also be beneficial to researchers interested in
modeling the behavior of concrete structures when subjected to fire. Numerous models were
developed during the last century to represent the compressive and tensile stress-strain
behaviour of unconfined and confined concrete structures at ambient temperature. Elevated
temperatures occurring during fire events were found to change the characteristics of the
stress-strain relationships for unconfined concrete [153], Effects of elevated temperatures
include decreasing concrete strength, f’c and increasing the absolute value of the strain
corresponding to it (εo). Hertz [154] reported that preloading concrete with a compressive
stressed reduces the effect of elevated temperatures on f’c and εo. f’c was also found to result

70
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

in additional strains that were termed transient creep strains (εtr). The magnitude of these
strains is a function of the heating rate, the concrete mix, and the preloading stress level. The
effect of elevated temperatures on the stress-strain relationship of confined concrete is not
fully understood. Confinement is expected to be affected by the deterioration of the bond
between the reinforcing bars and the surrounding concrete and the reduction in the yield stress
of transverse reinforcing bars during fire, Malhotra, [155].

3.6.2 Compressive Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal Temperatures

The behavior of concrete under compression is greatly affected by the degree of confinement
provided by the transverse reinforcement. For unconfined concrete, a widely used
approximation for the stress-strain relationship before reaching the maximum stress is a
second-degree parabola. εo can be taken as 0.002 or 2 f’c / Eci, where Eci is the initial
modulus of elasticity [156]. Mander [157] recommended estimating Eci as 5000 (1'e) v. MPa.
The post-peak behavior can be estimated either by extending the equation of the second
degree parabola or by using a linear decaying branch with a slope of -0.15 f’c / 0.0038- εo.
The length of the decaying branch is strongly affected by the conditions of the test. A number
of values for the maximum strain (εcu) can be found in the literature. Those include 0.003,
0.0035, and 0.0038 [158]. Neville proposed using Eq. (1) to take into account the reduction in
(εcu) that was noted for higher strength concretes.

3.1

3.6.3 Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Normal Temperatures

The uniaxial stress-strain relationship for concrete in tension is usually modeled by a linear
branch until it reaches the cracking stress, fcr. The modulus of elasticity of the linear branch
can be taken equal to Eci. Recommended values for fcr are 0.33), (fcr) y, (MPa) for cases of
direct tension and 0.60 (fcr) y, (MPa) for cases of flexural tension [159], λ is a factor
accounting for the density of the concrete and is equal to 1.00, 0.85, and 0.75for normal
density (density above 2150 kg/m3) semi low density (density between 1850 and 2150 kg/m3)
and low density (density below 1850 kg/m3) concrete, respectively [159]. After cracking,
concrete tensile resistance results from the friction between the concrete and the reinforcing
bars and the tensile resistance of the concrete lying between the cracks. One of the popular
models to account for tension stiffening in these areas as illustrated in equation 3.2 by Collins
[159].

3.2
where ά 1 is a factor accounting for bond characteristics of reinforcing bars and can be taken
as being equal to 1.0 or 0.7 for deformed or plain reinforcing bars, respectively. ά 2 is a factor

71
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

accounting for type of loading and can be taken equal to 1.0 or 0.7 for short-term or sustained
loading, respectively.

3.6.4 Compressive Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Elevated Temperatures

Few models describing the compressive stress-strain relationship of unconfined concrete at
elevated temperature. Lie and Lin [160] proposed an instantaneous stress-strain relation for
concrete with parabolic ascending and descending branches as in the followingh equations:

3.3

3.4

Anderberg and Thelandersson's [161] summarized relationships that are parabolic for the
ascending branch and linear for the descending branch.

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

Schneider [162] proposed a model that accounts for the effect of concrete weight on the shape
of the stress-strain curve by using a non-dimensional factor n. Its value was recommended to
be taken as being equal to 2.5 and 3.0 for lightweight and normal-weight concrete,
respectively as shown.

3.9

Terro [163] recommended using n equal to 2 in the Schneider model, which makes the model
similar to the model of Mander [157] for Eci equal to 2 f’cT / εoT.
To account for transient creep effects, Anderberg and Thelandersson [161], Schneider [162],
Terro [163] considered that the total strain is composed of separate strain components. The
thermal strain is a function of the temperature, and thus can be separated easily from the total
strain. To calculate the transient creep strain, an assumption has to be made for the
corresponding stress. This leads to an iterative solution.

72
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

3.6.5 Tensile Stress-Strain Relationship for Concrete at Elevated Temperatures

Research addressing the tensile stress-strain relationship for concrete at elevated temperatures
is limited. A linear relationship is widely used to represent the pre-cracking behavior. After
cracking. Terro [163] suggested using a linear degrading branch that joins the point of
cracking and a point on the horizontal axis with a strain of 0.004. Fracture toughness is often
utilized to define the softening branch assessed the residual fracture toughness of cooled
concrete after heating to 600°C. Similar research is needed to assess fracture toughness of
concrete after heating to different temperatures and before cooling.

3.6.6 Moment Redistribution of RC Frames

Moment redistribution is dependent on adequate ductility in plastic hinge regions [164].
These plastic hinge regions develop at points of maximum moment and cause a shift in the
elastic moment diagram. The result is a reduction in the values of negative moments in the
plastic hinge region and an increase in the values of positive moment from those computed by
elastic analyses. Because negative moments are determined from one loading arrangement
and positive moment from another, each section has a reserve capacity that is not fully
utilized for anyone loading condition. The plastic hinges permit the utilization of the full
capacity of more cross sections of a flexural member loads. ACI code 2002 [165].
In statically indeterminate flexural members, negative moments at supports calculated by
elastic theory may vary no more than 20 percent according to the ACI building code 318R-
2002,[165]. or 10 percent in Egyptian code 2001., [166] EI-Shazly, (1989) showed that up to
redistribution of 28 percent from theoretical moment giving by the elastic analysis, no severe
cracking or excessive deflections were observed under working loads.

3.6.7 RC Frames
Consideration of the behavior of reinforced at and near the ultimate load is necessary to
determine the possible distributions of bending moment, shear force and axial force that could
be used in the design. It is possible to use a distribution of moments and forces different from
that given by linear elastic structural analysis if the critical sections have sufficient ductility to
allow redistribution of action to occur as the ultimate load is approached. The behavior at
ultimate load depends on the deformation characteristics of the members, which for frames
depend mainly on the relationship between moment and curvature), [156] Park and Paully
1975. [167] Lazaro, (1971) studied limit analysis of a reinforced concrete frame. A 1I24-scale
model frame was constructed. The elastic solution was carried out using the stiffness method
of analysis with the frame divided into prismatic sections. Calculated and observed results for
sideway and deflection at the center of the loaded span.

73
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

George et al tested fifteen two-hinged frames to investigate the performance of continuous

reinforced concrete under vertical and laterals loads [168]. Three steel ratios, three spans, two
grades of steel, and two steel stress-strain curves provide an insight to the performance of
reinforced concrete frames. Actual redistribution of moments can differ significantly plastic
theory. For the frames subjected to vertical loading only, loads for equivalent stress states
were inversely proportional to the length of span. Mo Y.L., [169] studied moment
redistribution in reinforced concrete frames [169]. In one-way story frames with horizontal
loads the influence of deformation on the moments may reach 5 percent. The influence of
axial force on the curvature and the rotation capacity is small. The rotation capacity in the
tested frames was sufficient so that the moment redistribution reached up to 58 percent.
Although many reinforced concrete beams are of continuous construction, little experimental
work on repair and strengthening of such beams have been reported. As far as the authors are
aware, no experimental work on the flexure behaviour of reinforced concrete frames
strengthened using FRP laminates has been reported.

3.6.8 Moment Redistribution

The redistribution process is the deviation of the effective distribution of forces and moments
throughout the structure from the theoretical elastic values. Because of plastic rotations at
some sections, it is possible to assume a pattern of BM different from that derived from linear
elastic structural analysis, and for all the critical positive and negative moment sections to
reach their ultimate moments of resistance at the ultimate load thus moment redistribution can
have a marked influence on the ultimate load of a statically indeterminate structure, [156].
The degree of redistribution is the ratio of the effective failure load to the failure load
corresponding to complete redistribution. Many factors are affecting on the process of the
moments, the effective degree of redistribution increases with the increase of the area under
the moment curvature diagram. As the curvature increases in proportion to the increasing of
ultimate compressive strain which increases with the decrease of the concrete grade. This
makes the degree of redistribution greater for the lower strength concrete than that for the
higher strength concrete. The type of steel reinforcement that has a defined yield point has the
ability to undergo larger defonnations than those without a defined yield point. Then, the
cross section will be able to experience large plastic defonnations after yielding and before
failure. The use of the under-reinforced sections decreases the danger of the brittle failure,
improves the ductility and would favor redistribution. So, the decrease of the reinforcement
ratio has a positive effect on the degree of redistribution. The resulting curvature as well as
moment redistribution for long-term loads is always greater than for short term ones. El-
Shazly studied the effect of redistribution of moments on the behaviour of continuous
reinforced concrete beams [166]. Four continuous two span beams with different percentages

74
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

of redistribution of support moment were tested. The percentage of reinforcement at support

sections varied from 0.39 Db to 0.28 Ub correspondingly, the percentages of reinforcement at
mid-sp~ sections varied from 0.32 Ub to 0.376 Ub, respectively. So as to maintain the same
overall ultimate load for all of the test beams. The results showed that up to redistribution of
28 percent from the theoretical steel ratio given by the elastic analyses, no sever cracking or
excessive deflections were observed under working loads.

3.6.9 Moment Redistribution According to Egyptian Code (2001) [170].

The percentage of redistribution allowed is not to exceed ± 10. The following conditions must
be fulfilled: 1-Static equilibrium must be maintained after redistribution 2-Serviceability
conditions, i.e., cracking and deflection must be checked. 3-In all cases the sum of the
positive and negative moments of any span must not be less than 1.2 Mo where Mo is the
maximum bending moment produced in a similar simply supported span subjected to the
same loading condition. The coefficient maximum flexural strength (R max) and the
reinforcement ratio (U max) have the upper limits given in Table (3-6).
Where:

3.10

3.11

Redistribution of negative moments in continuous members according to ACI code

(318R-99) [171].
It shall be permitted to increase or decrease negative moments calculated by elastic theory at
supports of continuous flexural members for any assumed loading arrangement by not more
than

3.12

Where:
U = As/bd is the tension reinforcement ratio.
U = As/bd is the compression reinforcement ratio.
Ub = is the reinforcement ratio for a balanced failure.

The modified negative moments shall be used for calculating moments at sections within the
spans. Redistribution of negative moments shall be made only when the section at which
moment is reduced is so designed that U or U-U\ is not greater than 0.5 Ub.
Where:

75
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

Ub = 0.85 ß1 fc (630/(630+Fy))/fy (SI units)

ß1 = 0.85 (fe < 28 MPa)
= 0.85-0.00725 (fc-28) (fe> 28 MPa)
Fc = 28 day cylinder compressive strength of concrete.
Fy = yield strength of reinforcement.

Redistribution of negative moments in continuous members according to ACI code

(318R-2002) [165].
Previous ACI codes specified the permissible redistribution percentage in terms of
reinforcement indices. The 2002 code specifies the permissible redistribution percentage in
terms of the net tensile strain €t. Except where approximate values for moments are used, it
shall be permitted to increase or decrease negative moments calculated by elastic theory at
supports of continuous flexural members for any assumed loading arrangement by not more
than 1000 €t, with maximum of 20 percent. The modified negative moments shall be used for
calculating moments at sections within the spans. Redistribution of negative moment shall be
made only when €t is equal to or greater than 0.0075 at the section at which moment reduced.

Table (3-6): Coefficient of max flexural strength (Rmax), max reinforcement ratio (Umax)
and max neutral axis depth/effective depth ratio (cmax/d) corresponding to 0 percent
redistribution. [81]

3.7 Comparison of Different Codes for Fire Effect on Reinforced Concrete Structures

In this section, we will try to study the effect of some factors on reinforced concrete
structure when exposure to fire as presented in some international codes.

3.7.1 British Code ( BS8110:part1:1997) [172]

The effect of the concrete cover as a fire protection for different types of structural members
against conditions of exposure (mild, moderate, severe, very severe, most severe, and
abrasive), taking into account the maximum fire water/cement ratio, minimum cement content

76
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 3

(kg/m3), and lowest grade of concrete has been determined and recommended. The nominal
cover to all reinforcement for (beams, floors, ribs, columns) to meet specified periods of fire
(0.5-1.0-1.5-2.0-3.0-4.0) hours is recommended to provide protection to the reinforcement
from fire.

3.7.2 ACI Building Code (2000) [173]

The required minimum thickness of concrete cover for the following fire resistance periods
(1.0-1.5-2.0-3.0-4.0) hours for different types of aggregate (siliceous, carbonate, lightweight)
and minimum cross section dimensions for the following fire resistance periods (0.5-1.0-1.5-
2.0-3.0-4.0) hours is recommended to protect the main longitudinal reinforcement. The effect
of percentage of longitudinal bars in shear walls only was considered for determining the
minimum dimension and cover to protect the main longitudinal reinforcement. Openings in
reinforced concrete structure when, exposure to fire is considered should have a minimum fire
protection rating of 20 minutes where located in corridor walls.

3.7.3 Egyptian Code (ECCS 203-2007) [174]

The required minimum thickness of concrete cover and minimum cross section dimension for
the following fire resistance periods (0.5-1.0-2.0-3.0-4.0) hours is recommended to protect the
main longitudinal reinforcement. The effect of percentage of longitudinal bars in shear walls
only was considered for determining the minimum dimension and cover to protect the main
longitudinal reinforcement.

77
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 4

Assessment of fire-damaged

RC structures

XIII
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Chapter 4

ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-DAMAGED RC STRUCTURES

4.1 Introduction

Often the initial response when looking over a fire-damaged structure is one of despair and
horror at the extent of damage. This situation is exacerbated by the amount of non-structural
debris lying around, together with, the acrid smell of many combustion products. In most
cases, the damage is not as severe as initially thought, even though immediate decisions must
be taken on the short-term safety of the structure and whether any temporary propping is
necessary or, indeed, whether some demolition work is necessary. This decision will often
need to be taken very quickly after the fire that will generally be based on a visual survey and
expert judgement. It should be pointed out that the assessment of fire-damaged structures is
very much a black art that it relies heavily on experience. It is also to be noted that it is at this
point, the owner’s, or occupier’s, insurance company will become involved, as even if the
structure is capable of being saved, it will be a matter of economics as to whether there should
be repair or demolition and complete rebuild [175-179].

This question can often be answered after a thorough visual inspection has been carried out.

4.2 Visual Inspection

The aim of the visual inspection is to determine:

1. the short-term stability of the structure and

2. the extent and severity of the fire.

4.2.1 Stability

If possible, the original drawings for the structure should be consulted at this stage. These
allow assessment of how the structure transmits the applied loading and enables the principal
load carrying members to be identified, as well as those providing structural stability. The
inspection needs to check any excessive deformation, deflection or cracking in the main load-
carrying members and integrity at the connections between the main members. In the case of
concrete construction, attention should be given to damage due to spalling on beams and
columns as this may reduce the load-carrying capacity of the member due to excessive
temperature rise in any reinforcement. Where the fire has only affected part of the structure, it
is essential that the inspection also extends to any part of the structure not damaged directly
by the fire; it is possible that a substantial redistribution of forces can occur into the

78
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

unaffected part of the structure. This redistribution of forces has been noted from theoretical
work on concrete frames by [179] where moments in the frame remote from the fire affected
compartment exceeded the design moments, when the structure behaved during the fire in a
totally different manner to the way it was designed, in that forces were redistributed away
from the fire by columns acting in tension to transmit forces to the relatively cool upper
stories of the structure.

4.2.2 Estimation of fire severity

The first method of obtaining a rough estimate of the fire severity is by the use of the fire
brigade records in terms of the number of appliances called out, the length of time taken to
fight the fire, the length of time between the fire being noted and the arrival of the brigade,
the operation of any automatic fire detection or fire-fighting equipment and the degree of
effort required to fight the fire. Since most materials have known specific melting or softening
temperatures, some typical data are given in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Melting point data [179]

4.3 Damage Assessment

This needs carrying out in a series of stages. The first stage involves a complete fully detailed
survey of the structure. The second stage ascertains the residual strength of both the
individual members and of the complete structure.

4.3.1 Structural survey

For all structures, the first stage is to carry out, where appropriate, a full line and level survey.
This is needed to assess the residual deformations and deflections in the structure. The

79
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

measured deflections should be compared with those for which the structure was designed.
Care should be taken to note the effect of any horizontal movements due to thermal actions
during the fire. Such effects of horizontal movement are often apparent away from the seat of
the fire.

4.3.2 Materials testing

4.3.2.1 Concrete

The only common destructive test is to take concrete cores usually 40 mm diameter from the
fire-damaged zone and test the cores in compression according to the relevant standard, e.g.
BS 1881: Part 120: 1983, and then relate the measured strength to an equivalent cube strength
using appropriate empirical formulae. Great care is needed with the use of cores to assess
residual strengths as it is necessary to attempt to extract cores free from any reinforcement,
although the presence of reinforcement can be allowed for in assessing equivalent strengths.
A further problem in heavily damaged structures is the ability to obtain cores of sufficient
integrity to be tested. It is also necessary to obtain cores from an undamaged part of the
structure where concrete of a similar specified grade was used. To aid the assessment of loss
of strength, it is useful if at all possible to obtain the original cube or cylinder control test
records when the structure was built. It is also useful if any colour changes in the concrete
along the length of the core are noted, as this can help assess the residual strength of parts of
the structure where it may not be possible to extract cores.

4.3.2.1.1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) measurements

Although the apparatus for this is conveniently portable, the results obtained are not very
sensitive and have the disadvantage of being comparative in that a reference is needed to
establish base values of strength and pulse velocity. The test may either be carried out by
measuring the time taken to transmit a signal through the member or by measuring the time
taken for a reflected signal to travel from transmitter to receiver. In the former case, it is
necessary to be able to gain access to both sides of a member, together with the further
limitation that the thickness cannot exceed about 200mm. In the latter case, the surface must
be good enough to allow a series of readings to be taken and that a similar procedure is used
for the reference value. Provided reference values of both the pulse velocity and strength are
known, then it is possible to estimate the loss in strength if the loss in UPV is known. It has
been demonstrated from test results that the loss in strength (1 − σc,θ/σc,20) is related linearly
to the loss in pulse velocity (1 − Uθ/U20) by an equation of the form

4.1

80
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

where σc,θ and Uθ are the compressive strength and UPV at a temperature θ and σc,20 and
U20 are the reference strength and UPV, respectively, and k1 and k2 are dependant on the
concrete age and composition [179] proposed a rather complex method capable of
determining the loss in elastic modulus within the fire-damaged zone using the reflection
method. [179] suggests that a linear degradation model of elastic modulus with temperature is
adequate.

4.3.2.1.2 Schmidt hammer

This will only measure the properties of the concrete in the surface layer and requires a clean
smooth surface to give reliable results. It also needs calibrating for a given concrete and is
not suitable where knowledge of the concrete properties are required within the element.

4.3.2.1.3 Petrographic analysis

In this technique, thin slices from cores are examined under a microscope and the isotropy,
density and type of cracking are observed. [178] suggests that when the temperature exceeds
500◦C the cement paste appears anisotropic under polarized light. The crack patterns also
change: below 300◦C, the cracks form between the boundaries of the aggregate and the mortar
matrix, whereas above 500◦C the cracks will also tend to pass through the matrix. More
recently it has been demonstrated [179] that it is possible to quantify the relationship between
crack density and temperature reached due to heating (Fig. 4.1). With the unexplained
exception of siliceous aggregate concrete containing PFA, the correlation between
temperature θcd at which the crack density increases above base value and the temperature
θcs at which compressive strength loss starts to occur is good (Table 4.2). The ability of
change in crack density to predict the position of the 325◦C isotherm (at which compressive
strength loss starts to occur) is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.

Table 4.2 Values of initial crack density and strength transition temperatures [179]

81
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

OPC

OPC/PFA

OPC/GGBS

Figure 4.1 The development of crack density with temperature for concretes made with
siliceous aggregate and: (a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC); (b) OPC/PFA; (c)
OPC/GGBS cements; (d) limestone and (e) granite. [179].

82
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Lime Stone

Granite

Figure 4.1 Continued

83
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Figure 4.2 (a) Temperature distribution and (b) crack density for an OPC–
siliceous aggregate concrete cylinder heated from one end [179].

4.3.2.1.4 Stiffness damage test

This is a type of compression test carried out on cylindrical specimens 175mm long and
75mm diameter under a limited stress range of 0 to around 4,5MPa under cyclic loading with
the strains being measured over the central 67mm [179]. Measurements are then taken for
variously defined elastic moduli and of hysteresis between the loading cycles. The test results
from concrete uniformly heated up to temperatures of 470◦C confirm data on residual
Young’s modulus and may provide an alternative method of performance assessment at
moderate temperatures.

4.3.2.1.5 Surface permeability

The use of air permeability and water sorpity tests on heated concrete to ascertain damage
measured by surface pull-off tensile strength using an epoxy bonded 50mm diameter steel

84
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

disc. The 150mm cube specimens were heated by an imposed flame for two hours at a
prescribed surface temperature. The tensile strengths will be those of the surface (as will the
air permeability and water sorpity), but the cube strengths will to some extent be a function of
the temperature distribution in the specimen.

4.3.2.1.6 Hammer

Although not a scientific method in the generally accepted sense of the word, this method is
probably the best to give a very quick, albeit crude, assessment of concrete quality and
strength. An overview of traditional non-destructive testing on fire-damaged concrete is given
in [179]. For reinforcement, similar techniques are available to structural steel. It should,
however, be noted that where specimens are taken from either tensile steel in beams or
compressive steel in columns, the elements or structure must be propped since removal of the
specimen will reduce the strength of the member. It may be possible to remove samples from
shear links at the mid-point of a beam or a column without propping.

4.3.2.1.7 Thermoanalytical Techniques of Concrete Materials

Thermal analysis has been defined by the International Confederation of Thermal Analysis
(ICTA) as a general term which covers a variety of techniques that record the physical and
chemical changes occurring in a substance as a function of temperature, [178]. This term,
therefore, encompasses many classical techniques such as thermogravimetry (TG), evolved
gas analysis (EGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), and differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC), and the modern techniques, such as thermomechanical analysis (TMA) as
well as dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), and dilatometry, just to name a few. The
application of thermal analysis to the study of construction materials stems from the fact that
they undergo physicochemical changes on heating.

4.3.2.1.7.1Classical Techniques

Ever since the invention of DSC, there has been much confusion over the difference between
DTA and DSC. The exact ICTA definition of DTA is a method that monitors the temperature
difference existing between a sample and a reference material as a function of time and/or
temperature assuming that both sample and reference are subjected to the same environment
at a selected heating or cooling rate. [178] the plot of ΔT as a function of temperature is
termed a DTA curve and endothermic transitions are plotted downward on the y-axis, while
temperature (or time) is plotted on the x-axis. DSC curve as shown in Fig (4.1), on the other
hand, has been defined as a technique that records the energy (in the form of heat) required to
yield a zero temperature difference between a substance and a reference, as a function of

85
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

either temperature or time at a predetermined heating and/or cooling rate, once again
assuming that both the sample and the reference material are in the same environment. The
plot obtained is known as a DSC curve and shows the amount of heat applied as a function of
temperature or time. As can be seen from the above definitions, the two techniques are
similar, but not the same. The two yield the same thermodynamic data such as enthalpy,
entropy, Gibbs’ free energy, and specific heat, as well as kinetic data. It is only the method by
which the information is obtained that differentiates the two techniques.

 Differential Thermal Analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry

A little over a hundred years ago, two papers were published by Le Châtelier dealing with the
measurement of temperature in clays; the first entitled On the Action of Heat on Clays and the
second On the Constitution of Clays. The experiment described in these papers was not a
truly differential one since the difference in temperature between the clay and reference
material was not measured. The apparatus consisted of a Pt-Pt/ 10%-Rh thermocouple
embedded in a clay sample, which in turn was packed into a 5 mm diameter Pt crucible. The
crucible was then placed in a larger crucible, surrounded with magnesium oxide and inserted
into an oven. Le Châtelier used a heating rate of 120 K min-1 and recorded the electromotive
force of the thermocouple on a photographic plate at regular time intervals. As long as no
phase change occurred in the clay, the temperature rose evenly and the lines on the plate were
evenly spaced. If, however, an exothermic transformation took place, then the temperature
rose more rapidly, and, therefore, the lines were unevenly spaced and closer together. An
endothermic transition, on the other hand, caused the measured temperature to rise more
slowly, and the spacing between the lines was much larger. To ensure that the measured
temperatures were correct, he calibrated his instrument with the aid of boiling points of
known materials such as water, sulfur, and selenium, as well as the melting point of gold.
Since Le Châtelier’s experiment does not fit the ICTA definition of DTA, his main
contribution to the development of DTA was the automatic recording of the heating curve on
a photographic plate. True differential thermal analysis was actually developed twelve years
later [178].

 DSC

The DTA calorimeter, sometimes called DSC. The term DTA calorimeter is more appropriate
since this system actually measures ΔT directly from the experiment. Unlike conventional
DTA however, the experiment is performed at quasi-equilibrium conditions, i.e., sample mass
is less than 10 mg, slow cooling/heating rate, and only one calibration coefficient needs to be
measured for the entire temperature range. This, therefore, yields quantitative data but by
definition remains a DTA instrument. The other two categories of DSC apparatus are true

86
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

calorimetric instruments in that the calorimetric information is obtained directly from the
measurement, i.e., no conversion factor is required to convert ΔT into readily used energy
units as the thermometric data is obtained directly. A constant is still required to convert the
energy term into more suitable units. The main goal of any enthalpic experiment, which is to
determine the enthalpy of a sample as a function of temperature, is attained by measuring the
energy obtained from a sample heated at a constant rate with a linear temperature or time
programming. These two DSC instruments are designed so that the temperature of the metal
block, which contained the sample, was slightly lower than the temperature of the sample
itself. To maintain the sample at the same temperature as the block, power was supplied to the
sample. The main disadvantage of this apparatus was that a correction factor had to be applied
to account for the heat transfer between the surrounding medium and the block. Both the heat
flux and power-compensation DSC instruments overcome this drawback because, as the name
suggests, they are differential instruments. The heat-flux instruments measure the flux across
a thermal resistance, whereas the power compensating differential scanning calorimeters
measure the energy applied to the sample (or the reference) by an electrical heater in order to
maintain a zero-temperature differential. The amount of heat required to maintain the sample
temperature and that of the reference material isothermal to each other is then recorded as a
function of temperature. Moreover, in power-compensation DSC, an endothermic transition,
which corresponds to an increase in enthalpy, is indicated as a peak in the upward direction
(since power is supplied to the sample), while an exothermic transformation, a decrease in
enthalpy, is shown as a negative peak. This, therefore, differs from the DTA curve since the
peaks are in opposite direction and the information obtained is heat flow, rather than ΔT, as a
function of temperature (see Fig. 4.3). Also, as will be shown later, the integration of a DSC
curve is directly proportional to the enthalpy change.

Fig. 4.3 Comparison of curves obtained on heating by (a) DTA,

(b) Power-compensatig DSC, and (c) heat-flux DSC.

87
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

 Thermogravimetry

Thermogravimetry (TG) measures the change in mass of a material as a function of time at a

determined temperature (i.e., isothermal mode), or over a temperature range using a
predetermined heating rate. Essentially, a TG consists of a microbalance surrounded by a
furnace. A computer records any mass gains or losses. Weight is plotted against a function of
time for isothermal studies and as a function of temperature for experiments at constant
heating rate. Thus, this technique is very useful in monitoring heat stability and loss of
components (e.g., oils, plasticizers, or polymers). Thermogravimetry is also widely used both
in studies of degradation mechanisms and for methods for service lifetime prediction
measurements.

 High Resolution TG

Reactions investigated by TG are, by nature, heterogeneous. Therefore, experimental results

are affected by weight, geometry, and particle size of the specimen. Moreover, temperature
calibration and thermal gradient in the material can also affect the results. Hence, low heating
rates should be used to alleviate the problem and to obtain good resolution under non-
isothermal conditions. With complex systems such as polymers and fiber reinforced
composites, good resolution is essential to obtaining reliable results and kinetic parameters
that can be used to compare the stability of different systems and assess their lifetime.

4.3.2.1.7.2 Modern Techniques

 Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)

Thermomechanical analysis (TMA), as defined by ASTM E473-85, is a method for

measuring the deformation of a material under a constant load as a function of temperature
while the material is under a controlled temperature program.
 Dielectric Analysis (DEA)

Dielectric analysis (DEA) or dielectric thermal analysis (DETA) is another important

thermoanalytical technique that is rapidly evolving. This technique measures two fundamental
electrical characteristics of a material—capacitance and conductance—as a function of time,
temperature, and frequency. The capacitive nature of a material is the ability to store electric
charge whereas the conductive nature is the ability to transfer electric charge. The parameters
measured in dielectric analysis are permitivity (ε´) and the loss factor (ε´´).[178] The former
is the alignment of the molecular dipoles in the material and the latter represents the energy
required to align the dipoles or move trace ions. DEA is used in the characterization of
thermoplastics, thermosets, composites, adhesives, and coatings, and it is complementary to
other thermoanalytical techniques such DSC, DMA, TG, and TMA. DEA is an important

88
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

technique because it has high inherent sensitivity, wide frequency range, and the ability to
easily detect rheological changes that occur during heating of uncured materials as shown in
Fig 4.4.

Figure 4.4. DEA excitation and response. The mobility of ions and dipoles is
measured applying a sinusoidal voltage to the sample and measuring the current. [178]

 Conduction Calorimetry

The reaction of various types of cements and their components with water is an exothermic
process. The intensity of heat liberated with time depends on the type of chemical, surface
area, reactivity, etc. Measurement of the total heat and rate of heat development provides
information on the kinetics of hydration, degree of hydration, mechanism of hydration, the
effect of additives, setting phenomenon, etc. Conduction calorimetry finds extensive
applications in concrete technology.

 Applications

Conduction calorimetry has been widely used for a study of the hydration reactions of various
cementitious systems. Tricalcium silicate, being the dominant compound in portland cement,
determines to a large extent the strength and other properties of concrete. Conduction
calorimetric curves of tricalcium silicate and portland cement show five steps during the
hydration process (Fig. 4.5) and (Fig. 4.6).[178] In the first stage, as soon as the silicate or
cement comes into contact with water, Ca and OH ions are released into the solution phase.
This is followed by a rapid release of heat that ceases within 10–12 minutes. This is called the
pre-induction period. In the second stage, the reaction is slow, and it is known as the dormant
or induction period. This may be extended or shortened by a few hours by the addition of a
small amount of chemicals, known as chemical admixtures. In the third stage, the reaction
proceeds rapidly and accelerates with time, releasing a maximum amount of heat at the end of
the acceleratory period. At this stage, a rapid crystallization of calcium hydroxide occurs. In

89
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

the fourth stage, there is a slow deceleration. At the final stage, there is only a limited
formation of products, and at this stage the reaction is diffusion controlled. Thus, conduction
calorimetry permits determination of the rate and amount of hydration as a function of
temperature, the water: cement (w/c) ratio, the type of admixture added, the particle size of
the starting material, etc [178] and [179].

Figure 4.5. Conduction calorimetry curves of hydrating tricalcium silicate and cement.

Figure 4.6. Conduction calorimetric curves of superplasticized cement at different

temperatures.

90
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

4.3.2.2 Steel
There are essentially two approaches that may be used to assess residual steel strengths for
steel. The first is to remove test coupons or samples and subject those specimens to a standard
tensile test. Care should taken in removing test specimens in that the damaged structure is not
further weakened, and that again any necessary propping should be used. The second is to use
non-destructive tests of which the most suitable is a hardness indentation test usually
measuring the Brinell hardness. There is a direct, sensibly linear, relationship between the
Brinell hardness number (BHN) and tensile strength [179] as shown in Fig 4.7. It is important
that care is taken in using this test since a number of results are needed before the strength
estimates are statistically reliable.

Figure 4.7 Relationship between steel strengths

and Brinell hardness number (BHN) [197].

4.4 Strength Assessment of the Structure

This can either be performed using materials strength data derived from testing regimes
described in the foregoing section, or by assessment of the temperatures within the structural
element and knowledge of residual, i.e. post-heating and cooling, properties of materials.
Often, it should be noted that combination of these two approaches will be needed.
Effectively, any strength assessment of an element of a structure can be undertaken using the
same basic approaches as outlined in previous chapters for the assessment of structural
performance at elevated temperatures. Use can also be made of experimental results from
residual strength tests on fire affected members.

4.4.1 Residual properties

Besides the residual properties of concrete and steel, it is also necessary to consider materials
of a more historical nature such as wrought or cast iron, as fire damage is no respecter of
history!

91
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

4.4.1.1 Concrete

The only essential property of concrete required for the assessment of fire damage is the
residual compressive strength. Typical strength data for normal strength concrete from
Malhotra [155] and Purkiss [179] are plotted in Fig. (4.8) through (4.11). From the plotted
data, it may be observed that older, historical concretes appear to give a worse performance
than more modern concretes. both support the data by Purkiss, in that, normal strength
concrete loses about 25% of its strength at 400◦C, 60% at 600◦C and 85% at 800◦C. The
residual strength of concrete is lower than that strength measured at elevated temperatures as
there is further degradation on cooling caused by differing thermal properties between the
aggregate and the cement matrix. Fig (4.12) through (4.15) represents the physical properties
of concrete during exposure to fire or elevated temperatures. Stress relaxation, Creep,
Thermal conductivity and volumetric specific heats for normal and lightweight concrete were
discussed as shown in Fig (4.12) through (4.15)

Figure 4.8 Variation of residual strengths of concrete

with temperature [155] and [179].

92
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Fig. 4.9: Compressive strength of siliceous aggregate

concrete at high temperature and after cooling.

Fig. 4.10: Compressive strength of carbonate aggregate

concrete at high temperature and after cooling.

93
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Fig. 4.11: Compressive strength of lightweight aggregate

concrete at high temperature and after cooling.

Fig. 4.12: Stress relaxation of a carbonate aggregate concrete.

94
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Fig. 4.13: Creep of a carbonate aggregate concrete at various

temperatures [applied stress=1800psi (12Mpa),
Fc=4000Psi(28Mpa)].

Fig. 4.14: Thermal conductivity of four “limiting” concretes

and some experimental thermal conductivity data.

95
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

Fig. 4.15: Volumetric specific heats of normal weight and

lightweight concretes.

 High performance concrete

Phan and Carina [153] present data on residual compressive strength loss on high
performance concretes with and without silica fume. The concretes with silica fume behaved
better than those without. The mixes with silica fume retained between 75 and 100% of their
ambient strengths between 20 and 300◦C with the concrete having a lower water/cement ratio
behaving appreciably better.

 Self-compacting concrete

In reference [21] through [28] Mechanical and physical properties of SCC were studied and
discussed and also provide much of the available data on residual properties of self-
compacting concrete of strengths between 15 and 60MPa which can be summarized by the
following formulae:

Residual compressive strength:

(4)

subject to the limit 5 ≤ fc,20 ≤ 60 MPa.

96
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

4.4.1.2 Reinforcing and pre-stressing steels

Data on such steels are presented in Fig. 4.16 [179], where it is seen that the yield strength for
reinforcing steel shows an increase above ambient strength at temperatures below about
550◦C, but a decrease at temperatures above 550◦C. Pre-stressing steels show no change in
strength below 300◦C, but a substantial drop after this point such that at 800◦C only around
50% of strength remains.

Figure 4.16 Variation of residual strengths of reinforcing and pre-stressing

steels with temperature [179].

4.4.2 Determination of temperatures within an element

The methods used here are exactly the same as used to assess the performance of structures
during a fire. If standard solutions based on exposure to the standard furnace test are used,
then the fire equivalent time will need calculating to enable such methods to be used to give
realistic answers. Purkiss [179] reported visually observed colour changes in heated concrete.
However, such changes can be difficult to observe by eye alone often due to the type of
aggregate. The application of colour image analysis techniques can overcome this problem.
By determining the change in hue when concrete is heated, there is an obvious change in the
frequency of occurrence of red [179]. The other primary colours yellow and green appear to
have little impact. When a temperature range of 20–500◦C is examined, it is noticed that an
increase in hue values occurs at temperatures of around 250–300◦C. For situations where

97
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 4

there is a thermal gradient, the onset of change in hue values corresponds with a temperature
level of around 300◦C table (4.3).

Table 4.3 Colour changes in heated concrete [179]

98
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 5

Fire safety of

RC structures

XIV
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Chapter 5

FIRE SAFETY OF RC STRUCTURES

5.1 Introduction

Fire safety engineering can be defined as the application of scientific and engineering
principles to the effects of fire in order to reduce the loss of life and damage to property by
quantifying the risks and hazards involved and provide an optimal solution to the application
of preventive or protective measures. The concepts of fire safety engineering may be applied
to any situation where fire is a potential hazard. Although this text is mainly concerned with
building structures, similar principles are equally applicable to the problems associated with
oil or gas installations or other structures such as highway bridges. The additional hazards
from gas and oil installations are primarily caused by the rapid growth of fire and the
associated faster rates of temperature rise. This has been recognized by considering the testing
of material response under heating regimes other than those associated with the more
conventional cellulosic fires. The design methods used are, however, similar to those for the
situation covered by the more normal cellulosic-based fires. With any non-building structure,
there can be a risk of fire damage, but the fact that this risk is extraordinarily low, means that
such a contingency can normally be ignored. However, in the case of highway bridges where
a tanker carrying a highly combustible cargo such as petrol collides with part of the
supporting structure, the resultant damage from the fire can be large, often necessitating
replacement of the original structure [179]. The largest area of risk from fire damage is low-
rise domestic housing which generally does not require sophisticated design methods, as it is
not a structural collapse which tends to be the problem, but the spread of smoke and toxic
gases, and the resultant inability of the occupants to escape [155].

5.2 Design Concerns

Elements within the discipline of fire safety engineering can be readily identified which relate
both to life and property safety. These areas are not mutually exclusive as an action which
increases life safety may also increase property safety. The key areas can be identified as
follows:

5.2.1 Control of ignition

This needs considering under three subheadings; the first two are concerned with spread of
flame and the third with management and maintenance of the structure. Ignition can occur
through a variety of mechanisms. Generally, these are accidental, e.g. lighted cigarette ends,

99
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

electrical faults or overheating of mechanical or electrical plant. However, deliberate actions

or arson cannot be discounted.

5.2.1.1 Control of flammability

There have been too many cases where fire has spread rapidly owing to the unsuitable nature
of the linings of a structure, thus any material used in the finishes on any part of the structure
should be such that the spread of flame or flammability must be limited. This in general is
controlled by the imposition of tests on flammability or flame spread by any relevant national
or international standards, e.g. in the UK the relevant sections of the Fire Test Standard (BS
476: Parts 3, 6 and 7 or their equivalent European standards).

5.2.1.2 Control of growth of fire

One classic means of controlling fire spread is by the use of vertical or horizontal fire
compartments. However, these compartments are only satisfactory if there is no possible
route for smoke or flame through the compartment boundary. Fire spread can also occur
within a room or to a compartment beyond its point of origin if the original fire boundary is
incapable of containing it due to unsatisfactory closures to the room of origin.

5.2.1.3 Fire safety management

In single occupancies, it is relatively easy to set up procedures to ensure that, in the event of a
fire, all personnel are aware of the proper procedures and that there are suitable people to act
as marshals and direct the fire brigade as required. In multiple occupancies, especially where
the occupancy changes frequently and there is a large transient population, such as shopping
malls, this is more difficult and it is therefore essential that the owners, often corporate
bodies, set up a fire safety management strategy and ensure that there is a responsible group
of persons on duty at all times to take full control in the case of an outbreak of fire.

5.2.2 Means of escape

There are generally statutory requirements for the provision of escape routing in all except the
simplest single-storey structures. Such requirements are based on the concept of the
maximum length of escape route to a safe place, be it an external fire door or a protected fire-
escape stairwell.

5.2.3 Detection and control of the fire

In order to ensure life safety through evacuation, it is necessary to ensure that means are
available for detection and control of the fire. Control of the fire is needed both to reduce the

100
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

production of smoke allowing more efficient evacuation and to keep temperatures down in the
structure to reduce subsequent damage.

5.2.3.1 Fire detection

Systems installed for fire detection may be manual or automatic or a combination of these.

 Manual systems

Manual systems, such as the traditional frangible glass panel, which when broken
automatically sets off the fire alarm system, can be relatively simple. However, they require a
human response to realize the existence of a fire and to perceive and determine its severity.
Thus, such systems may be of only limited use especially in situations where the presence of
individuals cannot be certain.

 Automatic systems

These rely either on the incidence of excessive amounts of heat or smoke being monitored by
a sensor which either directly activates the fire-fighting system, as in the fusible head of a
sprinkler, or indirectly activates any fire control and evacuation system. Recent developments
in automatic systems include the use of low-power lasers or infra-red sensors to monitor the
presence of smoke.

5.2.3.2 Smoke control

It is absolutely essential that during evacuation, any build-up of smoke is such that a clear
visibility is granted to the evacuees, and that the bottom level of smoke is not allowed to fall
below a level of about 2,5–3m above floor level during, say, the first 15 min of the fire
Purkiss [179]. There may also be a requirement to keep the smoke temperatures below a
critical value. The requirement on smoke control is in part due to problems caused by any
toxic material within the smoke and in part due to the totally disorientating effect caused by
loss of visibility. In general, either forced venting a fire to control smoke generation will be
necessary or, in the early stages, smoke curtains can be used to form reservoirs and contain
smoke.

5.2.3.3 Fire-fighting systems

In sensitive areas, automatic fire-fighting devices initiated either manually or by the fire
detection system will be installed. Such automatic devices will vary depending on the type of
fire to be expected but they generally operate by smothering the fire and denying the fire any
source of oxygen. Sprinklers effectively act by reducing the temperature of the burning
contents. Any fire-fighting system installed as part of the fabric of the structure will be
supplemented by the supply of both suitable portable fire extinguishers and by, now rarely,

101
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

hose reels for local fire fighting. A large number of structures are also likely to have sprinkler
systems installed either at the prompting of the insurance company to reduce property losses,
or as part of the trade-off between active and passive systems allowed by some regulatory
bodies, e.g. England and Wales Building Regulations, Approved Document B Purkiss [179].
Such sprinkler systems are operated automatically by the melting of fusible elements or
frangible glass in the head of the sprinkler. A drawback with water sprinkler systems is that a
substantial amount of damage may be caused on floors other than those in which the fire
occurs by the seepage of water through the structure.

5.2.4 Compartmentation

Any large structure will need to be divided into compartments vertically, horizontally or a
combination of the two. This requirement is to limit the spread of fire to the whole structure,
and may also be imposed to allow the phased evacuation of any multi-storey structure,
whereby only the floors contained within the fire affected compartment are initially
evacuated, and the remaining floors either above or below the fire affected areas are
evacuated at a later stage.

5.2.5 Fire spread between structures

There will also be an imposed restriction to limit the spread of fire across boundaries from
one structure to another. Limits can be imposed on the lateral spacing of structures, the fire
resistance requirements of any closures to openings in the structure, and to the materials used
for the cladding [179].

5.2.6 Structure collapse

Quite clearly there must be no total collapse of the structure during the evacuation phase nor
preferably during the fire-fighting phase. Provided the occupants are sufficiently mobile and
aware of the situation, evacuation should be relatively fast, as the escape routes either to
protected staircases or directly out of the building are designed to permit complete evacuation
of the fire compartment in some 2,5 min. Fire fighting may extend over a substantial period
and thus there should be a sufficiently long period before the structure shows any sign of
collapse. Collapse of the structure before a given period, conventionally defined as the fire
resistance of the structure, can be avoided either by designing the structure such that although
weakened and deformable, it is still capable of sustaining a reasonable level of applied load
for the whole period (passive approach), or measures can be designed to ensure that the fire is
contained or that temperatures do not reach a level that will cause mechanical distress to the
structure (active approach). Unfortunately there have recently been cases, notably the World

102
 Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Trade Centre Towers and the Pentagon fire in 2001, where (partial) collapse occurred during
a fire. It should be remembered that in both these cases, the fires were deliberately caused by
fully laden aircraft being flown into the buildings.

5.3 Fire Precautions during Construction and Maintenance

The situation during construction (execution), and indeed maintenance or repair, can be
inherently more severe than for completed structures since there can be a substantial amount
of often highly combustible materials stored on the site, that some site processes involve the
use of applied heat often with naked flame, that the active or passive fire protection systems
may not be completed or operative, that the ventilation characteristics of any compartment
will be different owing to cladding or walling not being in place, that compartmentation or
fire stops may not be complete and that access to certain areas may be hindered by the
construction process itself. It is also necessary to consider the possible requirement of a full
security system linked to any fire detection procedure Purkiss [179].

The summary assigns the considerations involved in fire safety engineering under the two
headings of active and passive provisions Malhotra [155].

Active measures Passive measures

• Provision of alarm systems, • Adequate compartmentation,

• Provision of smoke control systems, • Control of flammability of the structure

fabric,

• Provision of in-built fire fighting or fire control systems, • Provision of fixed escape routes,

• Control of hazardous contents, • Provision of adequate structural

performance.

• Provision of access for external fire fighting,

• Provision of a fire safety management system.

5.4 Design philosophies

This section is concerned with the theoretical justification for the methods that are available
to determine the performance of structures or structural elements when accidentally subjected
to the effects of fire.

5.4.1 Limit State Design

A limit state can be simply defined as the expression of a particular design criterion, e.g.
flexural capacity or deflection. When possible design criteria are considered as a total
package, it is recognized that some are more relevant to being determined on the basis of a

103
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

‘failure’ calculation (e.g. flexural capacity), whilst others (such as deflection) are more
relevant to conditions pertaining through the total working or service life of the structure.
Thus, two main categories of limit states are recognized; [179] ultimate and serviceability.
The ultimate limit state is concerned with the determination of the member, or structure,
capacity at actual or incipient failure. The serviceability limit state is concerned with the
performance of the structure during its life time under normal conditions. Other limit states
can also be recognized such as response to accidental loading or actions.

5.4.2 Fire Limit States

From the standard fire, or furnace, test a series of failure criteria were identified:

1. The element under test should have sufficient strength (load-bearing capacity) to resist
the applied loading over the required duration of the test.

2. The temperatures on the unexposed face should be low enough not to cause initiation of
combustion of materials stored against that face.

3. There should be no possibility of flame being able to reach the unexposed face through
any weakness or loss of integrity in the construction either inherent in the construction
itself or due to excessive deformation during the test.

These failure criteria can be simply identified as load-bearing capacity (L), insulation (I) and
integrity (E). The last of these is not amenable to calculation and can only be determined by
physical testing and will not, therefore, be considered further. The other two criteria are
capable of being assessed on a calculation basis and thus can be expressed mathematically as
follows using state functions Z which are defined as the algebraic difference between
calculated response and the minimum required value of that response.

5.4.3 Load-bearing capacity criterion

This can be expressed in one of the three ways.
• On a time base:
Z = tfi,d − tfi,requ ≥ 0 (5.1)
where tfi,d is the calculated time to failure and tfi,requ is the required time to failure (tfi,req may be
replaced by the equivalent time te,d).
• On a strength base:
Z = Rfi,d − Efi,d ≥ 0 (5.2)
where Rfi,d is the load resistance and Efi,d is the load effect, both evaluated with the application
of suitable appropriate partial safety factors, over the required time period.
• On a temperature base:

104
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Z = θcr,d − θd ≥ 0 (5.3)
where θcr,d is the critical design temperature and θd is the calculated design temperature of the
member. This last criterion is applicable only to the load-bearing capacity when a member is
exposed to the standard temperature-time curve.
5.4.4 Insulation criterion

This may also be expressed by Eq. (4) but with the temperatures defined as those on the
surface of the member and not exposed to the fire.

5.4.5 Determination of partial safety factors

The partial safety factors used to determine the inequalities of Eqs (4)-(5) must be set to give
an acceptable probability of failure. This probability should be allowed to be a function of the
use and size of the structure (Table 5.1). The partial safety factors are also governed to a
certain extent by the fact that fire is seen in an emotive light, in which it is perceived that only
a zero risk of fatal human involvement is desirable.

(5.4)

(5.5)

Table 5.1 Allowable probabilities of failure in the fire limit state [179]

5.5 Assessment Models

There are three heating and three structural models available each of which are with
increasing complexity and are illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The assessment method used to evaluate
fire performance is related to the heating or temperature exposure model rather than the
structural model.
5.5.1 Assessment method – level 1
This relates the heating model to exposure to the temperature–time relationship generated in
the standard fire, or furnace, test and allows assessment of either simple structural elements or

105
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

subassemblies by test or by calculation with the duration determined from regulations or

codes. Historically, this method has been used to determine the fire resistance of structural
elements and to provide the prescriptive data that have been the cornerstone of most
regulatory procedures and to provide the tabular material in various design codes of practice
[170-174]. This method has also been used to provide a data bank to calibrate some of the
available calculation models. The combination of level 1 heating regime (standard furnace
curve) and complete structures (Model type S3) is not considered by [179] owing to the large
discrepancy between the levels of sophistication of the models.
5.5.2 Assessment method – level 2
At this level, the thermal model is that of exposure to the standard furnace curve but the
duration of that exposure is determined by the equivalent fire duration time related to the
actual fire characteristics of the compartment in which the structural element or subassembly
is contained.
5.5.3 Assessment method – level 3
In this case, the temperature–time response used in the thermal model is one generated from
the actual characteristics of the compartment, i.e. its fire load (combustible fuel), the available
ventilation sources and the thermal characteristics of its boundaries. In lieu of a full
calculation of such a response, it is permissible to use parametric equations to determine the
compartment temperature–time response (Lie, 1974; EN 1991-1-2). The time of exposure is
taken as the minimum which causes any of the appropriate limit states of load-bearing
capacity or insulation to be no longer satisfied. The relevant failure criteria for various
member types are given in Table 5.2. Although some testing has been carried out with a
natural fire exposure, it is intended that this level of assessment should only be used for
calculation Fig 5.2.

Figure 5.1 Matrix of assessment models for structural fire safety design

106
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.2 Design criteria for structural members

Figure 5.2 Effect of member continuity on the fire affected performance of flexural
members: (a) basic structure; (b) decrease of moment capacity with time; (c) no hogging
moment and (d) hogging and sagging.

5.6 Design approach

5.6.1 Standard Fire Test

The basic principle of the standard fire test which should perhaps, more properly, be known
as the standard furnace test, is that a structural element is loaded so as to produce the same
stresses in the element that would be induced in that element when in place in the structure of
which it is considered a representative part. The element is then heated under load with the

107
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

measured temperature regime in the furnace following a prescribed temperature–time

relationship until failure of the element occurs. Traditionally, beams and slabs are heated from
beneath, while columns are heated on all four sides with walls being heated from one side
only Fig 5.3 and Table 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Standard temperature–time responses

Table 5.3 Fire resistance column test results [179]

5.6.2 Prescriptive Determination of Fire Resistance

The prescriptive approach for determining the fire resistance of a structure, or more correctly,
the assemblage of the elements comprising the structure considered on an individual basis,
can be defined in the flow diagram in Fig. 5.4, where the element is detailed to provide the
fire resistance required by the appropriate regulatory guidelines. It should be noted that this
method is still permissible under most design codes including the Eurocodes.

108
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Figure 5.4 Prescriptive approach for determining the

fire resistance of structural elements.

Concrete

The two main variables to be considered here are the specification of minimum overall
dimensions of the member and the minimum axis distance to the main reinforcement. The
minimum overall dimensions are specified, either in the case of walls or slabs to keep the
temperature on the unexposed face below the insulation limit of 140◦C, or to ensure that
spalling will not be severe enough to cause either the web of a beam or rib in a slab or a
column to lose an amount of concrete such that the member can no longer carry its design
loading. The minimum axis distance is specified to keep the temperature of the main
reinforcement, which can be either the bottom flexural steel in a beam or slab or the vertical
compression reinforcement in a column or wall, below a critical value generally considered as
being around 500–550◦C, as it is at around this temperature that the strength of the
reinforcement drops to a value equal to the stresses induced by service loading (which is the
loading generally applied in fire testing). The values of member dimensions and axis distance
are dependant on the type of aggregate within the concrete (siliceous or calcarious in normal-
weight concrete or lightweight) and on the fire resistance period. For columns, the effect of
load level on these dimensions is also considered. For beams and slabs, there may also be
some allowance for continuous members in comparison with simply supported members by a
slight reduction in axis distances and overall depth values, in recognition that there is a degree
of redistribution of moments away from areas of sagging moment to areas of hogging
moment during a fire (Fig. 5.5). Additional requirements where spalling is considered to be
critical may also be specified such as the provision of supplementary reinforcement in the
form of light mesh in the concrete or the use of polypropylene fibres where axis distances
exceed certain values or the concrete is high strength or self-compacting concretes.

109
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Figure 5.5 Redistribution of moments from midspan to support in a fire.

5.7 Calculation approach

The analysis of structural fire resistance is a complicated process because it involves many
variables such as fire growth and duration, temperature distribution in structural members,
interaction between structural members, changes in material properties and the influence of
loads on the structural system. The process generally includes three distinct components:

fire hazards analysis to identify fire scenarios and determine the impact of each scenario on
adjacent structural members; thermal analysis to calculate temperature history in each
member and structural analysis to determine forces and stresses in each member and whether
local or progressive structural collapse would occur during any of the fire hazard scenarios.
The primary objective to conduct such analyses is to determine the length of time that the
structure will be able to resist collapse during exposure to a fire, or the strength at a pre-
determined time, or the time lapse in achieving a certain strength reduction, or the time to
achieve a given temperature when the structure or structural member is exposed to gas
temperatures generated from either a natural fire or the standard furnace test. The integrity of
an element, i.e. its ability to resist the passage of flame through gaps in the structure, is not
normally calculated; this is best determined using the standard furnace test since this form of
failure is mostly applicable to elements such as fire doors or other closure systems. The limit
state of integrity will not therefore be considered further as far as calculations are concerned.
For the fire hazards analysis, it is generally not important whether the fire exposure is
determined from that induced in the standard furnace test or from the effects of a natural or
compartment fire. It is sufficient that the compartment temperature–time response is known
either as a continuous function or as a series of discrete temperature–time values.

110
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

5.8 Design of concrete elements subjected to fires or elevated temperatures

The design of concrete elements affected by exposure to fire may be undertaken in one of two
ways; a prescriptive approach or a calculation approach. The prescriptive approach, in which
tables of minimum dimensions, minimum axis distance, etc. corresponding to a given
standard fire endurance are consulted, has been covered in Chapter 3 and will not be
discussed further, except to note that even in the calculation approach minimum dimensions
are conveniently determined using such tables when the exposure is taken as the standard
furnace temperature–time curve. It should be noted that the minimum axis distance required
for adequate fire resistance for low periods of fire resistance is likely to be less than that
required for durability, and thus a calculation approach may not be viable.

Figure 5.6 Overall calculation procedure for the structural behaviour of fire

affected members.

Because of the complexity of the stress–strain relationships involved for concrete in

compression where the elastic strains, unrestrained thermal expansion and transient strains
need to be taken into account, it is not generally possible in simple design methods to
consider the deformation history of the structural element. It is normally sufficient to consider
only the resistance to the applied forces and thus the analytical approach reduces to an ‘end-
point’ calculation, where the inequality between the resistance effect and the load effect is
determined at a given time. However, using numerical stress–strain curves such as those

111
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

proposed by Li and Purkiss (2005), it may be possible to determine deformation history using
spreadsheets. The time to failure for a structural element may be determined by calculating
the moment capacity or axial capacity at a series of discrete time steps. The previous chapter
has dealt with matrix techniques for both temperature distribution and stresses within
structural elements, this chapter will concentrate on hand methods, although the use of
spreadsheets may be found to be advantageous. The methods presented will assume that the
thermal analysis and the structural analysis may be decoupled.

5.8.1 Calculation of Temperatures

The basic theory for calculating the temperature distribution in any element was given in
Chapter 6, but it should be noted that empirical or graphical solutions are available as a design
tool. It is generally accurate enough to use such data for the end-point design of concrete
members. Where exposure is to a parametric or real fire curve, the temperatures within a
concrete element, including therefore those of any steel reinforcement, continue to rise for a
period after the maximum fire, or gas, temperature has been reached. Thus the mechanical
response or resistance of any concrete element so exposed will need calculation during the
early stages of the cooling period as the critical design strength may be attained after the
maximum fire temperature has occurred.

5.8.1.1 The ISE and Concrete Society design guide (1978)

This publication gives temperature profiles for both flat soffit slabs and beams exposed to the
standard furnace temperature–time response. Note that although the flat soffit slab data in the
design guide are given for both normal and lightweight concrete, the beam data are for
siliceous aggregate normal-weight concrete only. However, the guide suggests that for
lightweight concrete beams, the temperatures may be taken as 80% of those for normal-
weight concrete.

5.8.1.2 FIP/CEB report (1978)

This gives temperature data on more varied types of concrete, including limestone aggregates,
but only for exposure to the standard furnace curve.

5.8.1.3 EN 1992-1-2

Temperature profiles for standard fire resistance periods slabs and beam/column sections cast
from normal-weight concrete are given in Annex A of EN 1992-1-2. Annex A implies that
these profiles are a result of calculation. It is not, however, known whether these profiles have
been calibrated against actual test data.

112
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

5.8.1.4 Empirical methods

These in general are based either on curve fitting techniques on data derived from furnace
tests, or on the superposition of simple solutions to the Fourier heat transfer equation. There
are two such available methods.

5.8.1.5 Wickström’s method

The temperature rise in a normal-weight concrete element _θ is given by:

For uniaxial heat flow

(5.6)

(5.7)

(5.8)

(5.9)

(5.10)

Hertz’s method

The unidimensional time-dependant temperature θ(x, t) is given by

(5.11)

(5.12)

(5.13)

(5.14)

113
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.4 Parameters required for temperature analysis of concrete members under
standard conditions

Table 5.5 Comparison of surface temperature rise between Wickstrom, Hertz

and EN 1992-1-2

It is instructive to compare the surface temperature predicted by Wickstrom, Hertz and EN

1991-1-2 (Fig. A2). This comparison is carried out in Table 5.5, where it is noted that all three
sets of results are within around 40◦C of each other. Thus it would appear acceptable to use
any of the methods to predict temperature rise.

Values of thermal diffusivity

Both calculations of internal temperatures require the value of thermal diffusivity. EN 1992-
1-2 does not give any guidance on this.

114
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.6 Comparisons between the depth of the 500◦C isotherm (mm) determined
using Wickstrom, Hertz and EN 1992-1-2

5.8.1.7 Concrete slab design Example

A simply supported slab in a multi-span structure has been designed and detailed in Fig. 5.7.
Continuity steel in the top face has been provided purely to resist the effect of cracking over
the support. The cover provided is that to satisfy durability only. The slab is to be checked for
a 2 h fire resistance period when exposed to the standard furnace test. Assume the usage of
the structure is as an office, then the structural loading in the fire limit state is given by:

0,125 × 25 + 1,0 + 0,3 × 2,5 = 4,875 kPa

Figure 5.7 Design data for a RC slab (Example 5.1) [179].

115
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

5.8.1.8 Concrete beam design Example

Determine the load-carrying capacity history over the complete range of standard furnace
exposures, and check the duration the beam can last. The data for the example are given in
Fig. 5.8.

Permanent load = 0,45 × 0,85 × 25 = 9,56kNm/m

Permanent load moment = 9,56 × 112/8 = 145kNm
Assuming office loading, then ψ2W = 0,3 × 260 = 78kN
Moment due to the variable loading is 78 × 4 = 312kNm
Total applied moment (MEd,fi) = 145 + 312 = 457 kNm.

Figure 5.8 Design data for RC beam (Example 5.2) [179].

116
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.7 Values of temperature parameters and strength reduction factors for Bar 5

Table 5.8 Temperatures and strength reduction factors for Bars 1–4

Table 5.9 Determination of Mu1, Mu2 and M

117
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.10 Determination of concrete temperatures, strength reduction factors and

section width reduction

Table 5.11 Determination of temperature factors and strength reduction factors for Bar 5

Table 5.12 Temperatures and strength reduction factors for Bars 1–4

118
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.13 Determination of Mu1, Mu2 and M

Columns

Only the case where columns are not subjected to bending moments or where buckling need
not be considered are covered herein.

EN 1992–1-2 Annex B3 gives a method of handling this situation, but it is iterative as the
column curvature(s) need to be taken into account. Also if buckling is not critical at the
normal ambient limit state it need not be considered at the fire limit state. This is in
contradiction to Hertz (1985) who used the Rankine equation to determine the load capacity
of any column under the fire limit state.

5.1.8.9 Fire resistance of a short RC column Example

Determine the fire resistance of a short reinforced concrete column 400 mm by 800mm with 8
H25 bars having a cover of 35mm (Fig. 5.9).

The concrete is Grade 50/60.

Ac = 320 000mm2,As = 3927mm2.

At ambient the load-carrying capacity NRd is given as

(5.15)

119
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Figure 5.9 Design data for a concrete column (Example 5.3)

Table 5.14 Determination of loss in area due to isotherm rounding

Table 5.15 Determination of reinforcement temperatures and strength reduction factor

120
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.16 Determination of load-carrying capacity

Table 5.17 Concrete zone temperatures and strength reduction factors

5.8.2 Comparisons between the Methods of Calculation

For the three examples carried out herein, the zone method would appear slightly more
conservative than the 500◦C isotherm method, although this may in part be due to the
different methods of calculating temperature rise as the method derived by Hertz produces
slightly higher temperatures than derived by Wickstrom.

121
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Table 5.18 Determination of reinforcement temperatures and strength loss

5.9 Design and Detailing Considerations

5.9.1 Shear

For simply supported or continuous reinforced concrete construction, shear is rarely a

problem (Krampf, undated). However, this will not be the case for pre-stressed concrete due
to the moments induced in the section by the pre-stress. Bobrowski and Bardhan-Roy (1969)
indicated that the critical section for shear was between 0,15 and 0,2L from the support,
where L is the span. Shear is unlikely to be critical in conventional precast pre-stressed
concrete floor units (Lennon, 2003; van Acker, 2003/4; Fellinger, 2004) provided the pre-cast
units are constrained to act as a diaphragm by being adequately tied in the plane of the floor.
The tests reported by Lennon (2003) were to a natural fire of a time equivalent of
approximately 1 h and indicated no spalling.

5.9.2 Bond

This also is generally not a problem even though bond strengths are severely reduced in a fire.
The problem is more likely to be worse in pre-stressed concrete construction where bond in
the anchorage length is needed to transfer the pre-stress force into the concrete. However,
there appears to have been few, if any, failures in pre-stressed concrete directly attributable to
loss in bond. It is not a general practice to check bond strengths in fire design. Fellinger
(2004) indicates it can be considered a good practice to insulate floor units over the transfer
length of the pre-stressing.

5.9.3 Spalling

Spalling occurs in one of two forms in a fire. The first is explosive spalling which occurs very
early in a fire and is likely to lead to loss of cover to the main reinforcing and hence to more

122
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

rapid rises in temperature and resultant strength loss leading to reduced fire performance. The
second form is known as sloughing, whereby the concrete gradually comes away due to loss
of effective bond and strength loss. This mode tends to occur toward the end of a fire or late
on in the standard furnace test and is rarely critical. The magnitude of the effects of spalling is
demonstrated both by actual test results and computer simulation. Results are given by Aldea,
Franssen and Dotreppe (1997) (quoted in Table 3.1) and Purkiss, Morris and Connolly (1996)
who recorded the results from two sets of tests carried out by the Fire Research station 1964–
1976. Most of the columns suffered a loss of around 30% of the cross-sectional area and
failed to achieve levels of fire endurance that would have been anticipated from relevant
design guides. A computer simulation (Mustapha, 1994; Purkiss and Mustapha, 1995)
indicates that a loss of cross-sectional area can lead to reduction of fire endurance of around
40–50%.

The exact mechanism of explosive spalling is still not understood, but it is affected by the
following factors (Malhotra, 1984; Connolly, 1995, 1997):

5.9.4 Moisture content

A concrete with a high moisture content is more likely to spall since one of the possible
mechanisms of spalling is due to the build up of high vapour pressures near the surface
causing tensile failures in the concrete caused by moisture clog (Shorter and Harmathy,
1965). However, it is now recognized that the critical isotherm for pore pressure build up is
the 200◦C isotherm and not the 100◦C (Khalafallah, 2001). The blanket limit of a moisture
content of 3%, below which EN 1992-1-2 indicates spalling will not occur, should be
questioned. The original proposal by Meyer-Ottens (1975) also suggested stress limits.

5.9.5 Concrete porosity and permeability

A more porous concrete, and therefore one with a high permeability, will allow the
dissipation of vapour pressure, and thus relieve any build up within the section. However, it
must be pointed out that a porous concrete will give a poor performance with respect to
durability. It has also become clear that it is a combination of moisture content and
permeability is critical (Tenchev and Purnell, 2005). This is indicated in Fig. 5.9 from Techev
and Purnell. The values of water contentW (in Fig. 5.10) are defined in respect of an initial
water content of 80 kg/m3 at W = 50%. The water

123
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

Figure 5.10 Time and depth of spalling as function of permeability K (m2) for three
levels of initial free water content ρL. (Tenchev and Purnell, 2005, by permission).

content of 80 kg/m3 is equivalent to a percentage moisture content by weight of 3,3. It is

possible for a homogenous concrete to determine pore pressures using a coupled heat and
mass transfer model (Tenchev, Li and Purkiss, 2001a, b; Tenchev et al., 2001) and as a result
to predict levels and times to spalling. The following results are given in Tenchev, Purkiss
and Li (2001c). The time to spalling tspall and the depth of spalling xspall are given by:

(5.16)

(5.17)

5.9.6 Stress conditions

From evidence of fire tests and observations in fires, it has been noted that spalling is likely to
be more severe in areas where the concrete cross section is in compression, i.e. areas of
hogging moments in beams or slabs, or in columns. This can partly be explained by the fact
that in areas of compressive stresses, cracks cannot open up to relieve internal pressures.

This does not mean that spalling cannot occur in areas of sagging moments where tensile
cracks exist, since it is possible that pressure build up will still occur as in general tension
cracks are discrete and not part of a continuum.

5.9.7 Aggregate type

The evidence available suggests that the aggregate most likely to give spalling is siliceous
aggregate, with limestone producing less spalling and lightweight concrete the least. This is

124
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

likely to be linked to the basic porosity of the aggregate, in that siliceous aggregate is
impermeable compared to the others and that moisture transport has to occur through the
mortar matrix. However, there is now some evidence that limestone and lightweight
aggregates may give problems, especially in younger concretes as the pore structure of the
aggregate may provide convenient reservoir storage for free water (Connolly, 1995).

5.9.8 Section profile and cover

There is some evidence to suggest that sharp profiles will produce more spalling than rounded
or chamfered edges. Spalling is also exacerbated in thin sections, partly since the depth of
spalling is a greater proportion of the section dimension and hence proportionally worse, and
partly due to the fact that there is less of a cool reservoir for any moisture to migrate toward
(Khalafallah, 2001).

High covers are also likely to produce greater amounts of spalling. Thus, design codes
frequently place restrictions when high covers are needed at high fire resistance periods in
order to maintain low temperatures in the reinforcing. These restrictions often concern the
placement of a light mesh with 4mm wires at a spacing of 100mm at the surface of the
concrete cover when the axis distance exceeds 70mm, in order to retain the cover (EN 1992-
1-2). In many cases this supplementary mesh is difficult to place, and indeed on site it is often
omitted, and tests have shown that even with high covers it is not absolutely necessary to give
fire resistance periods of up to 4 h (Lawson, 1985).

5.9.9 Heating rate

The higher the heat flux, the less chance pore pressures have to dissipate to the relatively cool
internal regions of a concrete element. The rate of heating is therefore critical to an
assessment of the likelihood of spalling. A hydrocarbon-type curve will therefore be far more
critcal than a cellulosic-type fire. The influence of heating rate was demonstrated in tests on
high strength concrete columns by Ali, O’Connor and Abu-Tair (2001) who demonstrated
that the level of spalling was lower at low heating rates compared to high rates, and moreover
that this effect appeared not to depend on load level. The high heating rate in the tests
corresponded to BS 476 Part 20 with the low heating rate corresponding to BS 476 up to a
temperature of around 300◦C and then approximately linear with a rate of 75◦C/min.

5.9.10 Concrete strength

In spite of the above, normal strength concretes (fck ≤ 60 MPa) may not spall. However, if a
concrete although designed as normal strength has a much higher strength than that designed
for, problems may ensue. In the Cardington fire test on the concrete frame structure, the floor

125
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 5

slab with flint aggregate was designed to be Grade C30/37. The actual strength at the time of
test was 61MPa (cube) or approximately 50MPa (cylinder).

With a moisture content of 3,8% and a permeability of 6,75 × 10−17 m2, the slab suffered
severe spalling in the test (Bailey, 2002). The problems are exacerbated for high strength
concretes.

5.10 High strength concrete and self-compacting concrete

These concretes can produce worse symptoms of spalling as the pore structure is such that the
porosity is lower (i.e. the permeability is lower), therefore the build up of pore pressures is
much greater. The higher tensile strengths of such concretes do not remove the problem as
tiny pores will act as stress raisers and hence reduce the effective tensile strength.

EN 1992-1-2 allows a number of methods to reduce the effect of spalling on high strength
concrete. However, the most effective is to add 2% of polypropylene fibres to the concrete. It
is not recommended to use steel fibres to attempt to control spalling as Hertz [154] found they
had little or no effect.

5.10.1 Detailing

Where beams and slabs are designed to act as continuous members in a fire or where
advantage, as in Example 7.1, is taken of anti-crack steel to give continuity in a fire but not at
ambient, then it is absolutely essential that the hogging reinforcement is detailed so that
anchorage forces needed to generate those hogging moments are capable of being sustained.
It is thus essential that such reinforcement should be fully anchored beyond the point of
contraflexure. For continuous members, the ISE/Concrete Society Report (1978) and EN
1992-1-2 both give detailing requirements which ought to be adhered to.

126
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Chapter 6

Summary and

Conclusions

XV
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY AND COUNCLUSION

6.1 Summary
Under normal conditions most RC structures are subjected to a range of temperature, which is
not more severe than the temperature imposed by ambient environmental conditions.
However, there are important cases where these structures may be exposed to much higher
temperatures (e.g., jet aircraft engine blasts, building fires, chemical and metallurgical
industrial applications in which the concrete is in close proximity to furnaces). The primary
interest in the present report is the behavior of RC structures elements may be exposed to fire
or elevated temperatures. Under such applications the effect of fire or elevated temperatures
on certain mechanical and physical properties may determine whether the concrete will
maintain its structural integrity.
A review of the literature in which representative concrete structures were subjected to
moderate elevated-temperature service, indicates that many of these structures have
performed adequately. however, some losses in strength and other properties have occurred.
Results of these structural tests, together with the material properties data determined in
conjunction with these tests, can serve as the basis for numerical modeling of the response of
a reinforced concrete structure to a thermal excursion. Analysis methods development are
related to the most realistic representation of embedded reinforcing elements, modules for
improved representation of time-dependent behavior, better constitutive relationships for
input into computer modules, models for cracking analysis, and modeling of concrete
behavior under elevated temperature, or accident conditions resulting in increasing thermal
exposures and loadings. The end result of improved analysis methods would be the
development of significantly improved rules for the analysis and design of reinforced
concrete structures of temperatures that exceed those currently permitted by the Code.

6.2 Conclusions
A substantial body of knowledge on the material properties of ordinary, high strength and
self-compacted concretes at fire or elevated temperatures is presented and disscused. Concrete
in the temperature range of 20°C to 200°C can show a small strength loss. Between 22 and
120°C any strength loss that occurs, is attributed to the thermal swelling of the physically
bound water, which causes disjoint pressures. A regain of strength is often observed between
120°C and 300°C, and is attributed to greater (van der Waals) forces as a result of the cement
gel layers moving closer to each other during heating. Between 200°C and 250°C the residual

127
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 6

compressive strength is nearly constant. Beyond 350°C there can be a rapid decrease in
strength. The observations that can be made in relation to the behavior of RC structures at
elevated temperatures are as follows:
1. Moisture is not permitted to escape while being heated, RC elements lose more strength,
than those where the moisture escapes, where the water-cement ratio has a limited
effect on strength degradation of heated concrete.
2. RC elements heated and then permitted to be cooled before testing, lose more strength
than those are tested while being heated in other meaning, concrete specimens loaded
during heating, lose less strength than unloaded specimens.
3. The longer the duration of heating before testing, the larger the loss in strength; however,
the loss in strength stabilizes after a period of isothermal exposure.
4. The decrease in modulus of elasticity RC elements caused by fire or elevated-
temperatures exposure, is more pronounced than the decrease in compressive strength.
5. Relatively, the effect of mix proportions, low cement-aggregate mixes lose less strength
as a result of heating than richer mixes, and concretes made with limestone aggregate
degrade less due to heating than concrete made with siliceous aggregate.
6. Specimens subjected to several cycles of heating and cooling, lose more strength than
those are not subjected to thermal cycling.
7. The strength of concrete elements before testing, has little effect on percentage of
strength retained at elevated temperature, where small RC elements generally incur
greater strength losses than larger ones.

With respect to material selection, the performance of the concrete materials and RC
structures can be improved by:
8. Minimizing the moisture content through aggregate gradation, placement techniques, or
use of extended-range water-reducing agents.
9. Utilizing aggregates having good thermal stability and low thermal expansion
characteristics such as lightweight or refractory materials.
10. Incorporating fibrous reinforcing materials such as short, randomly oriented steel fibers
to provide increased ductility, dynamic strength, toughness, tensile strength, and
improved resistance to spalling.
11. Design the concrete mix for higher strength so that any losses in properties resulting
from exposure to fire or elevated temperatures will still provide adequate design
(safety) margins.
Codes and international safety standards for concrete technology emphacise that concrete
strength tends to decrease with increasing temperature. Consequently, current design
procedures specify concrete temperature limits to ensure predictable concrete behavior.

128
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. Chapter 6

Analytical models for accurately predicting the response of a structure to thermal loadings for
practical design considerations, where thermal environments exceed the limits contained in
the code, are very complex. As a result, most existing methods utilize various types and
degrees of simplification that affects the accuracy of results. When design conditions exceed
established temperature limits, experimental investigations for characteristic mechanical
structural and physical properties data for design verification, may be required to avoid undue
and impractical conservatism in the design.

129
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

References

XVI
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

References:

[1] L Purkiss, J.A., (2001). "An Engineering Model for Coupled Heat and Heat and Mass Transfer
Analsyis in Heated Concrete" School of Science and Applied Science, Aston University,
Birmingham, UK.
[2] Erlin. B et al., (1972). "Evaluating Fire Damage to Concrete Structures". Concrete Construction.
(2): 79-82.
[3] B. Georgli, P.E. Tsakiridis, (2005). "Microstructures of Fire Damaged Concrete" A Case Study,
Cement and Concrete Composite 27, 255-259.
[4] Hertz, K.D., "Concrete Strength for Fire Safety Design". Magazine of Concrete Research, 57 (8),
445-453.
[5] Yuzer N, Akoz F., (2004). "Compressive Strength Colour Change Relation in Mortars at High
Temperature", Cement and Concrete Research, 34,1803-1807.
[6] Orner Arioz, (2006). "Effects of Elevated Temperatures On Properties of Concrete", Fire Safety
Journal.
[7] Sakr K, EL-Hakim E, (2005)."Effect of High Temperature on Heavy Weight Concrete
Properties", Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 590-596.
[8] Xiao. J, Konig G., (2004). "Study on Concrete at High Temperature in an Overview", Fire Safely
Journal, 39, 89-103.
[9] AbuElmagd, S., Hosny, H., (1994)."Fire in Concrete Buildings". Egyptian Universities Publishers.
[10] G. Sanjayan, L, J. Stocks, (1993). "Spalling of High Strength Silica Fume in Fire", ACI Material
Journal, 170-173.
[11] Min Li, Chun Xiang Qian, (2004) "Mechanical Properties of High Strength Concrete after Fire",
Cement and Concrete Research, 1001-1005.
[12] Hertz K.D, (1984)."Explosion of Silica Fume Concrete", Fire Safety Journal.
[13] Winney M, (1996). "Arches Brace Chunnel for Six Month Repair Schedual", New Civil Engineer.
[14] Hertz K.D, (1980). "Fire Properties of Concrete Constructions", Report 140. Institute of Building
Design, Technical University of Denmark.
[15] Saito H., (1965). "Explosive Spalling of Prestressed Concrete in Fire." Research Paper No. 22.
Building Research Institute Tokyo.
[16] Connolly R.J., (1997). "The Spalling of Concrete", Fire Engineering, 38-40.
[17] Hertz K.D., (1982). "The Anchorage Capacity of Reinforcing Bars at Normal and High
Temperature", Magazine of Concrete Research, 34(121), 213-220.
[18] Andersen N, Lauritzen D., (1998). "Fire Test of Concrete Elements TT Roof Slabs", Dannish
Institute of Fire Technology.
[19] Harmathy T.Z., (1965). "Effect of Moisture on the Fire Endurance of Building Elements",
Research Paper 270. Division of Building Research. Ottawa.
[20] Hertz K.D., (2003). "Limit of Spalling of Fire Exposed Concrete", Fire Safety Journal.103-116.
[21] S. Bakhtiyari et al., (2011). "Self-Compacting Concrete Containing Different Powders at
Elevated Temperatures – Mechanical Properties and Changes in the Phase Composition of the
Paste". Thermochimica Acta 514. 74–81.
[22] Mucteba, Uysal, (2011). "Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Filler Additives: Performance
at High Temperatures". Construction and Building Materials 26. 701–706.
[23] Neelam Pathak, Rafat Siddique, (2012). "Properties of Self-Compacting-Concrete Containing
Fly Ash Subjected to Elevated Temperatures". Construction and Building Materials 30. 274–280.
[24] Patrick Bamonte, Pietro G, Gambarova, (2012). "A Study on the Mechanical Properties of Self-
Compacting Concrete at High Temperature and After Cooling". Materials and Structures.
Published online.
[25] E. Annerel, L. Taerwe, (2011). "Evolution of the Strains of Traditional and Self-Compacting

130
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

Concrete During and After Fire". Materials and Structures 44:1369-1380.

[26] M.A. Helal, Kh. M. Heiza, (2010). "Effect of Fire and High Temperature on the Properties of
Self Compacted Concrete". CICE 2010 The 5th International conference on FRP composites in
civil engineering, September 27-29, , Beijing, China.
[27] Michael Stegmaier, Hans-Wolf Reinhardt, (2004). "Fire Behaviour of Plain Self-Compacting
Concrete (SCC) ". Otto-Graf Journal vol. 15.
[28] H. Mostafaei et al., (2009). "Recent Developments on Structural Fire Performance Engineering-
A State of the Art Report". No. 275, January 26.
[29] Ian A. Fletcher et al., (2007). "The Behaviour of Concrete Structures in Fire".
www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/1842/1538/3/fletcher-c.
[30] A.M. Rashad et al., (2012). "Chemical and Mechanical Stability of Sodium Sulfate Activated
Slag After Exposure to Elevated Temperature". Cement and Concrete Research 42.333–343.
[31] G.H.A. van der Heijden et al.,(2012). "Fire Spalling of Concrete, As Studied by NMR". Cement
and Concrete Research 42 265–271.
[32] Caijun Shi et al., (2011). "New Cements for the 21st Century: The Pursuit of an Alternative to
Portland Cement". Cement and Concrete Research 41 750–763.
[33] Samir N. Shoukry et al., (2011). "Effect of Moisture and Temperature on the Mechanical
Properties of Concrete". Construction and Building Materials 25. 688–696.
[34] Konstantin Kovler, Nicolas Roussel, (2011). "Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete".
Cement and Concrete Research 41. 775–792.
[35] Rafat Siddique, Deepinder Kaur, (2012). "Properties of Concrete Containing Ground
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) at Elevated Temperatures". Journal of Advanced
Research 3, 45–51.
[36] Abid A. Shah, Y. Ribakov, (2011). "Recent Trends in Steel Fibered High-Strength Concrete".
Materials and Design 32 4122–4151.
[37] M. Bastami et al., (2011). "Performance of High Strength Concretes at Elevated Temperatures".
Scientia Iranica A 18 (5), 1028–1036.
[38] Binsheng Zhang, (2011). "Effects of Moisture Evaporation (Weight Loss) on Fracture Properties
of High Performance Concrete Subjected to High Temperatures". Fire Safety Journal 46. 543-
549.
[39] X. Luo et al., (2000). "Residual Compressive Strength and Microstructure of High Performance
Concrete After Exposure to High Temperature". Materials and Structures. Vol. 33, pp 294-298.
[40] Yuk-Lung Wong et al., (2006). "Spalling of Concrete Cover of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Reinforced Concrete Under Thermal Loads". Materials and Structures. 39:991-999.
[41] ACI committee 440, (2002), "Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures", Farmington Hills, Michigan, ACI 440.2R-02.
[42] Katz A. et al., (1999), "Effect of High Temperature on Bond Strength of FRP Rebars" Journal of
Composites for Construction, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp: 73-81.
[43] Katz A., Berman N., (2000), “Modeling the Effect of High Temperature on the Bond of FRP
reinforcing Bars to Concrete ". Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 22, pp: 433-443.
[44] Soudki K. A., Green M.F., (1996), "Performance of CFRP Retrofitted Concrete Columns at Low
Temperature" In: El-Badry MM(ed), 2nd International Conference, Montreal Quebec, 11-14 Aug.
1996, Montreal, Canada Society for Civil Engineering, pp: 427-434.
[45] Abu-Khashaba M.I. et al., (2002), "Durability Investigation of FRP Composites Wrap for
Concrete Columns in Salt Environment" ,Benmokrane B. and El-salakawy E., 2nd international
conference on durability of FRP composites for construction (CDCC 2002), university of
Sherbrook, Quebec, Montreal, Canada, pp: 259-271.
[46] Nguyen T. et al., (1998), “Water at the Polymer/Substrate Interface and its Role in the Durability
of Polymer /Glass Fiber Composites". 1st International conference proceedings, Aug. 1998.,
Canada, H., Editors, pp: 451-462.

131
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

[47] Aiello M.A., (2001), "Concrete Cover Failure in FRP Reinforced Beams under Thermal
Loading", Journal of Composites for Construction, Vol. 5, No. 6 , pp: 245-257.
[48] Wang N., Evans J.T., (1995), "Collapse of Continuous Fiber Composite Beam at Elevated
Temperature", Journal of Composites for Construction, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp: 56-61.
[49] Kumahara S. et al., (1993), " Tensile Strength of Continuous Fiber Bar under High Temperature
". International symposium on fiber-reinforced plastic reinforcement for concrete structures, SP-
138, ACI, Farmington Hills, Michigan, pp: 731-742.
[50] Adimi R. et al., (1998), "Effect of Temperature and Loading Frequency on the Fatigue Life of a
CFRP Bar in Concrete". H. Saadatmanesh and M.R. Ehsani, Eds. Fiber Composites in
Infrastructure: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure,
Vol. II. Tucson, AZ: ICCI, pp: 203-210.
[51] Toutanji H., El-Korchi T., (1998), "Tensile Durability Performance of Cementitious Composites
Externally Wrapped with FRP Sheets". H. Saadatmanesh and M.R. Ehsani, Eds. Fiber
Composites in Infrastructure: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Composites in
Infrastructure, Vol. II. Tucson, AZ: ICCI, pp: 410-422.
[52] Steckel G.L. et al., (1998), "Environmental Durability of Composites for Seismic Retrofit of
Bridge Columns". H. Saadatmanesh and M.R. Ehsani, Eds. Fiber Composites in Infrastructure:
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure, Vol. II. Tucson,
AZ: ICCI, pp: 460-475.
[53] Tannous F.E., Saadatmanesh H., (1998), "Durability and Long-Term Behavior of Carbon and
Aramid FRP Tendons". H. Saadatmanesh and M.R. Ehsani, Eds. Fiber Composites in
Infrastructure: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure.
Vol. II. Tucson, AZ: ICCI, pp: 524-538.
[54] Karbhari V.M., Engineer M., (1996), "Effect of Environmental Exposure on the External
Strengthening of Concrete with Composites-Short Term Bond Durability". Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites, pp: 1194-1216.
[55] Ferrier E., Hamelin P., (1999), "Durability of External Carbon Epoxy Reinforcement of
Concrete". Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Composite Materials. Paris,
France: ICCM.
[56] El-Hacha R. et al., (2002), "Effects of Severe Enviromental and Loading Conditions on Concrete
Beams Strengthened with Prestressed CFRP Sheets". Benmokrane B. and El-salakawy E., 2nd
international conference on durability of FRP composites for construction (CDCC 2002),
university of Sherbrook, Quebec, Montreal, Canada, pp: 127-140.
[57] Baumert M.E. et al., (1996), "A Review of Low Temperature Response of Reinforced Concrete
Beams Strengthened with FRP Sheets". El-Badry MM(ed) advanced composite materials in
bridges and structures: 2nd international conference, Montreal, Quebec, 11-14 Aug. 1996,
Montreal, Canadian society for civil engineering, pp: 565-572.
[58] Mathhys S. et al., (1996), "Influence of Transverse Thermal Expansion of FRP Reinforcement on
the Critical Concrete Cover". El-Badry MM(ed) advanced composite materials in bridges and
structures: 2nd international conference, Montreal, Quebec, 11-14 Aug. 1996, Montreal, Canadian
Society for Civil Engineering, pp: 665-672.
[59] Ulaga T., Meier U., (2001), "Long-Term Behavior of CFRP-Laminate-Strengthened Concrete
Beams at Elevated Temperature". FRPRCS-5, Thomas Telford, London, pp: 147-155.
[60] Bilotti G. et al., (2002), "Behavior of Adhesive Bonded Concrete CFRP Joints". Benmokrane B.
and El-salakawy E., 2nd international conference on durability of FRP composites for
construction (CDCC 2002), university of Sherbrook, Quebec, Montreal, Canada, pp: 617-625.
[61] Godonou P., Liljenfeldt P., (2001), "Effect of Weather on Durability of Bonding in Concrete
Structures Repaired with CFRP", httl://nnc.ce.luth.se/publications/durability/3c60fbbe 186b2
[62] Mosallam A., Dutta P.K., (2002), "Field Evaluation of Epoxy Adhesives under Extreme
Temperature Environments". Benmokrane B. and El-salakawy E., 2nd international conference
on durability of FRP composites for construction (CDCC 2002), university of Sherbrook, Quebec,
Montreal, Canada, pp: 689-699.
[63] J. G. Dai, et al., (2010), "Finite Element Modeling of Insulated FRP-strengthened RC Beams

132
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

Exposed to Fire". CICE 2010 -The 5th International Conference on FRP Composite in civil
Engineering. September 27-29. BeIJing, China.
[64] Schwartz M.M., (1992), "Composite Material Handbook". Mc Graw-Hill, New York.
[65] Frank L., (1981), "Behavior and Design of high-Quality Glass-Fiber Composite Rods as
Reinforcement for Prestressed Concrete Members". Report, international symposium CP/Ricem/I
BK, Prague, pp: 171-174.
[66] Saafi M., Romine P., (2002), "Effect of Fire on Concrete Cylinders Confined with GFRP".
Benmokrane B. and El-salakawy E., 2nd international conference on durability of FRP
composites for construction (CDCC 2002), University of Sherbrook, Quebec, Montreal, Canada,
pp: 511-521.
[67] Bisby L.A., (2002), "Studies on the Fire Behavior of FRP Reinforced and/or Strengthened
Concrete Beams". Benmokrane B. and El-salakawy E., 2nd international conference on durability
of FRP composites for construction (CDCC 2002), University of Sherbrook, Quebec, Montreal,
Canada, pp: 405-417.
[68] Morsy K.M., (2003), "The Effect of Fire Protection Materials and Techniques on the Structural
Behavior of RC Beams Strengthened with CFRPL". 10th International Colloquium on Structural
and Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 5, E03Mat26, 22-24 April, Ain Shams University, Cairo,
Egypt.
[69] Helmy A.I.I., (2003), "Fire Protection of Reinforced Concrete Columns Retrofitted Using
Advanced Composite Materials". 10th International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 5, E03Mat28, 22-24 April, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
[70] Saad F., (2002), "Fire Protection of CFRP-Strips Used in Strengthening of r/c Slabs". 3rd Middle
East Symposium on Structural Composites for Infrastructure Applications, Dec. 17-20, Aswan,
Egypt.
[71] Saafi M., (2002), "Effect of Fire on Reinforced Concrete Members". Composite structures, Vol.
58, No. 5, pp: 11-20.
[72] Katz A., Berman N., (2000), "Modeling the Effect of High Temperature on the Bond of FRP
Reinforcing Bars to Concrete".Cement and Concrete composites, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp: 433-443.
[73] Franke L., (1981), "Behavior and Design of High-Quality Glass-Fiber Composite Rods as
Reinforcement for Prestressed Concrete Members". Report, international symposium, CP/Ricen/I
Bk, Prague, ( reported by ACI committee 440, 1995).
[74] Blontrock H. et al., (2001). "Fire Testing of Concrete Slabs Strengthened with Fiber Composite
Laminating". chris Buegoyne, Fiber-Reinforced Plastics for Reinforced Concrete Structures, 5th
International on, (FRPRCS-5), Vol. 1, university of Cambridge, UK, pp: 547-565.
[75] Zayed A.M., (1991), "Deterioration Assessment of Fiber-Glass Plastic Rebars in Different
Environments". The NACE Annual Confernece and Corrosion Show, Cincinati, Ohayo, pp:
130/1-130/8.
[76] Hshieh F.Y., et al., (1997), "Flammability Testing of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Composites and
Phenolic Composites". Fire and Materials, Vol. 21, pp: 41-49.
[77] Ohlemiller T.J., Shields J.R., (1999), "The Effect of Surface Coatings on Fire Growth over
Composite Materials in a Corner Configuration". Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 32, pp: 173-193.
[78] Lyon R.E, et al., (1996), "Fire Response of Geopolymer Structural Composites". Proceedings of
the First International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure: Fiber Composites in
Infrastructure, Tucson, AZ: ICCI, pp: 972-981.
[79] Scudamore M.J., (1994), "Fire Performance Studies on Glass-Reinforced Plastic Laminates". Fire
and Materials, Vol. 18, pp: 313-325.
[80] Guide for Determining the Fire Endurance of Concrete Elements, (1994). ACI 216R-89.
Reprted by ACI Committee 216.
[81] Esraa Emam Ali, (2009). "The Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Frames Subjected to Fire".
Ph.D Thesis. Helwan University.
[82] Mahmoud Saied Taha El-Mahrouk, (2011). "Behavior and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete

133
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

Beam Column Connections". M. Sc.Thesis 2011. Menoufiya University.

[83] British Standard Institution, BS 476: Part 8, (1972) "Test Methods and Criteria for the Fire
Resistance of Building Construction". London, England.
[84] Standard Test Methods for fire tests of building Construction and Materials, (2000). ASTM
E119-00a, American Society for Testing and Materials.
[85] Fire Resistance Tests-Elements of Building Construction, (1998), International Standard ISO
834.
[86] Gai-Fei Peng, Song-Hua Bian, (2007), "Effect of Thermal Shock Due to Rapaid Cooling On
Residual Mechanical Properties of Fiber Concrete Exposed to High Temperatures". Construction
and Building Materials.
[87] Joint Committee of Institution of Structural Engineers and Concrete Society, (1975)," Fire
Resistance of Concrete Structures".
[88] AC1 Committee 216, (1981), "Guide for Determining the Fire Endurance of Concrete elements".
Concrete Int. Vol. 3 Feb. PP. 1347.
[89] Joint Committee of Institution of Structural Engineers and Concrete Society, (1978), "Design
and Detailing of Concrete Structure for Fire Resistance". lnterim Guidance.
[90] Bobrowski. J, (1976). "Fire Resistance Rotational Approach Basic Philosophy", Concrete Design:
US and European Practices. ACI, SP. 59, PP. 231-235.
[91] Faris Ali, et al., (2011). "Explosive Spalling of Normal Strength Concrete Slabs Subjected to
Severe Fire". Materials and Structures 44:943-956.
[92] Samantha, et al., (2004). "High-Temperature Experiments on Model-Scale Concrete Slabs at
High Displacement". Third international work shop (Structures in Fire). Ottawa.
[93] Xinmeng, Yu, et al., (2007). "Modelling Localized Failure of Reinforced Concrete Slabs in Fire".
www.fire-research.group.shef.ac.uk/downloads/xinmeng.
[94] Zhaohui Huang, (2010). "The Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Slabs in Fire". Fire Safety
Journal 45 271–282.
[95] Zhaoui, Huang et al., (2012). "Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Fire". www.fire –
research.group.shef.ac.uk/downloads/sif66-2h.pdf.
[96] J. Kurosky, et al., (2012). "On Ameliorating the Residual Strength of Reinforced Concrete Panels
Subjected to Elevated Temperature". Construction and Building Materials 27. 623–629.
[97] R.H. Haddad, et al., (2011). "Repair of Heat-Damaged Reinforced Concrete Slabs Using Fibrous
Composite Materials". Construction and Building Materials 25 1213–1221.
[98] C. Fang, et al., (2012). "Robustness of Multi-Storey Car Parks Under Vehicle Fire". Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. under publisher.
[99] E. Ellobody, C.G. Bailey, (2011). "Structural Performance of A Post-Tensioned Concrete Floor
During Horizontally Travelling Fires". Engineering Structures 331908–1917.
[100] Rustin Fike, Venkatesh Kodur, (2011). "Enhancing the Fire Resistance of Composite Floor
Assemblies Through the Use of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete". Engineering Structures 33
2870–2878.
[101] Moetaz M. EI-Hawary, Shadia EI-Ibiarai, (1996), "Effect of Fire on Flexural Behaviour of
R.C. Beams", Construction and Building Materials". VoL 10, issue 2, PP. 147-150.
[102] V.K.R. Kodur N, et al., (2010). "Energy Based Time Equivalent Approach for Evaluating Fire
Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Beams". Fire Safety Journal 45 211–220.
[103] Yining Ding., et al., (2012). "Study on Residual Behaviour and Flexural Toughness of Fibre
Cocktail Reinforced Self Compacting High Performance Concrete After Exposure to High
Temperature". Construction and Building Materials 26. 21–31.
[104] E.G. Choi., Y.S. Shin, (2011). "The Structural Behavior and Simplified Thermal Analysis of
Normal-Strength and High-Strength Concrete Beams Under Fire". Engineering Structures 33
1123–1132.
[105] V.K.R. Kodur., M.B. Dwaikat, (2011). "Design Equation for Predicting Fire Resistance of

134
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

Reinforced Concrete Beams". Engineering Structures 33. 602–614.

[106] A. Kumar., V. Kumar, (2003). "Behaviour of RCC Beams After Exposure to Elevated
Temperatures". IE (I) Journal-CV. Vol. 48.
[107] H. Saito., et al., (1993). "Ultimate Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members Subjected to
Transient High Temperature Distribution". SMIRT-12. 31:36.
[108] S. C. Chen., et al., (2007). "Fiber Beam Element Model for the Collapse Simulation of Concrete
Structures Under Fire". International Symposium on computational mechanics (ISCM2007).
Beijing, China. 288.
[109] J.H. Hsu., C.S. Lin, (2006). "Residual Bearing Capabilities of Fire-Exposed Reinforced
Concrete Beams". International journal of applied science and engineering. 4, 2:151-163.
[110] Mohd. Zamin Bin Jumaat., et al., (2010). "Structural Performance of Reinforced Concrete
Beams Repairing From Spalling". European journal of scientific research ISSN 1450-216X,
Vol.45 No.1, pp. 089-102.
[111] M.B. Dwaikat, V.K.R. Kodur, (2008). "A Numerical Approach for Modeling the Fire Induced
Restraint Effects in Reinforced Concrete Beams". Fire Safety Journal 43. 291–307.
[112] A. Ahmed, V.K.R. Kodur, (2011). "Effect of Bond Degradation on Fire Resistance of FRP-
Strengthened Reinforced Concrete Beams". Composites: Part B 42. 226–237.
[113] Aniello Palmieri, et al., (2012). "Experimental Investigation on Fire Endurance of Insulated
Concrete Beams Strengthened with Near Surface Mounted FRP Bar Reinforcement". Composites:
Part B 43. 885–895.
[114] Ann E. Jeffers, Elisa D. Sotelino, (2012). "An Efficient Fiber Element Approach for the
Thermo-Structural Simulation of Non-Uniformly Heated Frames". Fire Safety Journal 51. 18–26.
[115] Lie IT, Lin TD, (1986). "Influence of Restraint on Fire Performance of Reinforced Concrete
Columns". Fire Safety Science. Proceeding of the First International Symposium.
[116] Abdelaziz Benmarce, Mohamed Guenfound, (2005). "Behaviour of Axially Restrained High
Strength Concrete Columns Under Fire". Construction and Building Materials.
[117] British Standard Specification BS 476, (1972). "Fire Tests on Building Materials and
Structures". Part 8. Test Methods and Criteria for the Fire Resistance of Elements of Building
Construction", British Standards Institution.
[118] V.K.R. Kodur, L. Phan, (2007). "Critical Factors Governing the Fire Performance of High
Strength Concrete Systems". Fire Safety Journal 42. 482–488.
[119] Faris Ali, et al., (2004). "Outcomes of a Major Research on Fire Resistance of Concrete
Columns". Fire Safety Journal 39. 433–445.
[120] V.K.R. Kodur, et al., (2004). "Predicting the Fire Resistance Behaviour of High Strength
Concrete Columns". Cement & Concrete Composites 26 141–153.
[121]C.A.Wade, et al,(2012)."Concrete Blade Columns in Fire". ww.srid.com.ay/expertise/firepdf.pdf.
[122] Rodrigo Barreto Caldas, et al., (2010). "Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced Concrete Sections
Subjected to Fire". Engineering Structures 32. 2832-2838.
[123] Yu-ye. Xu, Bo. Wu, (2009). "Fire Resistance of Reinforced Concrete Columns With L-, T-, and
+- Shaped Cross-Sections". Fire safety journal 44. 869-880.
[124] K.A. Zaidi , et al., (2012). "Effect of Temperature on Uni-axial Compressive Behavior of
Confined Concrete". Fire Safety Journal 48. 58–68.
[125] Wen-Chen Jau, Kuo-Li Huang, (2008). "A Study of Reinforced Concrete Corner Columns
after Fire". Cement & Concrete Composites 30. 622–638.
[126] M. Yaqub, C.G. Bailey, (2011). "Repair of Fire Damaged Circular Reinforced Concrete
Columns with FRP Composites". Construction and Building Materials 25. 359–370.
[127] R. Moss, O. Brooker, (2012). "How to Design Concrete Structures Using Euro code2". the
concrete centre. www.concretecentre.com.
[128] V.K.R. kodur, Mohamed A. Sultan, (2009). "Structural Behaviour of High Strength Concrete
Columns Exposed to Fire". NRCC. 41736.

135
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

[129] K.B. Park, T. Noguchi, (2002). "Numerical Simulation of Temperature and Stress Development
in High-Strength Concrete Columns". The International Conference on “Control of cracking in
early age concrete”, Mihashi & Wittmann. ISBN 90.
[130] António J.P. Moura Correia, João Paulo C. Rodrigues, (2011). "Fire Resistance of Partially
Encased Steel Columns with Restrained Thermal Elongation". Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 67. 593–601.
[131] X.H. Dai, D. Lam, (2012). "Shape Effect on the Behaviour of Axially Loaded Concrete Filled
Steel Tubular Stub Columns at Elevated Temperature". Journal of Constructional Steel Research
73. 117–127.
[132] Young-Sun Heo, et al., (2011). "Construction Application of Fibre/Mesh Method for Protecting
Concrete Columns in Fire". Construction and Building Materials 25. 2928–2938.
[133] L.A. Bisby, et al., (2011). "Strengthening Fire-Damaged Concrete by Confinement with Fibre-
Reinforced Polymer Wraps". Engineering Structures 33. 3381–3391.
[134] Ershad Chowdhury, et al., (2012). "Heat Transfer and Structural Response Modelling of FRP
Confined Rectangular Concrete Columns in Fire". Construction and Building Materials 32. 77–
89.
[135] Lin-Hai Han, et al., (2012). "Analytical Behaviour of RC Beam to CFST Column Frames
Subjected to Fire". Engineering Structures 36. 394–410.
[136] K.A. Zaidi, et al., (2012). "Effect of Temperature on Uni-Axial Compressive Behavior of
Confined Concrete". Fire Safety Journal 48. 58–68.
[137] Daniel Di Capua, Antonio R. Mari, (2007). "Nonlinear Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Cross-
Sections Exposed to Fire". Fire Safety Journal 42. 139–149.
[138] T. Gernay, J.-M.Franssen, (2012). "A Formulation of the Eurocode 2 Concrete Model at
Elevated Temperature that Includes an Explicit Term for Transient Creep". Fire Safety Journal
51. 1–9.
[139] V.K.R. Kodur, M. Dwaikat, (2008). "A Numerical Model for Predicting the Fire Resistance of
Reinforced Concrete Beams". Cement & Concrete Composites 30. 431–443.
[140] Abdullah Demir, et al., (2011). "Modeling of Some Properties of the Crushed Tile Concretes
Exposed to Elevated Temperatures". Construction and Building Materials 25. 1883–1889.
[141] Caroline de Sa. Farid Benboudjema, (2011). "Modeling of Concrete Nonlinear Mechanical
Behaviour at High Temperatures with Different Damage-Based Approaches". Materials and
Structures 44:1411-1429.
[142] M.B. Dwaikat, V.K.R. Kodur, (2009). "Hydrothermal Model for Predicting Fire-Induced
Spalling in Concrete Structural Systems". Fire Safety Journal 44. 425–434.
[143] Alexandre Landesmann, (2012). "Refined Plastic-hinge Model for Analysis of Steel-Concrete
Structures Exposed to Fire". Journal of Constructional Steel Research 71. 202–209.
[144] Venkatesh Kodur, et al., (2009). "Macroscopic FE Model for Tracing the Fire Response of
Reinforced Concrete Structures". Engineering Structures 31. 2368-2379.
[145] A. Casanova, et al., (2012). "Bond Slip Model for the Simulation of Reinforced Concrete
Structures". Engineering Structures 39. 66–78.
[146] Dariusz Gawin, et al., (2011). "What Physical Phenomena Can be Neglected When Modelling
Concrete at High Temperature? A Comparative Study". Part 1: Physical phenomena and
mathematical model. International Journal of Solids and Structures 48. 1927–1944.
[147] Dariusz Gawin, et al., (2011). "What Physical Phenomena Can be Neglected When Modelling
Concrete at High Temperature? A Comparative Study". Part 2: Comparison between models.
International Journal of Solids and Structures 48. 1945–1961.
[148] Maria Garlock, et al., (2012). "Fire Hazard in Bridges: Review, Assessment and Repair
Strategies". Engineering Structures 35. 89–98.
[149] John Gales, et al., (2011). "Unbonded Post Tensioned Concrete in Fire: A Review of Data from
Furnace Tests and Real Fires". Fire Safety Journal 46. 151–163.
[150] State of art report, (2008). "Fire Design of Concrete Structure- Structural Behaviour and

136
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

Assessment". Fib. Task Group 4.3.

[151] Omaima A. Salah El-Din, Shadi. El-Ibiari, (1990), "Evolution of Bond between Steel and
Concrete after Exposure to Fire Temperatures", Proceeding International Conference Signals &
Systems, AL-Ain (U.A.E) Vol. 4, PP. 129-140.
[152] Rolyles. R., et al., (1983), "Response of the Bond in Reinforced Concrete at High Temperature".
Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 35, No. 123,PP.66-74.B.
[153] Phan LT, Carino N.J, (1998), "Review of Mechanical Properties of HSC at Elevated
Temperatures". ASCE. Material Journal. 10 (I), PP. 58-64.
[154] Hertz K.D, (2011), "Parametric fires for structural design", Fire Technology, Springer
publishing.
[155] Malhotra HL, (1956). "Effect of Temperature on the Compressive Strength of Concrete",
Magazine Concrete Research, PP. 85-94.
[156] Park R, Paul.y, (1975), "Reinforced Concrete Structures", John Willy & Sons.
[157] Mander JB, (1988), "Theoretiea1 Stress-Strain Model for Confined Concrete", Journal of
Structural Engineering-ASCE, 114 (8), 1804-1825.
[158] A. M. Neville, J. J. Brooks, (2010). "Concrete Technology". second edition. Pearson.
[159] Collins MP, (1987). "Prstressed Concrete Basics ", Ottawa: Canadian Prstress Concrete Institute.
[160] Lie TT, Lin TD, (1985). "Fire Performance of Reinforced Concrete Columns". ASTM, STP 882.
Fire Safety, Science and Engineering, PP. 176-205.
[161] Anderberg Y, Thelandersson S, (1976). "Stress and Deformation Characteristics of Concrete at
High Temperature", Lund Institute of Technology.
[162] Shneider U, (1986). "Modeling of Concrete Behaviour at High Temperatures", Proceeding of
International Conference of Design of Structures Against Fire, PP. 53·69.
[163] Tetro MJ, (1998). ''Numerical Modeling of the Behaviour of Concrete Structures in Fire", ACI
Structural Journal, 95 (2), 183-193.
[164] Hossam Z, (2008). "Application of Fiber Reinforcement Polymers for Strengthening Reinforced
Concrete Frames". Phd, Thesjs, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Sham University) Egypt.
[165] ACI Committee 318, (2002), "Building Code Requirements fur Structural Concrete (AC! 318-
2002) and Commentary CAC! 318·2002)", American Concrete Institute.
[166] EI-Shazly, H., (1989), "Experimental Investigation on the Effect of the Redistribution of
moments on the Behavior of the Continuous Reinforced Concrete Beams" M Sc thesis, Cairo
University,.
[167] Lazaro, A., et al., (1971), "Limit Analysis of a Reinforced Concrete Frame", ACI Journal.
[168] George C., et al., (1973), "Basic Reinforced Concrete Frame Predominance under Vertical and
Lateral Loads", ACI Journal.
[169] Mo, Y.L., (1986), "Moment Redistribution in Reinforced Concrete Frames ", ACI Journal.
[170] Egyptian Code of Practice for Reinforced Concrete Construction, E.C.P., (2001), Ministry
of development New Communities, Housing and Utilities, Housing and Building Research
Center.
[171] ACI Committee 318, (1999), "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (AC) 318-
1999) and Commentary (AC! 318-1999)", American Concrete Institute.
[172] British Standard Specification, (1997), "BS. 8110, Part (2) 1985, BS. 8110, Part (1).
[173] ACI 318, (2000). " International Building code" ACI, , American Concrete Institute.
[174] Egyptian Code of Practice, (2007). (ECP203-2007), "Design and Construction for Reinforced
Concrete Structures". Research Center for Houses Building and Physical Planning, HBRC.
[175] V. P. Bushev, et al., (1978). Fire Resistance of Buildings. AMERIND Publishing Co. PVT,
LTD. New Delhi Bombay Calcutta, New York.
[176] D. J. Naus, (2005). "The Effect of Elevated Temperature on Concrete Materials and Structures -

137
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design. References

A Literature Review". NUREG – XXX, ORNL/TM – 2005/553.

[177] NIST GCR 07-910 NIST, (2007). "Fire Resistance Testing for Performance-Based Fire Design
of Buildings". Final Report. National Institute of Standard and Technology.
[178] V. S. Ramachandran, et al., (2002). "Handbook of Thermal Analysis of Construction Materials.
NOYES Publications", Wiliam Andrew publishing, Norwich, New York, U.S.A.
[179] J.A. Purkiss, (2007). "Fire Safety Engineering Design of Structures". Elsevier, BH.
[180] Heiza Kh. “State-of-The-Art Behaviour and Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures”, Report submitted to premament scientific commette
for structural and construction. Commette No. 50 – Cairo – Egypt, May 2012.
[181] Heiza Kh. “State of the art review on assessment of fire-damaged RC structures ", Eighth
Conference on Egyptian Rural Development October 2012. Egypt.
[182] Heiza Kh. “State of the art review on effect of fire on constituentes of concrete ", Eighth
Conference on Egyptian Rural Development October 2012. Egypt.
[183] Heiza Kh. “State of the art review on effect of fire on reinforced concrete elements ", Eighth
Conference on Egyptian Rural Development October 2012. Egypt.
[184] Heiza Kh. “State of the art review on fire safety of RC structures ", Eighth Conference on
Egyptian Rural Development October 2012. Egypt.
[185] Heiza Kh. "Effect of fire and high temperature on the properties of self-compacted concrete",
2ene congress international sur la technologie et la durabilite du beton, CITEDUB2, 27-29
November 2011, Algeria, Algerrie, in french.
[186] Heiza Kh. "Performance of self-compacted concrete exposed to fire or aggressive media", 2ene
congress international sur la technologie et la durabilite du beton, CITEDUB2, 27-29 November
2011, Algeria, Algerrie, in french.
[187] Heiza Kh. “Performance of Self-Compacted Concrete Exposed to Fire or Aggressive Media",
The Journal of CRL Letters, Vol. 3 (2) – June 2012.
[188] Heiza Kh. and Marzouk H., “State-of-The-Art-Review on the Effects of Fire on Bridge
Components Reinforced with FRP Internal Reinforcement”, Proposal submitted to Canada
Ministry of Transportation of Ontario Highway, March 2013.
[189] Heiza Kh. and Helal M., “Towards a World Stratigy for Fire Specifications to Protect
Reinforced Concrete Structures against Fire”, Symposium and Exhibtion Quality Control
Laboratories in Structural Projects. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 21-23 April 2013.

138
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Appendixe (1)

Fire Presentation

XVII
 Khaled Heiza

Third Edition 2016

 Contents

1- Introduction & Historical background

2- Effect of fire on constituents of concrete
3- Effect of fire on RC elements
4- Assessment of fire damaged-RC structures
5- Fire safety of RC structures
6- Summary and Conclusions
 Introduction
&
Historical
background

Alexandria library 40 B.C.

 The great fire of Roma 64 A.D.

The great fire of London 1666

The great fire of London 1666

The great fire of Chicago 1871

The great fire of Egyptian Opera 1971

World Trade Center 11.09.2001

The Pentagon 11.09.2001

Windsor Tower Madrid 2/12/2005

Mecca Saudi Arabia 2010

Beni suif Theater, Egypt 2006

Shoura Council, Egypt, August 2008

National Theater, Attaba, Egypt, August 2008

Scientific Council, Egypt, 2012

Scientific Council, Egypt, 2012

Fire deaths

Population comparisons for fire deaths

 Toxicity

UK

Nature of Fire
&
Fire Chemistry
Fire Spread
Fire Spread

Standards
&
Documents
Standards & Documents
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
BS British Standards BS 476 Part 20:1987
ASTM E-119 Standard
ACI (American Concrete Institute) 216R-89 Standard
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 834:1987 standard
 Standard
Fire Tests

Fire Standard Test

 Effect of fire
on
constituents
of concrete

Steel

The iron iron carbon phase diagram

500 oC

50 % Losses
Melting point data of different materials
 Normal
concrete

Effect of Aggregate Type on Thermal Coefficient of

Expansion of Concrete
 Concrete Strength at elevated temperatures
Effect of Aggregate

Calculated Fire Resistance of Concrete

ACI 216.1-97 Fire Resistance of singular layer concrete walls, floors, and roofs

Minimum equivalent thickness for fire

resistance rating, in.
Aggregate
Type 1 hr 1 ½ hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr

Siliceous 3.5 4.3 5.0 6.2 7.0

Carbonate 3.2 4.0 4.6 5.7 6.6

Semi- 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.6 5.4

lightweight
Lightweight 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.1
Effect of binder type on degradation in concrete
properties with temperature

Different mechanical properties of concrete with High temperature

Effect of high temperature on the modulus of elasticity of concrete

Concrete compressive strength loss models

MATERIAL PROPERTIES T Dependent

400 100 oC 40
Steel - -T T=100oC 400o Concrete - -
300 oC C T
300
T=300oC
30 500o
C
500oC 600o
200
T=500oC 20 C
700oC 700o
T=700oC C
100 10
900oC 800oC
T=900oC
0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040

Strain (mm/mm)
Strain (mm/mm)

High Strength
concrete
Pozzolans
Fly Ash, Slag, Silica Fume, and Natural Pozzolans

Fibers
Steel, glass, synthetic and natural fibers.
Comparison between HSC and NSC strength

Self
Compacted
concrete
SCC
600

500

400

300

200 SCC Cooling Gradually

SCC Sudden cooling

100 N.C. Cooling gradually

N.C. Sudden cooling

0
25 200 400 600
Te m pe rature (C0)

Relationship between Temperature and Ultimate

Compressive Strength (Fcu) for Concrete at28 Days

Effect of fire on
reinforced
concrete
elements
 Reinforced
Concrete
Slabs

RC Slabs
RC Slabs

Spalling of RC Slab

The great Belt Fire Denmark, 1994

RC Slabs

The Pentagon 2001

RC Slabs
 Reinforced
Concrete
Beams

RC Beams
RC Beams

RC Beams
RC Beams

Reinforced
Concrete
Columns
RC Columns

RC Columns
H= 300 cm Warm side
L= 200 cm 600 oC
Cold
Thickness= 30 cm side
10-5*393*300= 25 oC
1.179 cm
1.004 cm
6 EI
M
l2
3
6 * 210 30 1.179
MV
300 * 300 12 2
37 t.m / m Concrete thickness
6 * 210 (30) 3
1.004 t=300 mm
Mh
200 * 200 12 2
35.5 t.m / m
concrete wall panel due to temperature that
varies uniformly from inside to outside.
RC Columns

Spalling
Spalling

Explosive spalling of HPC when

heated to 700 0C

Spalling
RC Columns

The Pentagon 2001

RC Columns

The Pentagon 2001

 Assessment of
fire damaged
reinforced
concrete
structures

1- Visual Inspection
2- Materials testing
2/1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
2/2 Schmidt hammer
2/3 Petrographic analysis
2/4 Thermoanalytical Techniques
2/5 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)
Concrete color
Temperature Other Possible Physical Effects
Buff

950C. 1.740F 1.650 F, 900 C Powdered, Light Colored, Dehydrated Paste.

Black
Through 1.450 F, 800 C Spalling, Exposing not more than 25 Percent
Gray to of Reinforcing Bar Surface
Buff

600C. 1.100F
1.070 F, 575 C Popouts Over Chart or Quartz Aggregate Particles
Pink 1.000 F, 550 C Deep Cracking
to
Red

300C. 550F 550 F, 300 C Surface Crazing

Normal
100 F, 40 C None

Visual evidence of temperature to which

concrete has been heated

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

Thermal analysis techniques have been
available for years to analyze hydraulic
reactions and the interactions of cement with
both mineral and chemical admixtures.

Traditionally, thermal analysis was not part of

a routine test program for cement. However,
thermal analysis has gained recent popularity
in analyzing chemical and physical properties
of cementitious materials and raw materials for
cement manufacture .
DTA

DTA
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

DSC thermo grams of NC and SCC columns after exposure to fire

 DTA
X-Ray Diffraction XRD

The XRD patterns of SCC after thermal treatment at 200, 400

and 600 oC

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM

red tricalcium silicate, aqua dicalcium silicate, green tricalcium aluminate,

yellow tetracalcium aluminoferrite, pale green gypsum, white free lime,
dark blue potassium sulfate, and magenta periclase. The image was
obtained by combining a set of SEM backscattered electron and X-ray
images.
 Fire safety of
reinforced
concrete
structures

What is fire safety?

Fire safety is a component of
Building Safety. It concerns safety
measures to prevent the effects of
fires and is the result of proper
use of fire protection measures.
 Calculation of temperature & Design models
Empirical methods

Summary
and
Conclusions
 Moisture is not permitted to escape while being heated, RC
elements lose more strength, than those where the moisture
escapes, where the water-cement ratio has a limited effect on
strength degradation of heated concrete.

RC elements heated and then permitted to be cooled before

testing, lose more strength than those are tested while being
heated in other meaning, concrete specimens loaded during
heating, lose less strength than unloaded specimens.

The longer the duration of heating before testing, the larger

the loss in strength; however, the loss in strength stabilizes
after a period of isothermal exposure.

The decrease in modulus of elasticity RC elements caused

by fire or elevated-temperatures exposure, is more
pronounced than the decrease in compressive strength.
Relatively, the effect of mix proportions, low cement-
aggregate mixes lose less strength as a result of heating
than richer mixes, and concretes made with limestone
aggregate degrade less due to heating than concrete made
with siliceous aggregate.
Specimens subjected to several cycles of heating and
cooling, lose more strength than those are not subjected to
thermal cycling.
The strength of concrete elements before testing, has little
effect on percentage of strength retained at elevated
temperature, where small RC elements generally incur
greater strength losses than larger ones.
Thank
You
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Fire or Elevated Temperatures, Mechanics and Design.

Appendixe (2)

Proposal Submitted to

Ontario-Highway

Infrastructure Innovation

Funding Program

XVIII
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

RYERSON UNIVERSITY
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

EFFECTS OF FIRE ON BRIDGE COMPONENTS

REINFORCED WITH FRP INTERNAL REINFORCEMENT

A PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO MINISTRY OF

TRANSPORTATION OF ONTARIO
HIGHWAY

INFRASTRUCTURE INNOVATION FUNDING PROGRAM

By
Prof. H. Marzouk, P. Eng, FCSCE, FACI
(Principal investigator)
And
Prof. KH. Heiza, P. Eng
(Co. Principal investigator)

MARCH 2013

1
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

Abstract

In structural engineering, FRP fiber reinforced polymers bars are deemed as one of the most promising technological
advances in structural and bridge applications. The fire performance of concrete bridges components reinforced with
fiber reinforced polymers (FRPS) is extremely crucial area that needs to be investigated prior to implementing FRPS
composite materials in concrete bridges. Before FRP can be used to reinforced concrete components in bridges, the
stability of these components to meet stringent fire resistance requirements must be established. While FRPS
reinforcement is mainly used as internal reinforcements in bridge components, there is enormous economic potential
for its use in many structural applications, bridges, garages tunnels and industrial structures.

Fire is one of the most severe hazards to which built-infrastructure may be subjected during their lifetime. In recent
years, due to rapid development of urban ground transportation systems, as well as increasing transport of hazardous
materials, bridge fires have become a concern. Therefore, bridge fires can lead to significant economic and public
losses. Traffic on bridges damaged by fire is usually hard to detour and affects the traffic quality in the region.
Further, a severe fire may lead to permanent damage or even collapse of the bridge.

Conventional concrete, self-compacted (SCC) and high performance (HPC) concrete are used mostly in the
construction of bridges. Fire resistance, fire performance and fire endurance limit of concrete bridges components
reinforced with FRPS are important factors in designing any reinforced concrete bridge components under various
kinds of loading. Therefore, several studies are needed to investigate fire performance, fire resistance and fire
endurance limit and to determine structural behavior of concrete bridge components, slab, beams and beam-column
connections reinforced with FRPS under fire. Test results on structural components reinforced with FRPS bars
subjected to fire revealed that the structural member's exhibits a higher deflection and wider crack width compared
to similar normal concrete members reinforced with conventional steel bars under fire. However, when self-
compacted (SCC) and high performance (HBC) concrete are used, the structural behavior of the bridge components
are greatly improved, the results of recent investigations indicated that the structural improvement includes
increased flexure capacity, reduced crack width and reduced deflection. This report represents a literature and survey
of the effect of fire on bridges components reinforced with FRP internal reinforcing bars. As fast progress of using
FRP bars in reinforcing concrete elements in bridges so the fire performance of their elements is essential to be
determined.

2
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

Introduction

Bridge fire incidents are commonly caused by crashing of vehicles and burning of gasoline in the vicinity
of the bridge. These gasoline fires, also referred to as hydrocarbon fires, are much more severe than
building fires and are characterized by a fast heating rate and a higher peak temperature. In these fires,
very high temperatures will be attained within the first few minutes. In some cases, such intense fires can
pose a severe threat to structural members and could lead to bridge collapse [1].

Provision for appropriate fire safety measures is a major design requirement in buildings and
infrastructure. The main objective of these fire safety measures is to minimize loss of life and property in
a fire event. For structural members, fire safety objectives are achieved through fire resistance provisions.
Fire resistance is the duration during which a structural member exhibits acceptable performance with
respect to structural integrity, stability and temperature transmission. While provision for appropriate fire
safety measures is a major design requirement in buildings, essentially no structural fire safety provision
for bridges exists. For example, the American NFPA 502: Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other
Limited Access Highways [2] states that: ‘‘Protection of Structure – Critical structural members shall be
protected from collision and high-temperature exposure that can result in dangerous weakening or
complete collapse of the bridge or elevated highway’’. No guidance is given on how protect bridges from
fires that can result in ‘‘dangerous weakening or complete collapse’’. Similarly, the European standard
EC-1 part 2[3] deals with the traffic loads to be considered in bridges and does not contain any provision
related to how fire hazard should be taken into account in bridge design. Even European fire related codes
such as the EC-1 part 1–2 [4], EC-2 part 1–2 [5], EC-3 part 1–2 [6]and EC-4 part 1–2[7]omit bridge fires
as they describe ‘‘the thermal and mechanical actions for the structural design of buildings’’ in the case of
[4]and ‘‘principles, requirements and rules for the structural design of buildings’’ in the case of [5–7].
The use of FRP composites in building structures, upon which stringent fire regulations are placed, shows
they are in compliance as with other more conventional construction materials. Moreover, FRP
composites are generally poor conductors and discourage the spread of fire. In fact, if suitable filler is
utilized, these materials can exhibit superior fire resistance than many conventional materials. Another
inherent safety aspect becomes apparent when the outermost layers of a composite lose their resin from
heat exposure. It act then as an insulating layer, slowing heat penetration and internal evolution of gases.
Saffi [8] carried out a study on fire resistance of concrete members reinforced with fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) rebars, which was an externally crucial area that needs to be investigated prior to
implementing FRP composite materials in buildings and other fire vulnerable structures. Saffi [8]
examined analytically the performance of FRP reinforced concrete beams subjected to fire for certain
duration of time was developed. The proposed methods are based on the assessment of the reduction in
3
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

the initial strengths of concrete and FRP reinforcement resulting from the high temperatures developed
inside the beam. A parametric study was carried out to study the effect of concrete cover, fire exposed
time on the FRP temperatures and shear and flexural capacities of reinforced beams. It was found that the
FRP temperatures decrease with increasing the concrete cover, and FRP reinforced concrete beams
exhibited significant degradation in shear and flexural strength. The effect of high temperature on the
bond between FRP reinforcing bars and concrete was studied by Katz [9]. The bond strength exhibited a
severe reduction of 80%-90% at relatively low temperature (up to 200°C), accompanied by changes in the
pullout load- slip behavior. A semi-empirical model was developed. The parameters of the rods that were
tested for pullout at various temperatures were introduced into the model. The output relationships
showed good agreement with the test results. Tests conducted in Germany by Franke [10] had shown that
E-glass FRP bars could sustain 85% of their room-temperature strength, after half an hour of exposure to
300°C temperature while stressed to 50 % of their tensile strength. While this performance was better
than that of prestressing steel, the strength loss increased at higher temperatures and approaches that of
steel. The problem of fire for concrete members reinforced with FRP composites was different from that
of composite materials subjected to direct fire. In this case, the concrete cover serves as a barrier to
protect the FRP from direct contact with flames. However, as the temperature in the interior of the
member increases, the mechanical properties of the FRP may change significantly. Blontrock, et al. [11]
carried out fire tests on strengthened and protected slabs, loaded to service load, to evaluate fire resistance
of these elements. The testing parameters include the use of different thermal protections of the glued
reinforcement. The results showed that, FRP rods are used as replacement for steel rebar with low levels
of permanent stress, the surface temperature of the rods should be kept below 250°C. Therefore, FRP rod
can continue to be used after a fire provided this temperature was not exceeded. While, FRP rods are used
with levels of high permanent stress, the surface temperature of the rod should be kept below 100°C.
Improvement in heat resistance of FRP rods will require development of resin with better properties at
higher temperatures. In fire tests on structural elements carried out at Brunswick University in Germany,
an exposure time of over 100 min at 1000°C in a fire chamber as reported in [12] could be achieved using
the minimum concrete covering for the prestressing tendon. Glass fibers themselves are relatively
insensitive to high or low temperature. However, there was partial loss of strength in the matrix sheath at
approximately 250°C. The glass-fiber bars have to be protected against overheating wherever the
composite properties of the matrix are a statically required, hence, particularly in the anchorage zone, by
structural means, e.g. thicker concrete cover. Hshieh [13] tested flame-retarded epoxy composites and
phenolic composites containing fiberglass, aramid (Kevlar™ 49), and graphite fiber-reinforcements using
the NASA upward flame propagation test, the controlled-atmosphere cone calorimeter test, and the liquid
oxygen (LOX) mechanical impact test. The upward flame propagation test showed that phenolic/graphite
4
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

had the highest flame resistance and epoxy/graphite had the lowest flame resistance. The controlled-
atmosphere Cone Calorimeter was used to investigate the effect of oxygen concentration and fiber
reinforcement on the burning behavior of composites. The LOX mechanical impact test showed that
epoxy/fiberglass had the lowest ignition resistance and phenolic/aramid had the highest ignition resistance
in LOX. The composites containing epoxy resin and/or aramid fiber reinforcement reacted very violently
in LOX upon mechanical impact. Ohlemiller [14] carried out a study focuses mainly on the issue of fire
growth; in particular, on the ability of various commercial coatings to prevent flame spread. The issue of
fire resistance is examined briefly by applying thermocouples to the back surface of test specimens. Four
commercial coatings have been tested over an un-retarded vinylester/glass composite. In addition, an
uncoated phenolic/glass composite and a polyester glass composite coated with a fire retarded resin were
tested. In all cases the configuration was a 3.3 m high corner with a 530 mm square propane gas burner at
its base, operated at 250 kW as the fire exposure. The results show that, with the proper choice of coating
and coating thickness, fire growth can be suppressed quite effectively. Two of the coatings, applied at a
substantial thickness, were reasonably effective at slowing the penetration of heat to the back of the
composite panels. The other coatings, much thinner in application, were notably less effective at slowing
heat penetration. Lyon, et al. [15] measured the fire response of an inorganic aluminosilicate resin-carbon
fiber composite and compared to conventional organic resin composites being considered for
infrastructure. At high irradiance levels typical of fire exposure, the aluminosilicate resin composite did
not burn or smoke, while all of the organic resin composites ignited readily and released considerable heat
and smoke. The Geopolymer composite retained 63% of its strength after fire exposure compared to zero
percent for organic resin composites. Scudamore [16] compared polyester, epoxy, and phenolic glass-
reinforced laminates in terms of their fire properties in the Cone Calorimeter. The presence of a gel coat
on the polyester and epoxy products had some effect, mainly in the flame-retarded (FR) grades. The FR
polyester with a brominated flame retardant showed a marked decrease in rate of heat release and in rate
of smoke production. Aluminum trihydrate (ATH) caused a significant delay in ignition time for the
epoxy product and some reduction in rate of heat release, but rate of smoke release was still relatively
high. Phenolic laminates showed a long ignition time and relatively low rate of heat release (RHR). The
peak RHR was further reduced by the presence of aluminum hydroxide and by changing the type of glass
reinforcement. The influence of thickness was explored for a series of phenolic laminates in both Cone
Calorimeter and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) surface flammability test. Ignition delay
time was significantly affected and the Cone Calorimeter results showed that the shape of the RHR curve
was also changed as the thickness increased. However, the heat release measurements in the IMO test
were not sensitive enough to pick up the differences in this property.

5
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

This report presents a detailed review of the state-of-the-art on fire hazard in effects of fire on bridge
components reinforced with FRP internal reinforcement. Based on the literature review and current post-
fire assessment are presented. The information presented here aids practicing engineers and researchers
with (1) practical knowledge needed to make fast informed decisions after a bridge fire event and (2) the
identification of areas where further research is needed.

Research Objectives

The main objective of the current research is to provide a clear understanding of the effects of fire on
bridge components reinforced with FRP internal reinforcement. The proposed test data is needed to enrich
the literature with a comprehensive study on the fire behaviour of FRP bars, reinforced concrete
components in bridges and thus, define the extents of utilization of this new material for different
structural applications. The research objectives of this investigation can be summarized as follows:

1. To use an appropriate setup for testing FRP bars subjected to fire under direct tension and flexure.
2. To collect and analyze the fire performance of FRP reinforced concrete bridges components
(slabs, beams and beam-column connections) that can accommodate FRP bars.
3. To recommend the required fire performance, fire resistance and fire endurance limits and
guidelines for concrete bridges elements reinforced by FRP bars.
4. To identify the main difference in structure behavior of concrete elements reinforced with FRP
bars and others with steel reinforcement. This should be established by testing reference identical
specimens and comparing the test results for (beams and beam-column connections).
5. To examine other issues related to fire performance of concrete bridges element reinforced with
FRP, such as the cracking characteristics, which include crack spacing and widths, or the
different structural details and loading conditions applied to the test specimens.
6. To compare the test data to existing guidelines or code limitations for the serviceability limit state
with regards to crack width and spacing, verifying their applicability in predicting the proper
crack width, spacing and modes of failure.

Back Ground

Defining the bridge fires

Bridge fires are typically petrol fires, also referred to as hydro-carbon fires or liquid pool fires, which are
characterized by fast heating rates and can reach very high temperatures within the first few minutes of
fire exposure. A liquid pool fire forms when a combustible liquid spills on the ground, its liquid begins to
vaporize, and the vapor is ignited. These fires can be divided into two categories – confined (the spread of
the burning liquid is limited by the presence of a physical barrier) and unconfined Iqbal et al. [18]. A
confined pool fire will burn longer than an unconfined pool fire, which has a larger surface area but
generates high heat loads only for a short duration. Pathak and siddique [17] represent the effect of

6
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

elevated temperatures on prestressing steels and GFRP composites. The dependency of temperature on
the tensile strength of glass-fiber composite material sections is shown in Fig. 1 which shows that the
response is similar to that of pretressing steels.

Fig. 1. Tensile strength retention at elevated temperature [17]

One of the most important steps required in determining the heat loading from a liquid pool fire is to
calculate the heat release rate (Iqbal et al.[18], Modak [19], Mudan [20]), which indicates how powerful
the fire is. This is an empirically-derived value which is based on the material properties of the fuel as
well as the geometry of the pool (that in turn depends on the flow of leaking fuel). Some standard
hydrocarbon fire curves for design exist but have limitations for application to bridges. The American and
Euro-code standard hydrocarbon fires [4, 21], exceed 1000 oC within the first few minutes and continues
to increase throughout the fire duration. This is not realistic since fires will eventually burn-out their fuel
source. There are other fire-temperature curves for describing the fire hazard associated with
petrochemical fuels, for example the hydrocarbon modified curve (from France), RABT-ZTV curve (from
Germany), and RWS curve (from the Netherlands)[2, 22]; but these curves have been developed for
tunnels, which have different oxygen and ventilation conditions than bridges. Useful information about
different vehicle fire scenarios is given in Barber et al. [23]. Although their study was done for the
Oresund tunnel, the detailed information on fuel characteristics can be used to develop a model for bridge
fire scenarios [24, 25]. Bridge design codes do not provide information about the fire models to be used in
the design of a bridge. Therefore, each re-searcher or practitioner has developed an approach adapted to
their particular case study. For example, Bennets and Moinuddin [26] have proposed several fire
scenarios to determine the impact of a heavy truck fire, of a tanker fire, and of a liquefied petroleum gas

7
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

(LPG) tanker fire on the cables of a cable stayed bridge. Mendes et al. [27] have developed a fire model to
study the effect of an oil tanker ship fire under Vasco da Gama Bridge (Portugal) on its safety. Dotreppe
et al.[ 28] analyzed the collapse of a tied arch sub-mitted to a severe fire caused by the explosion of a gas
pipe by considering six different fire zones according to the hydrocarbon curve of the Eurocode 1 part 1–
2. Stoddard [29] developed a fire curve adapted to the scenario of a railroad tanker fire that damaged a
prestressed concrete bridge.

Bridge fire incidents

In the last two decades, there has been an increase of fire related accidents in bridges, and some of these
fire incidents have led to collapse. A survey by Battelle [30] reveals that the average number of annual
highway vehicle fire incidents in the US is 376,000, which causes 570 civilian deaths and $1.28 billion of
property losses. When occurring in the vicinity of a bridge, a fire may heat and weaken the bridge
structure as a result of adequate fuel and oxygen. The New York Department of Transportation (NYDOT)
has conducted a voluntary bridge failure survey in 2008 [31] where 18 state department of transportation
have responded. Data was collected from 1746 bridge failures according to the type of bridge, the
material (steel, concrete, wood), and the cause of failure. Although the vast majority of bridges (1001)
collapsed for hydraulic reasons and 520 collapsed due to collision, overload, or deterioration, 52 bridge
collapses were due to fire, and only 19 collapses were due to earthquake. However, the survey focused on
collapses, but did not collect the information on the extent of fire induced damage, the extent of traffic
disruption, and the cost of detours and repairs. On the morning of April 29th 2007, a tanker carrying 32.6
m 3 of gasoline was traveling at high speed in a 80 km/h zone and overturned and burst into flames on the
I-80/880 interchange in Oakland, California, while passing under I-580. The high intensity fire resulted in
the collapse of two I-580 spans, which consisted of six welded plate girders sup-porting a reinforced
concrete slab roadway. This multi-level free-way interchange bridge, known as the MacArthur Maze,
connected several major cities in California. The collapse occurred about 22 min after the fire started. The
federal government spent more than $9 million to repair the damage, which included $4.3 million for
demolishing and removing the section of I-580 and about $2 million for traffic control [32, 33]. It took 26
days to finish all the construction work and reopen the Maze to the traffic. The closure of the Maze was
estimated to have a total economic impact to the San Francisco Bay Area of $6 million dollars a day [34].

Previous studies on bridge fire hazards

During the last decade, a few studies have been carried out to study the impact of fire hazard on bridges.
These studies are summarized in Table 1. For example, Mendes et al. [27] undertook a 2D bridge deck
analysis to simulate a ship fire accident in the Vasco da Gama Bridge in Lisbon, Portugal, which damaged
8
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

the concrete decks of the bridge. The cross sectional temperatures resulting from fire and time to collapse
(fire resistance) were studied. They used three different fire scenarios defined by the geometric
characteristics (dimensions, burning rate), the emissive power (thermal radiation, fuel type), and radiation
transfer. The effects of convection, thermal irradiation, solar radiation, and fire radiation were also
considered in the analysis. They concluded that, under fire exposure, the anchorage of the bridge is
susceptible to serious damage in 20–30 min, which leads to progressive failure of the bridge. Dotreppe et
al. [28] performed a numerical analysis using computer program SAFIR[42]to simulate the collapse of the
Vivegnis Bridge in Belgium as a result of a fire accident. Severe localized fire occurred at one of the
bridge foot due to a gas pipe explosion. 3D beam elements were used to model main girders, cross
girders, concrete slab, arches, while bracings and the suspenders were modeled using truss elements. The
model accounted for large displacements and high temperature material properties. A transient structural
analysis was carried out using the hydrocarbon temperature-time curve defined in Eurocode [4]. Both the
collapse time and the failure mode showed good agreement with the field observations. Nigro et al. [37]
studied the thermo-mechanical behavior of reinforced concrete bridge deck slabs 0.15 or 0.20 m thick
strengthened with externally bonded fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) considering the thermal states
caused by two possible situations: (a) the asphalt paving of the bridge, which has an asphalt temperature
of 180 oC and (b) a fire event over the bridge deck due to a vehicular accident. In this latter case the
outside environment fire curve of EC-1 part 1–2[4], was considered although pro-visions of this standard
relate to buildings and not to bridges as previously explained. The paper concluded that (a) the use of
‘‘heat resistant’’ adhesive resin is recommended for slab thickness lower than 20 cm and (b) in addition,
if the FRP strengthening is located on the top of the slab, an insulating layer (concrete with expanded-
clay) of thickness bigger than 4 cm is necessary to avoid damaging the FRP-strengthening. Eisel et al.
[38] describe the studies and the measures under-taken for the reopening of the Wiehltal Bridge after a
fire caused by an accident of a tanker carrying 33 m 3 of fuel. The studies included material tests as well
as a numerical simulation of the fire using computational fluid dynamics. The flames of the fire reached
temperatures of 1200oC but damage to the bridge was limited be-cause, due to ventilation, maximum
surface temperature of the steel plates was about 500oC. Kodur et al. [40] carried out a case study to
illustrate the fire performance of a girder of a steel–concrete composite bridge using computer program
SAFIR [42]. Both an unprotected steel girder and a steel girder protected with fire insulation (12 mm)
were analyzed by idealizing the girder as a set of beam elements. Realistic conditions presented in typical
bridges, such as loading condition, fire scenarios and high temperature material properties were
considered in the analysis. The case study assumes that a petrol tanker has crashed under a roadway
bridge causing a severe fire, which heats the bottom of the bridge at mid span. Uncoupled thermal-
structural analyses indicate that the unprotected steel girder develops a plastic hinge, which leads to
9
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

deflection runaway and collapse in less than 30 min. On the other hand, the protected bridge performed
well under fire and no failure resulted since the insulated girder did not lose much strength. Payá-
Zaforteza and Garlock [41] studied a 12.20 m simply sup-ported bridge designed by the Federal Highway
Administration of the United States of America. The cross section of the bridge has five steel girders
supporting a reinforced concrete slab, which was not structurally connected to the girders. As illustrated
in Fig. 3, a 3D model of the bridge was built with the commercial soft-ware Lusas [43] using solid
elements, and was subjected to a hydrocarbon design fire that could be caused, for example, by the crash
or the overturning of a gasoline tanker. The structural response to such a fire was studied by varying the
magnitude of gravity load (dead and live) and the axial restraint (fixed or free). Results show that the
times to failure of the bridge are very small (less than 10 min in all the cases analyzed) and are essentially
not influenced by the amount of live load. Furthermore, horizontal dis-placements of the bridge are big
enough to require the consideration of the interaction between the bridge deck and the adjacent span or
abutment. Stoddard [29] reported the following colors on the soffit of the bottom flanges of a concrete
bridge girder exposed to fire at various time intervals: extreme white, ash white, white grey, and soot. The
extreme white color corresponded to the area where the fire was most intense based on the concrete
damage, and the soot color corresponded to the area with the least heat. These are surface colorations.
Another important indicator of temperature effect in concrete is cracking. Transverse cracks in the beam
tensile region could be indicators of a reduced strength and stiffness that increased deflections. Cracking
is based on two independent variables, temperature and compressive strength of concrete. Guise et al. [53]
determined, based on concrete compressive strengths of (56.9 MPa), 8.3 Ksi (46.4 MPa) 6.7 Ksi and (43.6
MPa) 6.3 Ksi, that the intensity of cracking will increase linearly as the temperature increases past a
certain point. The point at which cracking will begin and the severity of it is dictated by the compressive
strength of concrete. Guise et al. [44] reported that the crack density decreases as the compressive
strength increases. A much more serious physical event caused by fire exposure of concrete is spalling.
Spalling can expose the steel reinforcement directly to fire, thus making it more susceptible to significant
loss of strength. Further, the loss of concrete cover due to spalling may lead to corrosion problems in the
steel reinforcement bars. There are three types of spalling; local spalling, which is when small pieces
break away from the concrete, sloughing off, where medium pieces break away from the concrete, and
explosive spalling, which is when large pieces dramatically break away from the concrete. Explosive
spalling is most common in high strength concrete be-cause of the low permeability and low porosity of
concrete [45]. One must consider that when fire fighters extinguish the fire, the water on hot concrete may
cause spalling of the surface and may temper the reinforcing steel, which will further intensify the
damage.

10
 Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

Table 1: Case studies of structural assessment of fire damaged bridges with advanced thermal and/or
structural analysis models [1].

Authors Bridge/location Structural system Bridge material Type of study

Vasco da Gama The cross section temperatures and time to collapse (fire
Mendes et al.[27] Cable-stayed bridge Reinforced concrete
Bridge/Portugal resistance), were studied
The paper describes the structural analysis of a
Changi Airport Welded tubular steel footbridge located at the interior of an airport terminal.
Roche[35] Mezzanine Flat arch sections. The bridge has a Its design paid a special attention to the behavior of the
Bridge/Singapore glass cladding bridge under fire loading using a performance based
approach
The bridge collapsed after the explosion of a gas pipe.
Vivegnis Bridge/
Tied arch (bow Steel arch and steel plus The paper compares the real collapse with the results
Dotreppe et al.[28] near Liège,
string) concrete deck deduced from numerical simulations performed with
Belgium
SAFIR
Bridge over A fully coupled thermal-stress analyses were conducted
Simply supported, Fiber reinforced polymer
Bentley Creek/ using the software Abaqus to predict the failure
Alnahhal et al.[36] single-span truss (FRP) for the deck, steel
Wellsburg, New mechanisms and the fire safety of the superstructure
bridge for the trusses elements
York under extreme thermal loading conditions
The effects of two scenarios causing high deck
temperatures are analyzed and guidelines to avoid the
Reinforced concrete
failure of the FRP strengthening are proposed. Fires-T3
Reinforced concrete Strengthened with
Nigro et al.[37] Hypothetical Finite Element software was used for the thermal
slab deck externally bonded FRP
analysis and an iterative procedure was developed to
reinforcement
check the.ultimate bearing capacity of FRP
strengthened reinforced concrete members in flexure
Continuous
Wiehltalbridge/ Part of the first span of the deck was submitted to a
orthotropic deck
motorway A4, Steel for the deck; severe fire caused by the fall of a fuel tanker. The paper
Eisel et al.[38] supported in
Cologne-Olpe in concrete for the piers describes the assessment and repair of the bridge as well
concrete piers and
Germany as the measures undertaken for its reopening
abutments
Composite deck (steel
I-80/880 Composite deck The author performs a 3D thermomechanical analysis
girders + RC slab)
Choi[39] interchange/ (steel girders + RC of the behavior of the bridge during the fire that
supported by reinforced
Oakland, CA slab) destroyed part of the deck
concrete columns
The effects of 3 different fire scenarios on the stays and
the unprotected tower of a theoretical cable stayed
Bennetts and bridge is studied. Times to failure of the stays and the
Hypothetical Cable stayed bridge Steel
Moinuddin[26] tower are given for different ratios of applied load to
ultimate strength. Protected and unprotected cables are
considered
A 49 m span highway overpass bridge was studied for
Kodur et al.[40] Hypothetical Steel plate girder Steel the effects of fire protection, which significantly affects
results
Steel girders supporting a A 3D thermomechanical analysis of the bridge under a
Simply supported
Payá-Zaforteza and RC slab. The slab is not hydrocarbon fire considering different live loads and
Hypothetical deck designed by
Garlock[41] structurally connected to boundary conditions is carried out. Times to collapse
the FHWA
the girders are always below 10 min

11
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

Table 2: Probable correlation between fire exposed concrete color and temperature [1].

Color Probable maximum temperature (oC)

No discoloration <315
Pink 315–593
Whitish-grey >593
Buff (light tan) >927

Concrete core samples can be taken for petrographic examination and compression tests. The
petrographic analysis is mainly concerned with the damage and property change of the concrete at high
temperature, i.e. depth of microcracking, paste alteration (color change and strength softening) and
carbonation, and also the microcracking inside the core specimens. Such damage can adversely affect the
strength and durability of concrete and contribute to accelerated corrosion of the reinforcement and may
shorten service life. The petrographic analysis has to be made in accordance with ASTM C856 Standard
Practice for Petrographic Examination of Hardened Concrete[46]. Table 5represents common changes in
concrete during the heating phase based on Glasheen[47]. In addition to visual and material testing, few
researches have performed live load tests on bridges affected by fires. Ballim and Silbernagl [48], for
example, gradually and slowly applied live load representing 3-axle trucks filled with sand to evaluate
deflections in bridge girders.

Research Methodology

The research methodology for this project is to investigate the effects of fire on bridge components
reinforced with FRP internal reinforcement. Determining fire performance, fire resistance and fire
endurance limits for concrete bridge components.

The experimental testing data is essential to understanding the fire effects, fire behavior of concrete
bridge components reinforced with FRP bars internal reinforcements (beams and beam-column
connections).

Proposed Research Activities

The proposed research investigation will include the following phases:

a) Phase 1: Literature survey and specimen design

A literature review and survey will be implemented to collect the most recent knowledge in the area of the
effects of fire on concrete bridge components reinforced with FRP bars as internal reinforcement.
Dimensions and details of the specimen will be selected to overcome five technical aspects: (1) to
accommodate the effect of fire on FRP bars under direct tension and flexure loading; (2) to accommodate
the effect of fire on the constitutes materials of normal, self-compacted and ultra-high strength concrete;
(3) to accommodate the effect of fire on the concrete components reinforced with FRP bars like slabs,
beams and beam-column connections. (4) To accommodate the fire tests, fire furnace and loading
capacity of the hydraulic jacks available in the laboratory facility; (5) finally to accomplish testing using
different parameters.

12
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

b) Phase 2: Experimental Testing Program.

The total number specimens will be determined according to the investigated parameters. The specimens
will be tested under fire according to ASTM E-119 and ISO-834 under flexural loading for beams and
beam-column connections. The main study parameters are the concrete types, normal concrete, ultra-high
strength concrete, concrete cover, types of FRP and their diameters. The tested specimens are typically
concrete, beams150* 300* 3000 mm and beam column connections 150 * 250 * 1000 mm for beam by
150 * 150 * 1500 mm for column.

c) Phase3 : Analysis of Test Results

Each specimen will be prepared for individual testing. After curing, typical test preparations and testing
for each specimen are usually completed in one day. Each specimen will be painted white to facilitate the
monitoring of cracks. Attaching and calibrating the instrumentation are also required steps before
specimen testing.

Typically for each specimen, furnace is automatically controlled for heat and the load is increased
gradually after the fire test reaches to 600 oC and until the first crack is observed. The general loading rate
is about 2.5 - 5 KN/min. Thermocouples are arranged through each specimen cross section to measure the
internal distribution of heat through the specimen during fire test. Once a crack is observed, the cracking
load is recorded and loading continued until specimen failure. After failure and put of the furnace the
crack pattern is marked over the specimen, and photographs are taken. Any further observations on the
specimens will be recorded and finally modes of failure are classified and described.

d) Pllase4: Design Guidelines and code limitations for the serviceability limit state of concrete
bridge components reinforced with FRP bars under fire

The report will include Guidelines and code limitations for the serviceability limit state of concrete bridge
components reinforced with FRP bars under fire. The main difference in the structural behavior of NC
and HPC concrete reinforced with FRP bars & and traditional steel-reinforced concrete will be identified.
The cracking characteristics, which include crack spacing and widths, for the different structural details
and-loading conditions will be applied to the test specimens. The test data will be compared to existing
guidelines or code limitations for the serviceability limit state related to concrete bridge components
reinforced with FRP bars under fire.

Qualifications for the principal investigator in planned area

Dr. Hesham Marzouk was appointed as the Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering at Ryerson
University effective September 2006. Prior to his appointment at Ryerson, Dr. Marzouk served as the
Chair of the Civil Engineering at Memorial University in Newfoundland (MUN) from 2001 to 2005.

Dr. Marzouk joined the MUN Civil Engineering as an Associate Professor in 1986. He was promoted to
fun professor in 1991 and served as the acting Chair during 1998/1999. Prior to joining Memorial
University, from 1978 to 1986, Dr. Marzouk served as lead design engineer and department head of
structural engineering for two of Western Canada's leading Consulting Engineering Corporations. He was
in charge of major industrial, commercial, residential and municipal projects worth over $100 million.

Dr. Marzouk has about thirty-five years of academic, research and industrial experience. He conducts
research in the areas of concrete structures, high-strength concrete design, and creep "analysis, FRP
concrete, building design, rehabilitation of existing concrete structures using FRP and steel plates,

13
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

offshore design. Stress analysis and steel rehabilitation of clowns. He published over 150 professional and
scientific articles, 50 of them in major refereed research journals in his field.

During his academic tenure at Memorial University, Dr. Marzouk supervised 25 graduate students,
including nine Ph.D. students. He received a number of significant research operating grants from various
granting agencies, including NSERC. At Memorial. Dr. Marzouk taught 10 different undergraduate and
graduate courses in Civil Engineering, and received the 2001 Teaching Award from the Association of
Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Newfoundland (APEGA).

Dr. Marzouk is an active member of the Canadian Standard Association (CSA) K154 code for Offshore
Concrete and Floating Structures. and he is the current vice-chair of the Canadian Concrete Offshore
Code S474. He is a Fellow of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineers, and
an active member of several the American Concrete Institute ACI Committees.

Dr. Marzouk. supervised four theses related to the proposed research topic as follows:

1. Sabrah, T.B. (2009), "Behaviour of CFRP- HSC Reinforced Concrete Panels under Direct Tension", Ph.D.
dissertation, under final preparation for submission, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science,
Memorial University. S1. John's, Canada.

2. EI Tom, Ehab (2007), "Behaviour of HSC Slabs Reinforced with OFRP~ Concrete", M.Sc dissertation,
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University, St. John's, Canada. .

3. Mitchell, David (2001). "Bond Model for HSC light weight, M.Sc dissertation, Faculty of Engineering and
Applied Science, Memorial University, St. John's, Canada.

4. AJavi-Fard, Mehdi (2000), "Bond Characteristics for HSC ",Ph.D dissertation, Faculty of Engineering and
Applied Science, Memorial University. st. John's, Canada.

Qualifications for the Co. principal investigator in planned area

Dr. Khaled Heiza is a professor of reinforced concrete structures and he was appointed as the executive
director of reinforced concrete laboratory facility, faculty of Eng., Minoufia University from 2003 till
2014. Prior to his appointment at Minoufia University Dr. Khaled Heiza served as assistant prof. at
Zagazig University from 1999 to 2003. Finally, Dr. Heiza is the advisor and director of consultant and
research unit, Minoufia University, April 2012.

Dr. Heiza joined the Minoufia University Civil Engineering department as an Assistant Professor in 2003.
He was promoted to Associate professor in 2006. and full professor at 2012. Dr. Heiza served as the
acting engineering advisor for the Egyptian ministry of transportation and Ministry of communication and
information technology during 2006 to 2010. He was in charge of major industrial, commercial,
residential and municipal projects worth over $50 million.

Dr. Heiza has about twenty five years of academic, research and industrial experience. He conducts
research in the areas of concrete structures, high-strength concrete design, and self-compacted concrete
design "analysis, FRP concrete, building design, rehabilitation of existing concrete structures using FRP
and steel plates, He published over 75 professional and scientific articles, 20 of them in refereed research
journals in his interest field.

14
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

During his academic tenure at Both Zagazig and Minoufia Universities, Dr. Heiza supervised 25 graduate
students, including eight Ph.D. students. At Zagazig and Minoufia Universities. Dr. Heiza taught 8
different undergraduate and graduate courses in Civil Engineering.

Dr. Heiza is an active member of the Egyptian society of civil engineering and he prepare and represent
more than 20 more intensive short and training courses in the field of structural engineering specially
fires, repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures subjected to fire.
Dr. Heiza supervised six theses related to the proposed research topic as follows:

1. El-Mahrouk M, S. (2013) “behavior of reinforced concrete beam column connection

subjected to fire under cyclic loading" Phd thesis, Civil Engineering Department Minoufia
University, Egypt.
2. El Wakkad N. Y. (2013) “behavior and analysis of strengthened reinforced concrete
continuous beams subjected to cyclic loading " Phd thesis, Civil Engineering Department
Minoufia University, Egypt.
3. El-Mahrouk M, S. (2010) “behavior and analysis of beam-column connection subjected to
fire under loads" M.sc. thesis, Civil Engineering Department Minoufia University, Egypt.
4. Kandeel M. M. (2012) “modeling of reinforced concrete structures strengthened with FRP
systems " M.sc. thesis, Civil Engineering Department Minoufia University, Egypt.
5. Nabil A. A. (2012) “Behavior and analysis of reinforced concrete columns strengthened with
FRP systems " M.sc. thesis, Civil Engineering Department Minoufia University, Egypt.
6. Etman Z. A. (2008) “"Effect of fire and elevated temperature on the behaviour and strength of
reinforced self-compact concrete structures " Phd thesis, Civil Engineering Department
Minoufia University, Egypt.

Budget details

Dr. Marzouk. the principal investigator, will coordinate the research work at Ryerson. A Ph. D. student
researcher available will be assigned to the project. Salary for the graduate student is based on at a standard
rate of $32.00Ihour for this research position. The stipend to structural technicians and general workers
accounts for their time to assist in instrumentation and material handling. Materials and supplies required for
testing include FRPS, Thermocouples, strain gauges. adhesives, wiring, concrete forms, sand, gravel, cement
and additives.

Time table for the activities

Phase # Activity Time

1 Literature review Apr. to May 2013
2 Design of the experimental program May to June 30, 2013
3 Testing of specimens July to Aug. 1, 2013
4 Statistical analysis of data Aug. to Dec., 2013
5 Writing final report preparing technical Jan. to March 2014
presentation

15
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

References

[1] Maria Garlock, et al.,. "Fire Hazard in Bridges: Review, Assessment and Repair Strategies". Engineering Structures vol. 35.
pp 89–98. 2012.

[2] National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). NFPA 502 Standard for road tunnels, bridges, and other limited access
highways. Quincy (MA): NFPA; 2008.

[3] European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Eurocode 1 actions on structures, part 2: traffic loads on bridges. Brussels
(Belgium): CEN; 2003.

[4] European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Eurocode 1 Actions on structures, part 1–2: general actions – actions on
structures exposed to fire. Brussels (Belgium): CEN; 2002.

[5] European Committee for Standardization. Eurocode 2: design of concrete structures – part 1–2: general rules – structural fire
design. Brussels (Belgium): CEN; 2004.

[6] European Committee for Standardization. Eurocode 3: design of steel structures – part 1–2: general rules – structural fire
design. Brussels (Belgium): CEN; 2005.

[7] European Committee for Standardization. Eurocode 4: design of composite steel and concrete structures – Part 1–2: general
rules – structural fire design. Brussels (Belgium): CEN; 2005.

[8] Saafi M., (2002), "Effect of Fire on Reinforced Concrete Members". Composite structures, Vol. 58, No. 5, pp: 11-20.
[9] Katz A., Berman N., "Modeling the Effect of High Temperature on the Bond of FRP Reinforcing Bars to Concrete".Cement
and Concrete composites, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp: 433-443. 2000.
[10] Franke L., "Behavior and Design of High-Quality Glass-Fiber Composite Rods as Reinforcement for Prestressed Concrete
Members". Report, international symposium, CP/Ricen/I Bk, Prague, ( reported by ACI committee 440, 1995). 1981.
[11] Blontrock H. et al.,. "Fire Testing of Concrete Slabs Strengthened with Fiber Composite Laminating". chris Buegoyne,
Fiber-Reinforced Plastics for Reinforced Concrete Structures, 5th International on, (FRPRCS-5), Vol. 1, university of
Cambridge, UK, pp: 547-565, 2001.
[12] Zayed A.M., "Deterioration Assessment of Fiber-Glass Plastic Rebars in Different Environments". The NACE Annual
Confernece and Corrosion Show, Cincinati, Ohayo, pp: 130/1-130/8. 1991.
[13] Hshieh F.Y., et al., "Flammability Testing of Flame-Retarded Epoxy Composites and Phenolic Composites". Fire and
Materials, Vol. 21, pp: 41-49, 1997.
[14] Ohlemiller T.J., Shields J.R., "The Effect of Surface Coatings on Fire Growth over Composite Materials in a Corner
Configuration". Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 32, pp: 173-193. 1999.
[15] Lyon R.E, et al., "Fire Response of Geopolymer Structural Composites". Proceedings of the First International Conference
on Composites in Infrastructure: Fiber Composites in Infrastructure, Tucson, AZ: ICCI, pp: 972-981. 1996.
[16] Scudamore M.J., "Fire Performance Studies on Glass-Reinforced Plastic Laminates". Fire and Materials, Vol. 18, pp: 313-
325. 1994.
[17] Neelam Pathak, Rafat Siddique, "Properties of Self-Compacting-Concrete Containing Fly Ash Subjected to Elevated
Temperatures". Construction and Building Materials 30. 274–280. 2012.
[18] Iqbal N, Salley MH, Weerakkody S. Fire Dynamics Tools (FDTs) Quantitative Fire Hazard Analysis Methods for the US
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Fire Protection Inspection Program (NUREG-1805). Washington: GPO; 2004.

[19] Modak AT. "Thermal radiation from pool fires". Combust Flame 1977;29(1977):177–92.

[20] Mudan KS. "Thermal radiation hazards from hydrocarbon pool fires". Prog Energy Combust Sci 1984;10:59–80.

[21] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM E1529-06, Standard Test Methods for Determining Effects of
Large Hydrocarbon Pool Fires on Structural Members and Assemblies. American Society for Testing and Materials, USA, 2004.

[22] Promat. Tunnel Fire Protection: A Conversion from NFPA 502 Standard to Practical Systems and Tested Solutions. 2005.
Retrieved April 4, 2011, from http://www.promat-tunnel.com.

16
Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

[23] Barber C, Gardiner A, Law M. "Structural fire design of the Øresund tunnel". In: Proceedings of the international conference
on fires in tunnels. Boras (Sweden), 1994. p. 295–316.

[24] Lykke S, Skotting E, Ebben J, Braestrup M. "Fire hazard mitigation for the Øresund link immersed tunnel". In: Proceedings
of the IABSE colloquium, Stockholm (Sweden), 1998. p. 251–62.

[25] Falbe-Hansen K, Nissen J. "The Øresund bridge completion". Arup J 2000;3:20–7.

[26] Bennets I, Moinuddin K. "Evaluation of the impact of potential fire scenarios on structural elements of a cable-stayed
bridge". J Fire Prot Eng 2009;19:85–106.

[27] Mendes PA, Valente JC, Branco FA. "Simulation of ship fire under Vasco da Gama Bridge". ACI Struct J 2000;97(2):285–
90.

[28] Dotreppe JC, Majkut S, Franssen JM. "Failure of a tied-arch bridge submitted to a severe localized fire, structures and
extreme events". IABSE Symposium; 2006. p. 272–273.

[29] Stoddard R. "Inspection and repair of a fire damaged prestressed girder bridge". Pittsburgh: International Bridge Conference;
2004. M. Garlock et al. / Engineering Structures 35 (2012) 89–98 97

[30] Battelle. "Comparative risks of hazardous materials and non-hazardous materials truck shipment accidents/incidents".
Washington D.C. (USA): Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration; 2004.

[31] New York State Department of Transportation. "Bridge fire incidents in New York State (Private Correspondence with Prof.
M. Garlock) ". USA: New York State Department of Transportation; 2008.

[32] Bulwa D, Fimrite P. "Tanker fire destroys part of MacArthur maze". www.sfgate.com, 2007 [Accessed 29.4.2007].

[33] Astaneh-Asl A, Noble CR, Son J, Wemhoff AP, Thomas MP, McMichael LD. "Fire protection of steel bridges and the case
of the MacArthur maze fire collapse". In: Proceedings of the ASCE TCLEE lifeline earthquake engineering in a multihazard
environment conference, Oakland (CA), 2009. p. 1–12.

[34] Chung P, Wolfe RW, Ostrom T, Hida S, editors. " Accelerated bridge construction applications in California – a lessons
learned report". USA: California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS); 2008.

[35] Roche M. "Performance in lieu of prescription in bridge design – Changi Airport Mezzanine Bridge", Singapore. Design
Struct 2001:195–203.

[36] Alnahhal WI, Chiewanichakorn M, Aref AJ, Alampalli S. "Temporal thermal behavior and damage simulations of FRP
deck". J Bridge Eng 2006;11:452–64.

[37] Nigro E, Manfredi G, Cosenza E, Zappoli M. "Effects of high temperature on the performances of RC bridge decks
strengthened with externally bonded FRP reinforcement". In: Proceedings of the second international congress of the fédération
internationale du béton. Naples, Italy, 2006. p. 1–12.

[38] Eisel H, Palm N, Prehn W, Sedlacek G. "Fire damages and repair of the Wiehltalbridge at Motorway A4, Cologne-Olpe".
Stahlbau 2007;76(2):94–104.

[39] Choi J. "Concurrent fire dynamics models and thermomechanical analysis of steel and concrete structures". Ph.D.
dissertation. Atlanta (USA): Georgia Institute of Technology; 2008.

[40] Kodur VR, Gu L, Garlock ME. "Review and assessment of fire hazard in bridges". Journal of the Transportation Research
Board No. 2172. Washington D.C. (USA): Transportation Research Board of the National Academies; 2010.

[41] Payá-Zaforteza I, Garlock, MEM. "A 3D numerical analysis of a typical steel highway overpass bridge under a hydrocarbon
fire". In: Proceedings of the fifth international conference for structures in fire. East Lansing, USA, 2010. p. 11–8.

[42] Franssen JM. SAFIR: "a thermal/structural program for modeling structures under fire". Eng J AISC 2005;42(3):143–58.

[43] FEA Ltd. LUSAS theory manual. Surrey (UK): FEA Ltd.; 2009.

17
 Marzouk & Heiza, March 2013 Highway Infrastructure Innovation Funding Program

[44] Guise SE, Short NR, Purkiss JA. "Petrographic and colour analysis for assessment of fire damaged concrete". In:
Proceedings of the international conference on cement microscopy, 1996. p. 365–72.

[45] Ongah R, Mendis P, Sanjayan J. "Performance of normal and high-strength reinforced concrete walls I fire". In: Proceedings
of international conference on advances in structures (ASSCCA’03), Sydney, 2003. p. 643–9.

[46] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C856. ASTM C856 standard practice for petrographic examination of
hardened concrete. West Conshohocken, PA (USA): ASTM; 2004.

[47] Glasheen DM. "Petrographic examination of hardened concrete – WSDOT Bridge 509/11". Dominion Labs, Inc., Project
No. S2084, March, 2003.

[48] Ballim Y, Silbernagl D. "Material and structural assessment of fire damage to the concrete deck of a motorway bridge". In:
Proceedings of conference on concrete repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting (ICCRRR-2), 2005. London: Taylor & Francis
Group; 2006. p. 221–3.

[49] Heiza Kh. "state-of-the-art-report" behavior and analysis of reinforced concrete structures subjected to fire or elevated
temperature. Submitted to steering committee no. 50 in structural engineering and construction May 2012, Egypt.

18

View publication stats