UNIVERSITY OF GHANA

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

ANALYSIS OF THE SPATIO-TEMPORAL PATTERN OF URBAN SPRAWL IN

GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF GREATER ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA (GAMA)

BY

MAXWEL AMEGASHIE

10430977

A DISSERTATION SUBMITED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS.) DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE

DEVELOPMENT

MAY, 2016

i
 DECLARATION

I wish to state that this work has never been submitted by anyone to any university or institution

for the award of a degree or other purpose. I declare therefore that this is my own original work.

References from the work of others have been duly acknowledged.

Signature………………………….. Date………………………

Maxwel Amegashie

10430977

Signature………………………….. Date………………………..

Dr. Alex Barimah Owusu

(Supervisor)

i
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the Almighty God, Dr. J.M.Y. Amegashie and the entire Amegashie

family, Dr. Ransford Gyampo and my supervisor.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for seeing me throughout my

study at the university and even this project work successfully.

I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Alex Barimah Owusu,

who labored to rescue this document from disorder. Your guidance, suggestions and prompt

responses to my submissions have been most reassuring and encouraging and to his assistants

Nana Ama Obeng Nti and Franchesca Mireku for their time and help.

I would also like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my uncle. Dr. Justice Morkporkpor

Yao Amegashie former chief executive officer, DVLA Ghana, who took care of me throughout

my study at the university. Uncle I say “akpe lotoo” (a very big thank you).

To Dr. Ransford Gyampo, (Senior Lecturer, Political Science Department of University of

Ghana). Also to Prof. J.A. Yaro (Associate Professor Department of Geography and Resource

Development University of Ghana Legon), Mr. Odikro Godwin (Teaching Assistant) your

guidance and efforts towards the success of this project is highly appreciated. And to other

lecturers and administrative staff in the Department who also contributed to my study through

lectures and services I am immensely grateful for the experience and knowledge they imparted

to me.

To my mother Mrs. Catharina Avi and my father Mr. Sylvester Yao Amegahie.

To all my colleagues and friends most especially my study mates Ama Helina Boatemaa, Nina

Sam, Harriet Otubia, Coffie Abena Anima Alberta, Lossou Peter Etse, Kyeku Paul, Nick

Ametitor, Organ Nathaniel, Sanford Mensah and others who helped in one way or the other for

the success of this project, it has been very interesting having you all in my life, I say thank you

all.

iii
 ABSTRACT

Urban sprawl has led to the loss of lots of natural resources such as water bodies, wetlands,

agricultural lands, forest, etc. which are needed to create a balanced environment and ecosystem.

As towns and cities expand due to the increase in urban population, enormous pressure is exerted

on the surrounding natural resources in order to create space to cater for the increasing urban

population. Urban sprawl generally leads to the wasteful development of land, natural resources

and pollution in urban areas. This has made it essential to understand the phenomenon of urban

sprawl, especially with the perspective of a developing country like Ghana. Therefore this project

sought to effectively map and analyse the spatio-temporal pattern of urban sprawl in GAMA and

investigate the causes and effects in the GAMA using remote sensing approach. Semi-structured

questionnaires were also administered to find out the spatial forms of sprawl, causes, effects, and

measures towards solving urban sprawl in the GAMA. Remote Sensing (RS) techniques applied

on remotely sensed images of the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) of the Greater

Accra region of Ghana were carried out to assess the spatial pattern of urban sprawl in the

GAMA. Spatial and statistical analysis of processed satellite data revealed the spatial pattern of

urban sprawl in the area from 1993 to 20013.The responses from the questionnaire survey affirms

the results from the remote sensing technics that the GAMA is sprawling over the years. The

forms and causes of the sprawl development that brought about the spatial pattern as well as the

effects were also revealed by the questionnaire survey. The major forms of sprawl identified

were linear, clustered and leapfrog and the major causes revealed were high population growth,

luck of planning and proper development policies, luck of affordable housing among others.

Some effects of sprawl that was revealed from the field were high vulnerability to flooding,

traffic congestion, high crime rates and inadequate access to social amenities among others.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..........................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... iv
ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES ......................................................................... ix

CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objectives of Study ............................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Proposition............................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.7.1 Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 5
1.7.2 Population sample size and Sampling Technique .............................................................. 6
1.7.3 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.8 Justification ........................................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 10

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Definition of Sprawl ............................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Distinction between Growth and Sprawl............................................................................. 10
2.3 Spatial forms of Sprawl ....................................................................................................... 11
2.4 Causes of sprawl .................................................................................................................. 12
2.5 Some Consequences of Sprawl ........................................................................................... 13
2.6 Visualization of Urban Sprawl ............................................................................................ 14

CHAPTEE 3 .............................................................................................................................. 15
STUDY AREA .......................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Location and Size ................................................................................................................ 15
3.2 Physical geography of GAMA ............................................................................................ 16
3.3 Socio-Economic Characteristics of GAMA ........................................................................ 17

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3.4 Migration and Growth of GAMA ....................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 20

SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF SPRAWL IN GAMA .................................................................... 20
4.1 Spatial pattern of sprawl in GAMA .................................................................................... 20
4.2 Forms of Sprawl Identified in GAMA ................................................................................ 31
4.3 Causes of Urban Sprawl in GAMA ..................................................................................... 31
4.4 Effects of Sprawl ................................................................................................................. 33
4.5 Efforts at Solving Urban Sprawl in GAMA ........................................................................ 34

CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................... 34

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................. 34
5.1 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 34
5.2 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 35
5.3 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 36

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 39

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................... 41
QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................................... 41

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework. ............................................................................................... 4

Figure 2: Spatial forms of Urban Growth(Agyeman, 2011). .................................................... 12

Figure 3: Study Area Map ......................................................................................................... 15

Figure 4: Classified Land Cover of the 1991 TM image .......................................................... 20

Figure 5: Classified Land Cover of the 2003 TM7 image ........................................................ 21

Figure 6: Classified Land Cover of the 2003 TM7 image ........................................................ 24

Figure 7: Classified Land Cover of the 2013 TM+ image ........................................................ 24

Figure 8: Classified Land Cover of the 1991 TM image .......................................................... 27

Figure 9: Classified Land Cover of the 2013 TM+ image ........................................................ 27

Figure 10: forms of sprawl development in GAMA ................................................................. 31

Figure 11: Causes of urban sprawl in GAMA ........................................................................... 32

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 LIST OF TABLES
1.5 Proposition ........................................................................................................................................ 4

Table 1: Description of land cover classes within the study area....................................................... 8

Table 2 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMA ................................................................. 22

Table 3: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA .......................................................................... 23

Table 4 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMA ................................................................. 25

Table 5: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA .......................................................................... 25

Table 6: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA .......................................................................... 28

Table 7 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMASource: Classified satellite images of

the GAMA, 2016 ................................................................................................................................... 29

viii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES

GAMA- Greater Accra Metropolitan Area

GSS- Ghana Statistical Service

LULC- Land Use Land Cover

RS - Remote sensing

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Urban sprawl is a global phenomenon. However, the situation in the developing countries

is overwhelming. Asia and sub Saharan African countries are the major developing areas in

the world. Pressure of continuous growing population results in overcrowding and pressure

on the limited social amenities in the developing world. The situation compel the middle

class and property developers to move to outward lying suburbs, a phenomenon known as

urban sprawl (Vinay, 2000).Urban Sprawl can be caused by increase in economic activities,

population growth, proximity to resources and basic amenities (Sudhira et al., 2003).

In Ghana, unprecedented population growth coupled with unplanned development activities

has increase urbanization which lacks basic facilities. This has also impacted negatively on

the social life of urban dwellers as well as the resource base of the country.

The pressure at the city centres has forced people especially the middle class to move to the

suburbs. The effects of urban sprawl phenomenon have captured the attention of social

critics, academicians, policy makers and planners to study, analyze effectively and curb the

phenomenon. When the patterns of sprawl are identified and the spatial and temporal

changes are known, it will help enormously in the planning for proper infrastructure facility

(Sudhira et al., 2003).

The spatial change in sprawl and growth of a city can be done cost effectively and efficiently

with the use of remote sensing technologies. Satellite remote sensing imageries and

conventional ground data can be used as an information source to analytically map, monitor

and accurately assess the spatial patterns of urban sprawl over different times (Lata et al.,

2001). ). Mapping urban sprawl provides a graphical representation of where natural

1
resources are threatened by such sprawl, and to suggest the likely future direction and

patterns of sprawling growth (Sudhira et al., 2004).

1.2 Problem Statement

According to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2004), the word sprawl refers ‘to

spread out or stretch out (something) in a wide or straggling manner’. Urban sprawl is a

global and critical issue in contemporary development situations in both developed and

developing countries. The case in the developing countries is even worse including sub-

Saharan Africa and for that matter Ghana where population increase and migration trends

for better livelihood opportunities have paved way for rapid expansion and growth of urban

centres. Sprawl may be caused by population growth, increase in economic activities,

proximity to resources and basic amenities (Sudhira et al., 2003).

In Ghana, unprecedented population growth is coupled with unplanned development

activities. Accra is the capital city of Ghana and the centre for national administration. It is

experiencing rapid increase in urban growth. Accra has undergone rapid expansion and

change. Its suburbs have been experiencing urban sprawl and its negative effects. More

people are gradually migrating from other urban and rural areas to Accra for both business

and administrative purposes. This has a great negative impact on the environment and the

population. The urban sprawl phenomenon has been subjected to considerable analysis by

social critics, academicians, policy makers and planners since the shift of people and

economic activities beyond the core of the city have vast socioeconomic and environmental

impacts. The direct effect of the sprawl phenomenon is the change in land use land cover

(LULC) of the region, consuming open and agricultural lands.

The ability to make efficient use of land greatly influences the economic and environmental

quality of life in society (Turkstra, 1996). When the patterns of sprawl are identified and the

2
spatial and temporal changes are known, it would help enormously in the planning for

proper infrastructure facility (Sudhira et al., 2003).

In view of this, even though efforts have been made to measure the population growth of

Accra using census data. For example 2000 and 2010 population census of Ghana, spatial

information necessitates proper planning, good governance and national development. For

that matter when the analysis of spatial and temporal changes are made, it could guide policy

makers for good governance, proper planning and development. Spatial analysis could be

done cost effectively and efficiently with the use of Remote Sensing techniques. Satellite

RS images can be used to analytically map, monitor and accurately assess the spatial

patterns of urban sprawl over different time periods (Lata et al., 2001). Therefore this

project sought to use Remote Sensing techniques to analytically map, monitor and

accurately assess the spatial patterns of urban sprawl over different time periods in GAMA

from 1991 to 2013. This will help policy makers to effectively plan and implement policies

that will improve the qualities of life and resource management in Greater Accra which is

the capital city of Ghana.

1.3 Research Questions

• What spatial forms of sprawl can be identified in GAMA?

• How can the spatial pattern of urban sprawl be mapped and analysed using remote

sensing techniques in GAMA?

• What are the causes and effects of urban sprawl in GAMA?

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1.4 Objectives of Study

The main objective of the study is to effectively map and analyse the spatio-temporal pattern

of urban sprawl in GAMA and investigate thespatial forms of sprawl, causes and effectsin

GAMA.

The specific objectives of this research are as follows:

• To identify spatial forms of sprawl in GAMA

• To map and analyse the spatial pattern of urban sprawl over time in GAMA using

remote sensing techniques.

• To examine the causes and effects of urban sprawl in GAMA

1.5 Proposition
Urban sprawl is likely to happen when there is high population growth in cities without

proper planning.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework.

Source: Author’s Construct
4
Lack of jobs and social amenities in the rural areas as arerult of lack of good governance is

likely to push people expecially the youth to the urban areas to search for jobs and enjoy the

available social amenities. Immigration to the urban areas will lead to high population

growth in the urban areas. High population growth in the urban areas is alsao likely to cause

urban sprawl if there is lack of good land development oplicies in the urban areas. population

growth can lead to population devident in the urban areas when managed properly.

However, lack of good governance and improper planing in the urban areas could lead to

urban sprawl and its nagative effects in the urban areas.

1.7 Methodology

Research techniques: Quantitative and qualitative methods (mixed method) was used in the

study.

The quantitative method was used to analyze the spatial pattern of urban sprawl in GAMA

over time, employing remote sensing techniques as the analytical tool. The main concerns

of the quantitative paradigm are that measurement is reliable, valid and clear in its prediction

of cause and effect (Cassell& Symon, 1994). A questionnaire was administered to

community members to inductively measure the causes and effects of urban sprawl and also

identify the forms of sprawl in GAMA, qualitative method was employed. This is because

qualitative method is capable of facilitating research to obtain a more realistic feel of the

world that cannot be experienced in the numerical data and statistical analysis.

1.7.1 Data Collection

Primary data was gathered from individuals concerning the causes, effects, forms of urban

sprawl that can be found in GAMA and efforts towards solving urban sprawl in the GAMA.

This was done through administering of semi-structured questionnaire. Most of the

5
questions were close-ended in nature providing the respondent with a set of multiple

responses to choose from and others were open ended.

The use of structured questionnaires and close-ended questions has numerous advantages,

such as easiness to process respondent’s answers. Closed ended questions also enhance the

comparability of answers. They also have the ability to clarify the meaning of a question for

respondents since possible answers are offered. Notwithstanding the merits, structured

questionnaires with close ended questions also restricted the respondents’ ability to express

his/her ideas and there is loss of spontaneity in respondents’ answers. The information

gathered from the questionnaire was used to verify the quantitative results and analysis made

by the remote sensing techniques.

Satellite data collection: Raw satellite images of GAMA 1991, 2003 and 2013 were

downloaded from USGS. This was because Ghana has no satellite.

1.7.2 Population sample size and Sampling Technique

The study used Purposive sampling, also referred to as judgment, selective or subjective

sampling techniques in administering questionnaires with a sample size of 50. Purposive

sampling is a non-probability sampling method that is characterized by a deliberate effort

to gain representative samples by including groups or typical areas in a sample. The

researcher relies on his/her own judgment to select sample group members. Purposive

sampling is mainly popular in qualitative studies.

In purposive sampling, the researcher has sufficient knowledge of topic to select sample of

experts and subjects are chosen in this sampling method according to the type of topic.

Therefore, skills and capabilities of the researcher to find appropriate individuals to

contribute to the achievement of research objectives play important role on the outcome of

6
studies using this sampling technique. And because the researcher has sufficient knowledge

about the topic and the study area, some selective areas that are experiencing pronounced

sprawl in the area were chosen randomly for the sample size. The selected areas

includedAdentan, Oyibi, Ashaiman, Amasaman, Ofankor, Weija and Ashaiman. A simple

random method was then used to administer the questionnaires to the household heads. Even

though these are not the only areas experiencing urban sprawl in the study area, they were

deliberately chosen as the sample size. Therefore Since urban sprawl is not happening in all

areas of GAMA and looking at the large size of the study area, the research find it worthy

to use purposive sampling technique.

This sampling method offers the following advantages:

 Less time consuming compared to many other sampling methods because only

suitable candidates are targeted

 Results of purposive sampling are usually more representative of target population

compared to other sampling methods

 Purposive sampling can be the only way to recruit the members of rare or much

sought after groups

Purposive sampling may be associated with the following disadvantages:

• Very high level of subjectivity by the researcher

• Limited representation of wider population

1.7.3 Data Analysis

The research exported the raw images downloaded into ENVI 4.7 software for further

processing. This software (ENVI) is a remote sensing software that visualizes processes

and analyses satellite images. The software was used to pre-process the images to make sure

they were very clear to be used. Image pre-processing such as calibration, filtration and band
7
ratio were done. This enhances the images to look clearer and workable. Band 3, 4 and 2

were used for the EMT4, ETM7 and ETM+ for 1991, 2003 and 2013 satellite images

respectively. These band combinations were used because they are very good for vegetation

analysis. After pre-processing, the images were further classified using the same ENVI

software. Classification is the process of grouping features of a raster data or photographic

images into points of interest and identify them with colours, in this case the three images

were classified with the same number of classes (three classes including Built-up,

Vegetation and water bodies) table 1 below shows the description of the classes.

Table 1: Description of land cover classes within the study area.

CLASS DESCRIPTION
COVER

Built-up Residential and Commercial, Transportation, Mixed Urban or Built-up Land, Sandy
Areas, Bare Exposed Rock, Transitional Areas and Barren Land.

vegetation Cropland and Pasture, Shrub and Bush, Grassland, forest land Other Agricultural Land

Water Lakes, Streams, Reservoirs and Wet-lands

bodies

Classification can be done in so many ways but this project used supervised classification.

The reason being that the researcher is familiar with the region of interest.

Land use land cover (LULC) and change detection: This is the stage where the ENVI

software compared the two images in displaying the land cover changes from the classified

landsite images of the two years.

Statistical analysis, calculations and discussion on the final images were done. This is

where the software displays statistical table showing the various land cover changes. The

research proceeded by looking at the forms, drivers of urban sprawl, effects and some efforts

8
towards solving urban sprawl in GAMA. In this case, the primary data that was collected

from the individual interviewees through the administering of questionnaire was analyzed

using SPSS and excel software.

1.8 Justification

Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that is making Accra more ugly and prone to disasters such

as flood and fire out breaks. Other crises caused by sprawl include traffic congestion,

pollution, loss of natural resources, high cost of land, increasing growth of slums leading to

rampant floods and fire out breaks in Accra. However, analysis of spatio-temporal patterns

of sprawl in GAMA would act as a blue print which may guide urban planners and policy

makers to coordinate and effectively plan Accra sustainably. This would make Accra more

attractive for investors and people to move in which may increase urban growth and

urbanization. Urbanization is good for industrialization therefore need to be managed well

in order to increase productivity and national income as a whole.

This research will necessitate further research such as impacts of urbanization and urban

growth.

9
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Definition of Sprawl

There is lack of agreement over the definition of sprawl (Barnes et al., 2000). Researchers

in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision. Sprawl is uncoordinated growth of

urban areas and the expansion of communities without concern for its consequences, in

short, it is unplanned, incremental urban growth which is often regarded unsustainable. Even

though there is dispute over the precise definition of sprawl, there is a general consensus

that urban sprawl is characterized by unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by

multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization. Therefor the definition

depends on the perspective of the one defining it (Bhatta et al., 2010).

According to the Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2004), the word sprawl refers ‘to

spread out or stretch out (something) in a wide or straggling manner’. In the same vain,

Microsoft Encarta 2009 defines sprawl as “the scattered, unplanned and unchecked

expansion of a town or city into the surrounding countryside”.

2.2 Distinction between Growth and Sprawl

Urban growth is often confused with urban sprawl. However, there is a distinction between

urban growth and urban sprawl. Cities often experience growth either physically by

infrastructure, by population growth, or by a combination of both. Urban sprawl is much

more complicated because it may or may not qualify as urban growth. How a city grows can

create the appearance of sprawl (Agyeman, 2011). Such urban growth may appear as a low-

density leapfrog pattern, a linear or strip development pattern along highways, or a tightly

condensed pattern of new development around pre-existing built-up landscapes (Nechyba

10
et al., 2004). Without urban growth there would be no appearance of urban sprawl. Urban

growth may have more of a planned appearance, while the pattern of sprawl often appears

awkward, uncontrolled and haphazard with more negative effects.

2.3 Spatial forms of Sprawl

Sprawl development is usually made up of three basic spatial forms which are as follows:

1. Linear growth or ribbon sprawl

2. Low-density continuous sprawl or cluster growth

3. Leapfrog development growth (Harvey & Clark, 1971).

Linear growth or ribbon sprawl: this is the type of development that occurs a long major

routes or roads/railways.

Low-density continuous sprawl is the highly consumptive use of land for urban purposes

along the margins of existing metropolitan areas. This type of sprawl is supported by

piecemeal extensions of basic urban infrastructure and social amenities such as water, sewer,

power, and roads. (Agyeman, 2011).

Leapfrog development sprawl is a discontinuous pattern of urbanization, with patches of

developed lands that are widely separated from each other and from the boundaries, albeit

blurred in some cases, of recognized urbanized areas. This form of development incurs high

expenditure to provide total urban services at the time of development (Harvey & Clark,

1971).

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Figure 2: Spatial forms of Urban Growth(Agyeman, 2011).

2.4 Causes of sprawl

Sprawl is caused mainly by socioeconomic indicators such as population growth,

Commuting costs, employment shifts, city revenue change, and number of Commercial

establishments (Brueckner, 2000; Lucy & Phillips, 2001). Bhatta, (2010). Also summarized

the causes of sprawl as the following. Population growth, Independence of decision,

Economic growth,

Industrialization, Speculation, Expectations of land appreciation, Land hunger attitude,

Legal disputes, Physical geography, Development and property tax, Living and property

cost, Lack of affordable housing, Demand of more living space, Public regulation,

Transportation, Road width, Single-family home, Nucleus family, Credit and capital market,

Government, developmental policies, Lack of proper planning policies and Failure to

enforce planning policies

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2.5 Some Consequences of Sprawl

Sprawl consequences can be classified into three main impacts thus socioeconomic,

environmental and natural impacts (Agyeman,T. 2011)

Socioeconomic impacts: Sprawl enforces wide physical, economic, emotional, and aesthetic

costs on residents in the locality. Physical costs include higher traffic congestion, over

crowdedness, longer commuting times and more aggressive driving patterns. Economic

costs become unfavourably higher and these include higher taxes, higher costs of

infrastructure production, reduced worker productivity, and serious or adverse financial

impacts on local governments. Emotional costs to the society are the loss of community

spirit and values. Aesthetical cost of a sprawl metropolitan gives less leisure time and uglier

monotonous suburban landscapes.

Environmental impacts: Sprawl has an extensive impact on ecosystems and other

environmental resources, which provide societal and environmental benefits simply by

existing and functioning. These ecosystems include wetlands that provide flood control and

waste water restoration; atmosphere, forests, and grasslands that provide climate regulation;

biodiversity factors that contribute to healthy, well-functioning ecosystems. Sprawl is a

great threat to wildlife in the metropolitan area. Land sprawl widens space between

remaining fragments of habitat and also degrades adjacent habitats with light and noise

pollution given out from developed areas.

Natural Impacts: Natural resources are the building blocks of economic systems, without

which economies would cease to function. Suburbs have become the dominant residential,

retail, and commercial centers of growth as well as political strength. The continuation and

replication of this trend place enormous pressure on land, water and other resources

(Diamond &Noonan,

1996).
13
2.6 Visualization of Urban Sprawl

Manual cartography for maps produced was designed well in advance of a due date. This

manual technique has been used for map production a long time before the advent of remote

sensing. Different types of spatial data available enable a remote sensing user to map

virtually any geographic phenomena without even getting into contact with the place.

Besides, remote sensing facilitate the processing of large volumes of data with much less

work and time, as compared to the manual cartographic methods. Mapping and monitoring

urban vegetation cover is a well developed and reliable application of remote sensing

(Kwarteng & Small 2010).Researchers on urban sprawl often use remote sensing as a tool

in the studying of urban sprawl effects on the natural environment. This is because they can

reveal areas of growth, patterns of growth, and allow for various statistical analyses to be

made on the urban sprawl and its consequence on the environment (Gar-On Yeh et al.,

2001).

14
 CHAPTEE 3

STUDY AREA

3.1 Location and Size

The study area is located in greater Accra region. The Greater Accra region is one of the ten

administrative regions of Ghana. It lies in the South East of the country along the Gulf of

Guinea and has coastal savannah, a little forest area inland towards the Eastern region in the

Ga district, and miles of beautiful coastline especially in the rural parts of the region.

Figure 3: Study Area Map

Source: Composed by Author

Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) Comprises the Accra metropolis, Tema

metropolis, Kpone Katanso, La Nkwantanan, Sowutuom, La Dadekotopon, Ga South, Ga

East, Ga West, Awutu Senya East, Adentan, Ashaiman and Ledzokuku Krowor).

15
3.2 Physical geography of GAMA

The main rivers that flow through the region are the Volta and Densu. In addition, there are

small seasonal streams flowing mostly from the Akwapim Ridge into the sea through

numerous lagoons. The region is bordered on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, for that matter

there are ecologically very important but highly polluted lagoons and wetlands in AMA and

Tema.

The dredging work on the Korle lagoon in AMA to tap its full potential is ongoing. There

is evidence to suggest that the vegetation of the metropolitan area has been altered in the

more recent past century by climate change and variability including other factors. Much of

the metropolitan area was believed to have been covered by dense forest of which only a

few remnant trees survive.

A climatic change combined with the gradient of the plains and cultivation has imposed

vegetation structures similar to those of the southern shale, Sudan and Guinea Savannahs

all of which lie north of the Accra plains.

There are three broad vegetation zones in the metropolitan area, which comprise shrub land,

grassland and coastal lands. Only the shrub land occurs more commonly in the western

outskirts and in the north towards the Aburi hills.

It consists of dense clusters of small trees and shrubs, which grow, to an average height of

five metres. The grasses are a mixture of species found in the undergrowth of forests.

The coastal zone comprises two vegetation types, wetland and dunes. The coastal wetland

zone is highly productive and an important habitat for marine life.

Mangroves, comprising two dominant species, are found in the tidal zone of all estuaries

and lagoons. Salt tolerant grass species cover substantial low-lying areas surrounding the

lagoons.

16
In addition to the natural vegetation zones, a number of introduced trees and shrubs thrive

in the metropolitan area. Neems, mangoes, cassias, avocados, and palms are prominent trees

on the Accra landscape. Introduced shrubs like bougainvillea are also very prominent. These

are being damaged from residential encroachment, bush fire, sand collection and illegal tree

felling.

3.3 Socio-Economic Characteristics of GAMA

Two different patterns of occupation characterize the GAMA. Sales workers and general

workers are the two major occupations. The most important category is that of sales workers

(GSS, 2010).

A sizeable number of the economically active persons in the area are self-employed without

employees. There is enough evidence in Ghana that children as young as 7 years work in

family enterprises (Ghana Statistical Service, 2003). Even though the Children’s Act of

1998 prohibits children under 13 years old from doing any work for pay or profit, many of

such children who do any work for pay or profit (described as working children) are found

in the area, especially in the

Accra Metropolis. The only mining activity is salt mining such as Panbros company ltd at

weija.

The GAMA contains the national capital city of Accra and as a result, a lot of social

infrastructure and amenities along with a few tourist attractions can be found in the area.

They include: Kotoka international Airport, Accra Sports Stadium, Kwame Nkrumah

Mausoleum, DuBois Memorial Centre, Manet Beach Paradise and Kokrobite Cultural

Centre in the Accra Metropolis.

17
In terms of road transportation, the GAMA is served by national highways that include the

N1, N2, N4 and N6. The N1 enters the Greater Accra Region in Ada to the east and runs

west as part of the ECOWAS regional highway that links Accra to other major population

centres along the

West African coast. It intersects with the N2 at Tema, the N4 at Tetteh Quarshie Interchange,

and the N6 at Achimota. It passes through Kokrobite and exits the region in Ga South

District where it continues through the Central Region to Elubo in the Western Region. The

N2 runs from Tema, crosses the Eastern Regional border into Asikuma and runs north to

the Upper East Region, ending at Kulungugu. The N4 includes the R40 from Accra to

Adenta through the Tetteh Quarshie Interchange on to Koforidua and Kumasi. The N6

originates from Achimota and terminates at Kumasi in the Ashanti Region.

3.4 Migration and Growth of GAMA

Greater Accra region is the largest region in Ghana in terms of population. Its total

population is about 4.10 million and counting (GSS, 2010).

Decentralization and birth control policies are expected to reduce both the natural birth and

migration rates. However, the decision by the colonial British government in 1877 to

relocate the administrative capital of Ghana (then Gold Coast) from Cape Coast to Accra

can be said to be one of the most important factors in the development and growth of

GAMA. Consequently, Accra has attracted significant public and private investments

towards its infrastructural and services development over the years, making it the ‘most

developed’ region in Ghana. Today, GAMA is the largest and the densest urban population

concentrated area in Ghana (GSS, 2012).

18
Though administratively defined as independent, the municipalities which were a few

decades ago purely rural, are now geographically and functionally part and parcel of the

built-up area of the Accra Metropolis – constituting the GAMA. The built-up of the

surrounding municipalities is largely attributed to the spill over of the population of the

Accra Metropolis (GSS, 2002). A reasonable average growth rate for the period is difficult

to choose, but to be on the conservative side a rate of 4.4% per annum is assumed as the

average growth rate for the period. The natural growth rate of Accra will be in the order of

2.8% to 3.2% with balance made up from migration (GSS.2010) Accra alone is about

1,695,136 million people (2000 National Population Census), Accra, Ghana’s capital since

1877, is today one of the most populated and fast growing Metropolis of Africa with an

annual growth rate of 3.36%. The period between 1960 and 1970 saw some of the rapid

industrialization and expansion in the manufacturing and commercial sectors in some major

areas within the metropolis.

This factor contributed to high immigration to Accra. The stagnation of the Ghanaian

Economy during the 1970’s had adverse effect on the growth rate of Accra’s population.

The decline in agriculture in rural communities in Ghana and industrialization in urban

regions coupled with the late 1980s and 1990s boom in the service sector in primate cities

propelled immigration to Accra.

19
 CHAPTER FOUR

SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF SPRAWL IN GAMA

4.1 Spatial pattern of sprawl in GAMA

This chapter discusses the results from the Landsat images that were processed using the

Envi 4.7 software. Overall changes in LULC changes from 1991-2013 was done and the

results clearly indicated that indeed the GAMA has sprawled over the past 22 years. Change

detection was done from 1991-2003, 2003-2013 and from 1991-2013 to indicate the overall

changes that occurred over longer period of time. The classification approach yielded two

land cover maps of the study area between 1991- 2003, 2003-2013 and 1991-2013 Landsat

images. A comparison of the Land cover maps shows the spatial pattern of sprawl in the

GAMA over the three periods (1991-2003, 2003-2013 and 1991-2013.

Figure 4: Classified Land Cover of the 1991 TM image

Statistical change detection of LULU in the GAMA from 1991-2003.The classification

approach yielded two land cover maps of the study area from 1991-2003. Figures below

represent the thematic maps of the classified images of 1991 and 2003 respectively.

20
Figure 5: Classified Land Cover of the 2003 TM7 image

Built-up was perceived to be 100 percent in 1991 but as at 2003, 89.7 percent was

maintained and only 10.4 percent has changed. Out of this change, vegetation took 9

percent representing 86.7 percent of the total change in Built-up. Water bodies also took

1.4 percent representing 13.1 percent of the total change in Built-up. Vegetation was also

perceived to be 100 percent in 1991 and over the past 12 years, it has decreased for about

38.3 percent from 1991-2003. The significant reduction in vegetation was as a result of

urban sprawl and expunction. Out of the total change of 38.3 percent in vegetation, Built-

up alone took 38.244 percent representing 99.8 percent of the total reduction in vegetation

over the past 12 years. Water bodies were responsible for only 0.0074 percent representing

0.19 of the total change.Water bodies out of the initial 100 percent in 1991, about 71.6

percent was maintained as at 2003 and about 28.4 has changed. Out of the total reduction

in water bodies, Built-up too about 19 .7 percent representing 69.3 percent of the total

change and vegetation took only 8.7 representing 30.72 percent of the total change in water

bodies.

21
From the statistical change detection table of LULC of the study area over the past 12 years,

it was clear that indeed urban growth coupled with urban sprawl is happening in the GAMA

accompanying with its effects. Over all, out of the changes that took place between LULC,

vegetation saw the greatest reduction and this reduction was as a result of people clearing

the natural vegetation for Built-up. Even though water bodies also took part of the change,

it was very negligible, about 0.2 percent. Evident exist from the statistical change detection

table that indeed people were encroaching water bodies including wet land areas of the

GAMA. Over the two year period (1991-2003), 19.658 percent of the water bodies in the

area changed to Built-up areas. Building on water ways and flooding areas in GAMA was

one major reason why most people living on low lying lands are very vulnerable to flooding

in the GAMA. The small change in Built-up (8.98 percent) to vegetation may be attributed

to people breaking part of concrete works in their homes for gardens and backyard farming,

other reasons include grasses growing in uncompleted buildings since 1991. Flooding to

some low lying areas were among others that was responsible for the 1.4 percent change in

Built-up to water bodies. Table 2 presents the percentage change in the LULC of the

GAMA from (1991-2003).

Table 2 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMA

Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

22
The total land area in meter square of Built-up was initially 6519987.00 in 1991 and that

of vegetation was 998005500.00, but in 2003, the land cover of vegetation reduced by a

total of 288015300.00 meter square and out of this, Built-up took 77779600 meter square

of the land cover change in vegetation. This indicated that the land cover of vegetation is

changing to Built-up mainly due to urban sprawl. The total land cover of water bodies in

1991 was 381411.oo square meter but it has decreased by 679500.00 meter square. Out of

this reduction, Built-up was responsible for 82.8 percent (562500.oo meter square) of the

total reduction in the land cover of water bodies over the past 12 years. Table 3 below

shows the statistics of land cover changes in the LULC of the GAMA from 1991-2003 in

meter square.

Table 3: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA

Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

Change detection statistics of LULC in GAMA from 2003-20013. The classification

approach yielded two land cover maps of the study area between 2003- 20013. The figures

below represent the thematic maps of the classified images of 2003 and 20013 respectively.

23
Figure 6: Classified Land Cover of the 2003 TM7 image

Figure 7: Classified Land Cover of the 2013 TM+ image

In 2003, 83.959 percent Built-up was maintained and about 16.04 percent have changed.

Out of this change, vegetation took 14.153 percent and water bodies took only 1.9 percent.

The change in Built-up from 2003-2013 was of no significant deviation from the change

that occurred in 1991-2003.Built-up saw only 0.5 percent additional decrease from 2003-

24
2013. Vegetation was initially 100 percent in 2003and as at 2013, it has reduced by 28.859

percent and Built-up again took greater portion of the total change in vegetation, it took

about 96.4 percent of the total change. This clearly indicated that greater part of vegetation

has changed to Built-up as it were from 1991-2003.water bodies were responsible for only

1.02 percent representing just 3.6 percent of the total change in vegetation. This may be as

a result of flooding of water bodies to the grass land areas along its banks.

Water bodies have also decreased by about 1.8 percent from 2003 to 2013.out of the slide

decrease in water bodies, Built-up was still responsible for greater percent of the change

and it took about 1.48 percent out of the 1.782 percent change. Meaning that people were

still building on water logged areas of the GAMA even though reduction in water bodies

have decreased as compared to the total reduction in 1991-2003 which was 28.373 percent.

The tables below represent the change detection statistics in the LULC from 2003-2013 in

percentages and in land cover changes in meter square of the LULC of the GAMA.

Table 4 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMA

Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

Table 5: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA

25
Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

Over all change detection statistics of LULC in GAMA over the 22 years period from 1991-

2013. From the classified images of the two years, it was shown clearly that some changes

have taken place within the study area over time as indicated in previous years above. This

involves multiple transfers from one land use land cover (LULC) to the other. As shown in

figure 8 and 9 in the next page.

26
Figure 8: Classified Land Cover of the 1991 TM image

The Eastern part of the GAMA by visual inspection from the display of the change detection

of the satellite data is the most sprawled area over the past 22 years from 1991 to 2013. Most

communities affected at the Eastern portion among others include Adenta, Ashalley Botwe,

Ashaiman, Tema and Oyibi.

Figure 9: Classified Land Cover of the 2013 TM+ image

27
The northern part also had a significant change from vegetation to built-up. The southern

part saw a significant infrastructure development in the past due to Colonial policies and

projects along the coastal areas during the Colonial rule. It is also the area that hosts the

seat of government and ministries since Colonial period till date hence the concentration

of infrastructure in this areas and these infrastructures were maintained over the years.

Major communities include Osu, Adabraka, Tema Station among others. The western

portion is also experiencing sprawling. Even though it was the least sprawled over the

years, it is now experiencing sprawling at a faster rate. Communities such as Amasaman,

Ofankor, Weija among others are the most sprawling areas at the Western part of the

GAMA. Table 2 and 3 shows the statistical change detection in LULC from the classified

satellite images of 1991 and 2013 of the GAMA.

Table 6: Change Detection Statistics of the GAMA

Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

28
Table 7 Change Detection Statistical Analysis of GAMA

Source: Classified satellite images of the GAMA, 2016

From the change detection statistics table above (table 3), built-ups initially were perceived

to be 100 percent in 1993. But over the past 22 years from 1991 to 2013, 96.723 percent of

the built ups were maintained. Only 3.277 percent has changed. And out of this change,

vegetation took 2.936 representing 89.6 percent. this slight change from built ups to

vegetation may be due to people breaking part of their concrete works in their homes for

back yard gardens or farming, some built ups may also be broken for parks and gardens.

Out of the change in built ups, water bodies also took only 0.340 of the change representing

10.4 percent of the total change in built-up. This may be as a result of flooding of some

areas in the GAMA. And out of the total land cover of 1841130 meter square in 1991 of

built-up, 178080300.00 meter square of it was maintained in 2013, only 6032700.00 meter

square has changed and out of this change, vegetation took 5406300 meter square and water

bodies also took 626400.00 meter square.

Statistical analysis and change detection in vegetation; Vegetation was perceived to be

initially 100 percent in 1991. In 2013, 62.720 percent of the vegetation was maintained.
29
37.280 percent has changed. Out of the change, 37.230 has changed to build ups

representing 99.87 percent of the total change in vegetation over the past 22 years. Out of

the change in vegetation, only 0.050 percent changed to rivers representing 0.08 percent.

And out of the total land cover of vegetation of 270576200 meter square in 1991,

16981100.00 meter square was maintained in 2013, and 1009385100.00 meter square has

changed in 2013 and out of this change, built-up took 1008041400.00 meter square and

water bodies took 0nly 134700.00 meter square. This clearly indicates that the land scape

and natural vegetation of the area has changed over time due to urban sprawl coupled with

construction activities.

Statistical analysis and change detection in water bodies; water bodies were also perceived

to be 100% at initial stage (1991). Over the past 22 years from 1991 to 2013, 93.164 percent

of the water bodies were maintained and 6.836 percent has changed. And out of this, built

ups took 6.661 representing 97.43 percent. This indicates that indeed people are building on

water ways and encroaching wet land areas of the GAMA. Vegetation also took only 0.175

of the total change in water bodies representing 2.6 percent. And the total land area covered

by water bodies in 1991 was 621883800.00 meter square. But as at 2013, 57972300.00

meter square was maintained and 42511500.00 meter square has changed. And out of this,

built-up took 41425200.00 meter square and vegetation also took 1086300.00 meter square.

This is as a result of vegetation growth on rivers and water bodies.

In confirmation of evidence of urban sprawl in GAMA with the use of remote sensing

approach, out of the fifty community members that were interviewed, 98 percent confirmed

that yes the GAMA has been sprawling over the years. Their response to indicators of urban

sprawl was also positive. 100 percent agreed that population in the GAMA is increasing

very fast exacerbating the sprawl phenomenon. 100 percent confirmed that people are

clearing the natural vegetation for build ups and 96 percent of the respondents said people
30
are encroaching wetland areas in GAMA. 96 percent of the respondents agreed to the fact

that the geography of the area is changing mainly due to urban sprawl coupled with

construction activities.

4.2 Forms of Sprawl Identified in GAMA

Three major forms of urban sprawl were identified within the study area as presented in

figure 7 above.

45%
40% 40% 40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Linear (Number of buildings Clustered (Number of Leapfrog (buildings are
in line) buildings not in line and discontinuous or widely
closely spread out) spread out)

Figure 10: forms of sprawl development in GAMA

Source: field survey, 2016

However, most respondents do not have fair idea about the forms of sprawl but with further

verbal explanations they agreed to the fact that the area has a mixture of all the three forms

but the most common forms are linear along the major roads and clustered ones near markets

and major business centers. The dispersed or leapfrog forms is found at the extreme town

side or new sites of the study area. The figure below represents the responses on the forms

of sprawl in GAMA

4.3 Causes of Urban Sprawl in GAMA

Community members were interviewed about the following causes of sprawl. High

population growth, weak land development policies, demand for single family housing, luck

31
of affordable housing, low cost of land and low property tax. Opportunity was given for

them to provide other causes if there is any but only two people responded to that effect. A

total of 21.6 percent of respondents agreed that the cause of sprawl in GAMA is as a result

of week land policies. Also, 13.5 percent said it is as a result of demand for single family

housing.

20
24.3% 24.3%
18
21.6%
16
14
12
13.5%
10
8
8.1% 8.1%
6
4
2
0
Weak land Demand for single Lack of affordable Low cost of land Low property tax Population
development family housing housing Growth
policies

Figure 11: Causes of urban sprawl in GAMA

Source: field survey, 2016

Further, 24.3 percent of respondentssaid is as a result of luck of affordable housing and 24.3

percent also said it is caused by population growth. Finally, 8.1 percent noted that this was

as a result of low cost of land and low property tax. Two of the respondents are of the view

that improper layout is also contributing to urban sprawl in the area. Therefore from the

survey, the major causes of sprawl in the area are lack of affordable housing, weak land

development policies and high population growth. The graph below represents the responses

to the questions pertaining to causes of sprawl.

32
4.4 Effects of Sprawl

The literature review indicated so many effects of sprawl, however the survey on effects of

sprawl in the area shows that urban sprawl is contributing to traffic congestion in the area.

About 56 percent of the total population interviewed said sprawl is causing traffic

congestion in the area. Vulnerability to flooding is also very high in the area.

80.0%
74.4%
70.0%

60.0%
55.8%
51.2%
50.0%

40.0% 34.9%
30.2%
30.0%

20.0%
14.0%
10.0%

.0%
Loss of water Accessibility to Vulnerability to Traffic Congestion Low social Crime rate
bodies social amenities floods interaction with
community
members

Figure 12: effects of urban sprawl in GAMA

Source: field survey 2016

About 75 percent of the total number of community members interviewed lamented on how

urban sprawl is causing flooding in the area. 52.2 percent of the interviewees said it is

contributing to high crime rate in the area, 30.2 percent of the respondents also said sprawl

is leading to loss of water bodies in the area. About 35 percent said it is making it difficult

for people to access social amenities and 14.0 percent said is causing low social interaction

between community members. Figure 6 below shows the various responses to the effects

questions.

33
4.5 Efforts at Solving Urban Sprawl in GAMA

Some respondents indicated that the government has made several efforts towards reducing

urban sprawl in the area, among these include state housing policies in the early 1700s to

build affordable housing for the middle and low income earners to avoid overcrowding at

the city centre. Atypical example that most respondents in Adenta pointed to Adenta SSNIT

flats as an example of affordable housing in the area. A man also said “decentralisation of

some government structures are also an efforts to reduce migration to Accra from other

regions for administrative purposes”. Other efforts indicated include the district assembly’s

policy of making sure that individuals and organizations take building permit before

building is a measure against urban sprawl and building on water ways.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary

This chapter highlights the summary of findings and conclusions of the study. The general

objectives of this research was to analyze the spatio-temporal pattern of urban sprawl in

GAMA using remote sensing techniques. In attaining this objective, satellite dada was

processed using remote sensing technique with the help of Envi 4.7 software to show the

34
spatial pattern of sprawl in GAMA. A field survey was also conducted to find out the

opinions of respondents in the selected communities where sprawl is happening on the

causes, effects, forms of sprawl and efforts towards solving sprawl in the GAMA. The

results obtained through the processed satellite data and field survey in chapter four

indicated that indeed sprawl is happening in the GAMA. From the satellite data, vegetation

has decreased from initial 100 percent in 1991 to 30.8 percent in 20013 and built ups took

68.710 percent of the total change in vegetation. Evident exist from that processed satellite

data that vegetation have decreased over the three periods (from 1991-2003, 2003-2013 and

1991-2013). This clearly indicated how fast people are clearing the natural vegetation for

construction purposes. And about 99 percent of respondents also agreed that the area is

sprawling.

The study revealed that sprawl is affecting the lives of people living within the GAMA

especially people living in the sprawling areas. Major effects in these areas according to

respondents include flooding, traffic congestion and lack of accessibility to social amenities,

high crime rate and loss of water bodies. Major causes of sprawl in the area are high

population growth, luck of affordable housing and weak land development policies.

The study revealed the following forms of sprawl in the GAMA. Linear Growth, Cluster

Growth and Leapfrog Growth.

The results suggested that the GAMA is sprawled. The sprawl is due to the increasing

population growth, weak land development policies, demand for single family housing, luck

of affordable housing, low cost of land and low property tax within the GAMA.

5.2 Conclusions

The study through analysis of Satellite data has shown the spatial pattern of sprawl in

GAMA. The main drivers of sprawl and its effects and forms of sprawl were identified

35
through questionnaire survey. This indicates that the objectives set out for this project have

been achieved. The study revealed that the GAMA is experiencing rapid urban sprawl.

The areas that were perceived to have a 100% vegetation as at 1993 only 30.790% of it was

maintained in 2013. And urban or built-up land took 68.710% 0f the total change. The

magnitude of growth of the urban area has indicated how fast the area is expanding to its

suburbs over the past 20 years from 1993 to 2013. This situation identifies the study area to

be sprawling. For the three Landsat images, two land cover maps were generated in each

period using some applications of RS techniques. A comparison between the three land

cover maps revealed the spatial pattern of the expansion of the urban area by visual

interpretation. The present pattern of residential land use has a mixed character of both

planned and unplanned growth in the city. Like other cities the heart of the inner zone,

business and major market zones is highly congested.

The rapid expansion of the GAMA may be attributed to the demographic trends of the study

area. The ever-increasing population experienced in the GAMA has tremendously led to the

conversion of large portions of forest, wetlands and agricultural lands to urban or built-up

lands. The growth of the urban area has taken over surrounding vegetated lands including

forest and agricultural lands leaving the study area derelict of vegetation causing general

degradation of the environment.

The study has also demonstrated the ability of using RS techniques in spatio-temporal

analysis.

5.3 Recommendation

In order to ensure the prudent use of land and protect the remaining natural resources within

the study area and among others like it, the following recommendations are proposed: The

study should be pursued further so that a mathematical model can be developed which would

36
help city planners to project and predict future situations and enable them plan and

implement measures to ensure judicious use of land and natural resources within the

GAMA.

• Streamlining of land management, especially within the regulatory bodies

responsible for land administration (Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines, Land

Title Registration, Lands Commission, Administrator of Stool Lands and

District/Municipal Assemblies) to implement strict regulations on land owners and

users, to ensure decency in land trade and usage. This should be done through

coordination among these institutions.

• An efficient data collection system and data base on land cover in Ghana, as relevant

data needed for in-depth analysis of LULC change is lacking. And once data is

unavailable, spatiotemporal analysis becomes very difficult.

• There should be re enforcement of laws protecting water bodies and wetlands by the

Environmental Protection Agency, Water Resources Commission and the

District/Municipal Assemblies.

• Proper and planned infrastructure such as affordable housing need to be constructed

for the general public to reduce or curb any form of disconnected development

patterns, such as slums, building on water ways among others.

• It is also prudent for the lands commission and urban planners to delineate industrial

areas from residential areas. And also issue building codes to the various developers

of the residential areas. These would reduce improper siting of buildings that makes

the area looks ugly. The department of urban planning should also do well to provide

proper city address system so that when there is flooding and other disasters in the

GAMA, the victims can be reached and rescued.

37
38
 REFERENCES

Agyemang, A.T. (2011). A Study to Ascertain the Growth Situation of the Kumasi

Metropolitan Area (KMA). A Remote Sensing Approach.Kwame Nkrumah

University of Science and Technology (Published).

Agyemang, A.T. (2011). In Concise Oxford English Dictionary, (11thed.)

Barnes, K.B., John, M., Morgan III., Martin, C.,& Robert, S.W. (2000). Sprawl

Development. The Patterns, Consequences and Measurement. Retrieved from http://

www.chesapeakebayfromspace.net.

Cassell, C., & Symon, G. (1994). Quantitative research in Work Contexts. In C. Cassell, &

G. Symon (eds.), Qualitative methods in organizational research. Thousand Oaks,

CA: Sage Publications.

Dilorenzo, W. (2000). The Myth of Suburban Sprawl, U.S.A.

Gar - on Yeh, A.,& Xia, L. (2001). Measurement and Monitoring of Urban Sprawl in a

Rapidly Growing Region Using Entropy, Journal of Photogrammetric Engineering

and Remote Sensing, 67(1), 83-90.

Gbekor, M.K. (2008). An Assessment of Land Use Land Cover Changing within the Owabi

Catchment.

Ghana Statistical Service (2001). Special Report on Localities by Districts, Accra

Ghana Statistical Service (2012). 2010 Population and Housing Census. Summary Report

of Final Results. GSS, Accra.

Harvey, R.O.,& Clark, W.A.V. (1971). The Nature and Economics of Urban Sprawl in

Internal Structure of the City, New York.

Hathout, S. (2002). The Use of GIS for Monitoring and Predicting. Urban Growth in East

and West St Paul, Canada. Journal of Environmental Management, 66, 229-238.

39
Nanda, T. (2005). Urban Sprawl and Occupational Change in Raipur City, India. Retrieved

from http:// www.gisdevelopment.net/thesis8/Conc.htm.

Nechyba, T.J., & Walsh, R.P. (2004). Urban Sprawl. Journal of Economic Perspectives,

18(4), 177-200.

Pendall, R. (1999). Do Land-use Controls Cause Sprawl? Environment and Planning.

Singh, A. (1989). Review Article Digital Change Detection Techniques Using Remotely

Sensed Data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10(6), 989-1003.

Sudhira, H.S., Ramachandra, T.V &Jagadish, K.S (2004). Urban Sprawl Metrics, Dynamics

and Modelling Using GIS. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and

Groin Formation, 5, 29-39.

Vinay, K.S. (2000). Application of Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques in Monitoring of

Urban Sprawl in and Around Jbaria Coalfields (Dhanbad).

40
 APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Survey on causes, effects, forms and efforts towards reducing urban sprawl in
GAMA.
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY
OF GHANA
This survey is being conducted as part of a study on the topic “Analysis of spatio-temporal
patterns of Urban sprawl in Ghana: A case study of Greater Accra Metropolitan Area”. Your
responses will be used anonymously and only for academic purposes. Thank you in advance
for your time.
INSTRUCTION: please provide answers where required and tick answer that best fits a
question.
A. Background Characteristics Of respondent.
1. Age: …………………………………
2. Gender: 1. Male 2. Female
3. Level of education: 1. No formal education 2. Primary 3. JHS/Middle
4. SHS/’O Level/’A ‘level 5. Tertiary
4. How long have you stayed in this area? < 5 Years[ ] 5 – 10 years[ ] 11-20 years[ ]>21
years[ ]

5. Marital status: Married [ ] Single [ ] Separated [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ]

6. Household size: Single [ ] 2-5 [ ] 6-10 [ ] 10+ [ ]

7. House ownership status: Landlord [ ] Lease [ ] Tenant ( )

B. Indicators of urban sprawl. (Sprawl is uncoordinated growth of urban areas)

8. Is urban sprawl happening in the area? = Yes = No
9. Is the population of the area increasing? = Yes = No
10. Is the natural vegetation changing to build-ups? = Yes = No
11. Are people encroaching wetlands (rivers?) = Yes = No
12. Is the land surface changing due to construction activities? = Yes = No
C. Causes of urban sprawl in GAMA
Please give a score to the following causes of urban sprawl in the area. (Score; 1=very low;
2=low; 3 medium; 4=high; 5= very high).

Causes of urban sprawl Very low low medium high Very high
Population growth 1 2 3 4 5
Weak land development policies 1 2 3 4 5

41
Demand for single family housing 1 2 3 4 5
Lack of affordable housing 1 2 3 4 5
Low cost of land 1 2 3 4 5
Low property tax 1 2 3 4 5

Others, please specify

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………........
D. Effects of urban sprawl in GAMA
Please give a score to the following effects of urban sprawl in the area. (Score; 1=very
low; 2=low; 3 medium; 4=high; 5= very high).
Effects of urban sprawl Very low medium high Very
low high
Loss of water bodies 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5
Accessibility to social amenities

vulnerability to 1 2 3 4 5
floods
Low social interaction with community members 1 2 3 4 5

Traffic congestion 1 2 3 4 5

Crime rate 1 2 3 4 5

Others, please specify

………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..

42
 E. forms and pattern of sprawl in GAMA
Please give a score to the following forms of urban sprawl in the area. (Score; 1=very low;
2=low; 3 medium; 4=high; 5= very high).
Forms of urban sprawl Very low medium high Very
low high
Linear (number of buildings in line) 1 2 3 4 5
Clustered (number of buildings not in line and closely 1 2 3 4 5
spread out)
Leapfrog (buildings are discontinuous or widely spread 1 2 3 4 5
out)

Others, please specify …………………………………………………………………

F. What are some efforts towards reducing urban sprawl in the GAMA?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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