Elements of Mining

MNC 200
 ELEMENTS OF MINING (MNC 200)
Syllabus:
•  Mining – definition and economic importance;
•  Mine – definition, different types and classification;
•  Mine life cycle;
•  Mineral deposit – different types and their classification;
•  Mineral resources of India;
•  Modes of entry to a mine – shaft, incline, decline, adit and box-cut.
•  Overview of surface mining: Types of surface mines, unit operations, basic
bench geometry, applicability & limitations and advantages &
disadvantages.
•  Overview of underground mining:
-  Different coal mining methods and their applicability & limitations;
-  Different metal mining methods and their applicability & limitations;
•  Basic concepts of transportation, ventilation, illumination and support in
underground mines.
 Mining and Mining Engineering
•  Mining consists of the processes, the occupation, and the industry
concerned with the extraction of minerals from the earth or any
terrestrial body.

•  Mining engineering, on the other hand, is the art and the science
applied to the processes of mining and for the operation of mines.

•  Access for extracting minerals from the earth is to ‘drive’ (construct)
an excavation or an ‘opening’ to serve as a means of ‘entry’ from the
existing surface to the mineral deposit. Whether the openings lie
near the surface or are placed underground this fixes the locale of
the mine.

•  The mining method covers specific details of the procedure, layout,
equipment, and system used for mining. This is unique as determined
by the physical, geologic, environmental, economic, and legal
circumstances that prevail at the site.
In surface mining an open excavation is made to normally extract thick
deposits or near surface deposits. In surface mining or open cast mining
extraction of mineral is carried out strip by strip or in benches. It often
necessitates a large capital investment but generally results in high
productivity, low operating cost, and good safety conditions.
Underground mining is started with drivage of either vertical or
horizontal or inclined entries into the orebody which may extend up to
few hundred meters or kilometres depending upon depth of deposits.
Underground mining method may be by unsupported, supported, and
caving methods which are differentiated by the type of wall and roof
supports.
The trained professional who relates mining and mining engineering is
the mining engineer;
He/she is responsible
-  for helping to locate and prove minerals in the mines,
-  for designing and developing mines, and
-  for exploiting and managing mines successfully
-  for mine closure to make it sustainable
MINING TERMINOLOGY

5
Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an
orderly internal structure and a characteristic chemical composition,
crystal form, and physical properties. Examples:
Quartz - SiO2 (an oxide)
Hematite - Fe2O3 (another oxide)
Covelite - CuS (a sulphide)
Rock any naturally formed aggregate of one or more types of mineral
particles.
Ore: a mineral deposit that has sufficient utility and value to be mined at a
profit
Gangue– the valueless mineral particles within an ore deposit that must be
discarded
Waste – the material associated with an ore deposit that must be mined to
get at the ore and must then be discarded. Gangue is a particular type of
waste
7
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
•  As magma cools, more abundant metals (silicon, aluminum)
deposit first
•  Solidification of magma releases water - a hydrothermal solution
•  Minerals precipitate from hydrothermal solution and deposit in
cracks or veins in rock
Sedimentary Ore Deposits
•  Accumulation, burial and petrification of vegetation, e.g. Coal, Lime
stone Deposits etc.
•  Deposition of dense, resistant minerals in streams, lakes etc (Alluvial
Deposits), e.g. Placer gold
•  Precipitation of minerals from ancient oceans (Evaporite Deposits),
e.g. Potash and salt deposits
Metamorphic Ore Deposits
•  Concentration of minerals caused by high temperature and
pressure near intrusions
Examples:
Lead-zinc deposits
Diamonds
Garnets
Metallic ores: those ores of ferrous metals (Iron, manganese,
molybdenum and tungsten), the base metals(copper, lead, zinc, and
tin), the precious metals (gold, silver, and the platinum group metals),
and the radioactive minerals(uranium, thorium and radium)
Nonmetallic Minerals(also know as industrial minerals): the non fuel
mineral ores that are not associated with the production of metals.
These include phosphate, potash, halite, Trona, sand, gravel, limestone,
sulphur and many others.
Fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels – the organic mineral
substances that can be utilised as fuels such as coal, petroleum, natural
gas, coal bed methane etc. Concentration
Metal (% by weight)
Economically important metal Aluminum 8.0
concentration in earth’s crust: Iron 5.8
Copper 0.0058
Nickel 0.0072
Note for comparison: Zinc 0.0082
Uranium 0.00016
Silicon 28% Lead 0.001
Oxygen 46% Silver 0.000008
Gold 0.0000002

What is ore grade?
Ore grade is the concentration of economic mineral or metal in an
ore deposit and is expressed in:
•  Weight percentage (base metals)
•  Grams/tonne or oz/ton (precious metals)
Cutoff Grade: It is the grade at which the gross value of the ore mined is
exactly equal to the cost of mining. Therefore mining becomes
uneconomical for ore body with grade below cutoff grade.
Cutoff grade = Cost /(Price x recovery)
If Price of copper in India is Rs.600/kg and Production cost of copper
ore(cost of mining together with milling cost) is Rs. 5000/Tonne,
Cutoff grade of ore will be 8.33kg of copper per tonne of ore and if
recovery is 90% the cut off grade will be slightly higher i.e. 9.26Kg/tonne
of ore or can also be expressed as 0.925% by weight.
Economically Important Metals: Typical Grades of Ore Deposits
which is economically extractable:

Typical Grade
Metal (% by weight)
Aluminum 30
Iron 53
Copper 0.5-4
Nickel 1
Zinc 4
Uranium 0.3
Lead 5
Silver 0.01
Gold 0.0001-0.001
 Coal Rank
Coal Color Moisture Fixed Heating
Carbon Value
Lignite Brown 70% 7,000

Sub Black 43% 70% 9,000

Bituminous
Bituminous Black 5% 80% 13,500

Super Black 83% 16,000

bituminous
Anthracite Black 2% 90% 13,000
Mining Terminology:
Shaft is a vertical opening/access to a mine driven from the surface to the ore
body which is used for transport of ore/manpower & ventilation. It is normally
circular in cross-section with 6-7m dia.
•  Downcast Shaft: Shaft through which intake/fresh air enters the mine
•  Upcast Shaft: Shaft through which return air comes out of the mine
Adit is a horizontal or a nearly horizontal entrance to an underground mine
especially in a hilly deposit. It has normally rectangular cross-section.
Slope/Incline: Primary inclined opening, usually a inclined shaft, connecting
surface with underground workings with normally rectangular cross-section.
Decline: Secondary inclined opening or may be spiral, driven downward to
connect levels on the dip of a deposit with normally rectangular cross-section.
Drifts/Cross Cuts are Horizontal or nearly horizontal underground drivages to
intersect orebody. It is primary or secondary horizontal or near horizontal
opening oriented parallel to the strike of the deposit.
Dip Angle at which the orebody is inclined with horizontal. It is normally
expressed in degrees, percentage or 1 in 5(may be any number: higher is the
number flatter is the deposit)
Strike Main horizontal course or direction of a mineral deposit in any
horizontal plane across the dip at any point.
Incline entry into a seam.

17
Entry through a shaft

18
Layout of Underground Mine and terms Used
Footwall: Wall or rock below the orebody

Hangwall: Wall or rock above the orebody

Vein or lode: It is a natural crack in the earth’s crust filled with minerals.
Sometimes, mineralized zone is more or less regularly developed in length,
width and depth to give it a shape of tabular deposit.

Country Rock : waste material adjacent to mineral deposit

Raise: Secondary or tertiary vertical or near vertical opening driven upward

from one level to another
Winze: Secondary or tertiary vertical or near vertical opening driven
downward from one level to another
Cross Cuts are Horizontal or nearly horizontal underground drivages to
intersect orebody
Stope: This is an opening from which ore is mined which may be vertical or
inclined. The stopes are at times backfilled with cemented waste materials
Stoping is the process of final extraction of the desired ore or other mineral
from an underground mine, leaving behind an open space known as a stope.
Mine Life Cycle:
Using scientific principles, technological knowledge, and managerial skills,
the mining engineer brings a mineral property through the four stages in
the life of a mine i.e. prospecting, exploration, development and
exploitation. Recently, reclamations has been added as 5th stage which is
now considered as statutory obligation.

Prospecting :
Concerned with the discovery of minerals by geological investigations

Exploration :
Determining the economic aspects of the discovered mineral deposit and
mining feasibilities

Development:
Making an access to the mine and creating infrastructures or capacity
building

Exploitation :
Winning of minerals by designing of suitable method of mining keeping in
view the economics, safety, environmental and societal objectives
Reclamation :
This is an important and latest mining activity which has been made
mandatory in almost all countries. This includes post mining activities
such as restoration of pre-mining site conditions and ensuring similar
biological conditions.
In fact the terminology of sustainable mining is being frequently used
these days and is being insisted upon by the society and the Govt. The
objective is not only to make mining sustainable as well to maintain
the healthy environmental conditions so as to be sustainable.
This includes:
•  selection of suitable mining technology
•  adoption of mitigating measures for the expected level of air, water
and land pollution
•  Not to disturb or to restore after mining the existing ecology, flora
and fauna etc so as to preserve the same for future generation
 Stage/
TABLEName)
1.3 Stages in the Life of a Mine
Stages in the life of a mine:
(Project Stage/ Procedure Time Cost/U

Stage/
(Project Name) Procedure Time Cos
(Project Name) Procedure Precursors to Mining Time Cost/
1. Prospecting Search for ore Precursors to Mining 1 — 3 yr $0.2 — 1
(Mineral deposit) a. Prospecting methods Precursors to Mining or $0.0
1. Prospecting Direct: physical
Search for ore 1 — 3 yr $0.2
($0.05 —
1. Prospecting (Mineral deposit)
Search for
geologic ore
a. Prospecting methods 1 — 3 yr or —$
$0.2
(Mineral deposit) a.Indirect:
Prospecting methods
geophysical, or $0
Direct: physical ($0.
8 INTRODUCTION Direct:
TO MINING
geochemicalphysical ($0.0
geologic geologic
b. Locate favorable
Indirect:loci
geophysical,
Indirect: geophysical,
(maps, literature, old mines)
TABLE 1.3 Stages geochemical geochemical
c. Air:inaerial
the Life of a Mine
photography,
b. Locateb.favorable
Locate favorable
loci loci
airborne geophysics,
(maps, literature, old mines)
(maps, literature, old mines)
Stage/ satellite
c. Air: aerial photography,
(Project Name) d. Surface: c. Air: aerial photography,
ground
Procedure Time C
airborne geophysics,
geophysics,airborne
geologygeophysics,
satellite
e. d.Spot anomaly,
Surface: analyze,
satellite
ground
evaluate d. Surface:
geophysics, geologyPrecursors to Mining
ground
2. Exploration Defining
e. Spot extent andanalyze,
value
geophysics,
anomaly, of
geology 2 — 5 yr $1 — 15
1. Prospecting
(Ore body) ore Search for ore
(examination/evaluation
evaluate
1 — 3 or
yr $0.2
$0
e. Spot anomaly, analyze,
(Mineral deposit)
2. Exploration a.Defining
Samplea. Prospecting
(drilling
extent andor methods
value of 2 — 5 yr ($0.22$1 —or
—
1
excavation),
evaluate
assay, test
(Ore body) Direct: physical
ore (examination/evaluation ($
2. Exploration
b.a.Estimate Defining
tonnage extent
and and
gradevalue of 2 — 5 yr or$1$0
—
geologic or
Sample (drilling ($0.2
(Ore body)
c. Valuate ore (examination/evaluation
deposit
excavation), (Hoskold
assay, test or $
Indirect: geophysical,
b.formula
Estimate a.
or Sample
discount
tonnage (drilling or
and grade ($0.
geochemical
c.method): excavation),
Valuate present
deposit assay, test
(Hoskold
value b. Locate
! income favorable
" cost loci
formula b. or
Estimate
discount tonnage and grade
Feasibility
method): (maps,
study: literature,
make
present old mines)
c. Valuate deposit (Hoskold
decision c.to!
value Air: aerial photography,
abandon
income orcost
develop.
formula" or discount
 value ! income " cost
Stage/ Feasibility study: make
(Project Name) decision to abandon or develop.
Procedure Time

Mining Proper
Precursors to Mining
3. Prospecting
1. Development Opening
Search forup ore deposit for
ore 12——35 yr
yr
(Prospect)deposit)
(Mineral production
a. Prospecting methods
a. Direct:
Acquirephysical
mining rights
geologic or lease), if
(purchase
Indirect:
not donegeophysical,
in stage 2
geochemical
b. File environmental impact
b. Locate favorable loci
statement, technology
(maps, literature, old mines)
assessment,
c. Air: permit
aerial photography,
c. airborne
Constructgeophysics,
access roads,
transport system
satellite
d. Surface:
d. Locate surface
groundplant,
geophysics, geology
construct facilities
e.
e. Spot anomaly,
Excavate analyze,
deposit (strip
evaluate
or sink shaft)
2. Exploration Defining extent and value of 2 — 5 yr
(Ore body) ore (examination/evaluation
Stage/
(Project Name) Procedure Time

4. Exploitation Large-scale production of 10 — 30 yr

(Mine) ore
a. Factors in choice of
method: geologic,
geographic, economic,
environmental, societal
safety
b. Types of mining methods
Surface: open pit, open
cast, etc.
Underground: room and
pillar, block caving, etc.
c. Monitor costs and economic
payback (3 — 10 yr)

Post-mining
5. Reclamation Restoration of site 1 — 10 yr
(Real estate) a. Removal of plant and
buildings
b. Reclamation of waste
and tailings dumps
c. Monitoring of discharges
Stages and Schemes of Mineral Exploration:
-  Favourable areas identified by prospecting must be delineated by
exploration techniques
-  once located the mineral deposits are sampled thoroughly and
impartially and the samples analyzed for grades etc.
-  the sampling data are utilized to prepare an estimate of tonnage with
extent of deposit, as well grade from which the present worth of the
deposit can be calculated and recommendations made regarding the
economic feasibility of mining
Resource: It is a concentration or occurrence of mineral in such a form and
quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction
A mineral Reserve is the economically minable part of a measured or indicated
mineral resource that are economically minable at a given time.
It is to note that these two terms have the same relationship as mineral
deposit and ore deposit: that is all reserves are resources just as all ore deposits
are mineral deposits.
A reserve can become resource overnight if the market price for the
mineral in the deposit drops suddenly.
Measured/Proved mineral reserve: That part of a mineral resource for
which tonnage, densities, shape, physical characteristics, grade, and
mineral content can be estimated with a high level of confidence. The
data must be based on detailed and reliable information from outcrops,
trenches, pits, workings, and drill holes. The location of the data points
must be spaced closely enough to confirm geological and or grade
continuity
Indicated Mineral Resource: That part of a mineral resource for which the
tonnage, densities, shape, physical characteristics, grade, and mineral
content can be measured with reasonable level of confidence. Data are
gathered from similar points but locations are widely spaced to confirm
geological and or grade continuity.

Inferred Mineral Resource: That part of a mineral resource for which

tonnage, grade and mineral content can be estimated with low level of
confidence. It is inferred from geological evidence and assumed but not
verified.
RESOURCE ESTIMATION METHODOLOGY
A resource estimate is based on prediction of the physical characteristics of a
mineral deposit through collection of data, analysis of the data, and modeling
the size, shape, and grade of the deposit.
Important physical characteristics of the ore body that must be predicted
include
1.  the size, shape, and continuity of ore zones,
2.  the frequency distribution of mineral grade, and
3.  the spatial variability of mineral grade.

These physical characteristics of the mineral deposit are never completely
known, but are inferred from sample data. The sample data consist of one or
more of the following:

1.  Physical samples taken by drilling, trenching, test pitting, and channel
sampling.
2.  Measurement of the quantity of mineral in the samples through
assaying or other procedures.
3.  Direct observations such as geologic mapping and drill core logging.
4.  Estimation of the resource requires analysis and synthesis of these
data to develop a resource model.

Methods used to develop the resource model may include
1.  Compilation of the geologic and assay data into maps, reports, and
computer databases.
2.  Delineation of the physical limits of the deposit based on geologic
interpretation of the mineralization controls at a reasonable range of
mining cutoff grades.
3.  Compositing of samples into larger units such as mining bench height,
seam thickness, or minable vein width.
4.  Modeling of the grade distribution based on histograms and cumulative
frequency plots of grades.
5.  Evaluation of the spatial variability of grade using experimental
variograms.
6.  Selection of a resource estimation method and estimation of quantity and
grade of the mineral resource.
7.  The estimation procedure must be made with at least minimal knowledge
of the proposed mining method since different mining methods may affect
the size, shape, and/or grade of the potentially minable ore reserve.
31
Mining Sector In India: The mineral sector is indisputably one of the
fundamental strengths of the national economy, with its share of
contribution to GDP and employment.
India produces 95 minerals which includes 4 types of fuel minerals, 10
types of metallic minerals, 23 types of non - metallic, 3 types of atomic
and 55 types of minor minerals including building materials and other
such minerals
India ranks amongst the top producers of valuable minerals like
chromite, iron ore, coal, and bauxite. But yet to explore Manganese ore,
Baryte, Rare earth and Mineral salts etc
India is also a major exporter of many minerals, including bauxite, iron ,
limestone, sand stone and mica etc.
But unfortunately, India is also major importer of many mineral/metal
including Coal especially coking coal, manganese, copper, Gold, silver,
zinc etc.
Mining sector is a success story in India especially Public sector like Coal
India Ltd. and off late Private sector like Tata steel and Vedanta etc.
Public sector in India produces 93% of coal, 68% of tin concentrate, 69% of
petroleum(crude), 99% of gold, 96% of phosphorite, 67% of graphite, and
56% of magnesite.
Mineral production is reported from 22 states of India-
•  About 92.6% of production value is confined to 13 states including
off shore areas.
•  about 50% value comes from offshore areas and the top three,
states only namely Rajasthan, Odisha, and Chattisgarh.
•  about 69% of total value comes from fuel minerals,
•  about 11% comes from metallic minerals and
•  about 19% comes from nonmetallic (including minor) minerals
Mineral Exports from India is almost steady over last few years.
Mineral Imports have gone down significantly, from INR944,430 crore in
2012-13 to INR738,788 crore in 2016-17. Zinc ore imports particularly have
reduced significantly from 63 thousand tonnes to a mere 385 tonnes from
2012-13 to 2016-17. This indicates that India has achieved greater self -
sufficiency in mineral production.

In 2015-16, there were more than 2,101 reported mines excluding
atomic and minor minerals, natural gas and petroleum (crude).
Out of 2,101 reported mines about:
•  274 nos. of mines are located in Madhya Pradesh
•  252 nos. in the state of Tamil Nadu,
•  225 nos. of mines in Gujarat,
•  211 nos. in Jharkhand state,
•  162 nos. of mines in Chhattisgarh,
•  157 nos. of mines in the state of Odisha,
•  146 nos. in Karnataka state,
•  135 nos. in the state of Andhra Pradesh,
•  134 nos. in Maharashtra state and
•  100 nos. of mines in the state of West Bengal.
These 10 states together accounted for 85% of the total number of
mines in the country in 2015-16. Among them, 558 mines belonged to
coal and lignite, 668 to metallic minerals and 975 to non-metallic
minerals.
Raw materials consumption per capita/year – 1.1 tonne
-  Per capita value of Minerals produced- Rs.1680
-  Value of raw materials produced/sq.km of land surface-
: Rs.620,000
Mineral Production in India Vis a Vis Global Scenario
•  India was the world’s largest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.
•  India ranks 3rd in the production of coal and lignite after USA & China,
•  2nd in Limestone after China,
•  2nd in Barytes and Chromite,
•  4th in iron ore after China, Australia & Brazil,
•  6th in bauxite and 5th in manganese ore.
In terms of resource inventory Life Indices of major minerals are large and
sustainability of the sector is assured in the long term:
-  For coal, the life index is >200 years;
-  for bauxite it is >204 years;
-  for iron ore it is >105 years;
-  for chromite it is >47 years;
-  for manganese ore it is >113 years, and
-  for limestone it is >360 years.
Global Coal Production
https://yearbook.enerdata.net/coal-lignite/coal-world-consumption-data.html
 Global Coal Consumption

https://yearbook.enerdata.net/coal-lignite/coal-world-consumption-data.html
Total Mineral Resources in India:
Mineral Million Tonnes Location
Coal 301564 Jharkhand(27%), Odisha(25%), Chhattisgarh (17%),
West Bengal(10%), Madhya Pradesh (8.5%),
(As on Telangana & AP(7.5%), Maharashtra (3.6%). Also
1.4.2014) present in UP, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Bihar
Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh

Bauxite 3290 Major deposits are concentrated in the East Coast

(As on Bauxite deposits of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
1.4.2005) Also found in Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Maharashtra
Chromite 231 95% in Orissa(Sukinda valley in Cuttack), balance in
(As on Manipur and Karnataka and meagre quantities in the
1.4.2005) states of Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.
Copper 1390 Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand. Also
(As on (369.49MT present in AP, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
1.4.2005) Of Metal) Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil
Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
Mineral Million Tonnes Location

Gold 390.29 Ore Karnataka remained on the top followed by

(As on 490.81 Metal Rajasthan, West Bengal, Bihar and Andhra
1.4.2005) Pradesh.
Iron Ore 17882 Odisha(33%), Jharkhand(26%), Chhattisgarh
(As on (18%), Karnataka(12%) and Goa-(5%).
1.4.2005)
Lead Zinc 522.58 Ore Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
(As on 0.0072 Lead Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, West
1.4.2005) 0.0243 Zinc Bengal, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and
Meghalaya.
Diamond 4582 thousand Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
(As on Carats Pradesh(Kurnool district, Anantapur district,
1.4.2005) Krishna river basin)and Raipur, Bastar and Raigarh
districts in Chhattisgarh.
Limestone 175345 Karnataka is the leading state followed by Andhra
(As on Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Meghalaya,
1.4.2005) Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,
Maharashtra and Uttarakhand.
Economic Importance of Mining:

•  No nation can achieve a high level of prosperity without a reliable
source of minerals to supply its manufacturing industry.
•  The uniqueness of mineral deposits largely depends on the
complexity of mineral economics and individual mining enterprise.
•  Minerals are immobile whose production is restricted to the
locality in which it occurs,
•  A mineral deposit can be viewed as a depleting or wasting asset
and unlike agricultural or forest products, cannot reproduce or be
replaced.
•  Because its mineral assets are continually being depleted, a
mining company must discover additional reserves or acquire
them by purchase to stay in business.
•  These factors impose limitations on a mining company in the area
of business practices and financing as well as in production
operations.
•  Production costs tend to increase with the depth of the mine
and increasing input costs.
•  Similarly, declining grade of ore is adversely affecting financial
viability with which every mine eventually is confronted. So
technological upgradation plays a key role in the mining
industry.
•  Financial hazards are great because of change in volume and
grade of ore produced, mining cost, input costs, price of import
substitute of ore/ metal. As such, Viability may be extremely
difficult to assess in a dynamic market scenario.
•  Because of great financial risks, however, it is always expected
that return on an investment should be higher and the payback
period should be shorter in a mining enterprise.
•  Largely, mineral properties as well as mines are marketable.
 Definition of a Mine: As per Mines act 1952
Mine means any excavation where any operation for the purpose of
searching for or for obtaining minerals has been or is being carried on
and includes
i.  all borings, bore holes, oil wells and accessory crude conditioning
plants, including the pipe conveying mineral oil within the oilfields:
ii.  all shafts, in or adjacent to and belonging to a mine, whether in the
course of being sunk or not:
iii.  all levels and inclined planes in course of being driven;
iv.  all conveyors or aerial ropeways provided for the bringing into or
removal from a mine of minerals or other articles or for the removal
of refuse therefrom;
v.  all adits, levels, planes, machinery works, railways, tramways and
sidings in or adjacent to and belonging to a mine;
vi.  all protective works being carried out in or adjacent to a mine;
vii.  all workshop and store situated within the precincts of a mine and
the same management and used primarily for the purposes
connected with that mine or a number of mines under the same
management;
viii.  all power stations, transformer sub-stations converter stations :
rectifier stations and accumulator storage stations for supplying
electricity solely or mainly for the purpose of working the mine or a
number of mines under the same management;
ix.  any premises for the time being used for depositing sand or other
material for use in a mine or for depositing refuse from a mine or in
which any operations in connection with such and refuse or other
material is being carried on, being premises exclusively occupied
by the owner of the mine:
x.  any premises in or adjacent to and belonging to a mine or which
any process ancillary to the getting, dressing or operation for sale
of minerals or of coke is being carried on;
xi.  all opencast workings which means a quarry, that is to say an
excavation where any operation for the purpose of searching for or
obtaining minerals has been or is being carried on, not being a
shaft or an excavation which extends below superjacent ground
Surface Mining Vs Underground mining:
After ascertaining the presence, extent and economics of the
mineral deposit it is to be decided whether it will be worked by
surface mining or by underground mining.
•  Shallow deposits are extracted by surface mining or
opencast mining methods. In this method, the overburden
(i.e. the material lying over the deposit) is removed to expose
the mineral, which is then extracted.
•  But if the depth of the deposit is such that removal of the
overburden makes surface mining uneconomical,
underground mining methods have to be used.
MINE DEVELOPMENT:
Mine development essentially involves driving primary and
secondary openings so as to reach the mineralized zone and
make it amenable by suitable method of extraction. It may be
noted that the development layout depends on the method of
extraction. A considerable length of development drivage is
required before a deposit is finally extracted.
Primary Development: The primary development drivages are
done primarily to provide an access to the orebody from the
surface. This serves:
•  to provide access to the mineral deposit,
•  to provide transport for men, material and the mineral,
•  to carry air for the ventilation of the underground workings for
men and machines.
•  To accommodate pipes and cables leading to the underground
workings
•  for transmission of compressed air, power, water and
backfilling material i.e. sand etc.
Secondary Development: Secondary development
openings can be driven within the deposit, as in
practice in flat - lying coal seams (e.g., drifts, entries,
crosscuts), or outside the deposit, as is generally
practiced in three – dimensional ore bodies in metal
mines (e.g., adits, tunnels, drifts).
These supplements the main entries and serves the
same purpose.

Mine Entries: Following Mine Entries are normally

excavated for making access to the ore body:
-  Vertical shaft or
-  Inclined Shaft or
-  Adit or
-  Slope/Incline/Decline
 Vertical Shaft: It is a vertically downward excavation of circular cross
section suitable for skip winding. It is normally sunk for
•  Deep flat deposits(<300)
•  Steeply Inclined(>700)
•  Bad Natural Condition
•  Moderate Production Capacity because of cyclic
vertical transportation
•  Long life
Inclined Shaft:
Characteristics:
•  Excavation of normally rectangular cross section with haulage-
tub combination or even with skips in steep shafts
•  Moderately inclined deposit(300 to 700)
•  Moderate Production Capacity because of cyclic transportation
on steep slope
•  Moderate mine life
•  Less horizontal development
•  Exploration is also possible during drivage
Slope or Decline:

Characteristics:
•  Excavation of normally rectangular cross section
•  Suitable for shallow to medium depth deposit
•  Long life
•  Trackless and noncyclic continuous mining is possible in straight
slopes. As such, high production capacity mine can be built up with
conveyors installed at 16%(9.10) gradient.
•  In declines even trucks can be deployed at a gradient of 12 to
14%(6.80 to 80)
Adit or Drift:

Characteristics:
•  Hilly terrain
•  Level drift from foot of hill to
intersect the deposit
•  Outcrop above loading level
•  Sufficient space available at mouth
of adit for surface infrastructure
•  Cheapest mode of entry
•  Can be equipped with locomotive
haulage(cyclic) or conveyor(non
cyclic) for high Production capacity
Vertical Shaft Vs inclined shaft:

The main deciding factors are:
(i)  type of mineral deposit and
(ii)  depth of the deposit.

•  For coal or other flat-lying formations, generally the depth is the
deciding factor. When an ore deposit lies at a depth not exceeding
300-400m, Inclines/slopes are usually driven.
•  But at greater depths, Shafts are the usual choice.
•  If the ore-body is vertical or very steep, obviously Vertical Shaft is
a natural choice. We can have the shaft in the ore body itself if the
ore body is strong because shaft has to be a stable and long
lasting. But this may lock up a lot of the mineral for the protection
of the shaft.
•  For inclined deposits, the choice will depend upon the dip of the
ore body. Vertical Shafts require cross-cuts to be driven to the ore
body. As such, at a greater depth the total length of the cross-cuts
increases as the depth of the shat increases.
•  So, to minimize the aggregate length of the cross-cuts we can sink a
inclined shaft in the footwall parallel to the ore body. such a shaft
has the advantage of short length of x-cuts, stable, quick access, less
expenditure on the short x-cuts

•  If the deposit has a uniform dip, the vertical shaft should intersect
the deposit at half the ultimate depth of the mine so that the
aggregate length of the X-cuts is the shortest. (Say 500 m is the
ultimate depth – shaft should intersect the vein at 250 m depth). In
this case the upper part of the shaft is in the hangwall but extraction
of the ore body may damage the shaft. Because the shaft has to last
till the full life of the mine. So, we have to keep a safe margin
between the workings and the shaft or we have to adopt a suitable
method of mining so that the shaft is not affected by the workings.

•  When the dip of the ore body is not uniform the inclined shaft can
not be parallel to the orebody because this will reduce hoisting
capacity and increase the cost of operation. For the most
economical hoisting, inclined shafts should be straight. A few bends
of slight curvature may not have serious effects but a shaft cannot
afford to follow the deposit of irregular dip.
 Location of Vertical or Inclined Shaft:

For Choosing betweenofaprimary

Fig.2: Location verticalopening
and a (Shaft
inclined shaft,shaft)
/ Incline the overall economy
has to be worked out.
•  Generally, inclined shafts are used for inclined ore bodies(300 to 700).
n disadvantages of inclined shafts are:
•  Beyond 700(between 700 & 900) vertical shafts are more economical.
To reach a certain depth, an inclined shaft must be longer than a vertical shaft.
•  An inclined shaft is larger in length hence costlier and requires more
Hoisting speed – In general, hoisting speed in an inclined shaft is less than that in a vertical
maintenance. The production capacity of a mine with inclined shaft is
shaft (but the loss
having 25% in speed can be
less than thatpartly
with compensated by of
a vertical shaft increased load).section.
same cross
Hoisting capacity
•  The latest– trend
For two shafts
is to sinkofvertical
the same cross
shafts forsection
obvious andadvantages
lengths, anofinclined shaft
efficient
has a capacity
windingabout
with25% less than
optimal that
capex of aopex.
and vertical shaft.
Inclined shafts are difficult to maintain.
VERTICAL SHAFTS VS SLOPES/INCLINES:
Important Parameters For A Mining Shaft Inclines
Project
Time requirement for completion More Less

Capital cost More Less

Continuous transport of mineral Cyclic Continuous

Capacity of ore/coal transport Moderate Large

Operational cost More Less

Resistance to ventilation Less More

Length of cable, pipeline Less More

Possibility of uncertainty Less More

Impacted by geological factors

Loss of coal in protective pillar Less More

Environmental problem More Less 55
Classification of Mining
Broad Class Method Applicable to Coal/Metal/
Classification Non-Metal
Traditional Mining:
Surface Mechanical Open Pit Mining Metal, Non Metal
Quarrying Non Metal
Open cast (strip) mining Coal Non Metal
Auger Mining Coal
Aqueous Placer Hydraulicking Metal, Non Metal
Dredging Metal, Non Metal
Solution In Situ Techniques Metal, Non Metal
Surface Techniques Metal
Underground Unsupported Room and Pillar mining Coal, Non Metal
Stope and Pillar mining Metal, Non Metal
Shrinkage Stoping Metal, Non Metal
Sublevel Stoping Metal, Non Metal
Vertical Crater Retreat mining Metal, Non Metal
Supported Cut and Fill stoping Metal
Stull stoping Metal
Square set stoping Metal
Broad Class Method Applicable to Coal/
Classification Metal/Non-Metal

Underground Caving Longwall Mining Coal, Non Metal

Sublevel Caving Metal
Block Caving Metal
Novel Mining:

Rapid Excavation Non Coal(Hard Rock)

Automation, Robotics All
Hydraulic Mining Coal, Soft Rock
Methane drainage Coal bed Methane
Underground Coal
Gasification Hydrocarbons
Underground Retorting Metal, Non Metal
Marine Mining Non Coal
Nuclear Mining Metal, Non Metal
Extraterrestrial Mining