TOPIC: ​ CELL COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION OF CELL COMMUNICATION

DEFINITION

Cell signaling is the process of cells communicating with other cells within the body, or with the
external environment. As a process, cell signaling refers to a vast network of communication
between, and within, each cell of our body. With cell signaling, cells are able to coordinate
within large, multicellular organisms.

Why and how do cells communicate?

● Cell communication is the process by which a cell detects and ​responds to signals​ in its
environment.

o Most single-celled organisms can perceive changes in nutrient availability

and ​adapt​ their metabolism as needed.
o Some single-celled organisms may utilize environmental signals to locate
a ​suitable mate​; some send signals to make ​their numbers​ known to other
members of their species.

● The cells of multi-celled organisms must communicate with one another to ​coordinate​ the
activities of the organism as a whole.

o Most multi-celled organisms can utilize junctions between cells

for ​direct​ intercellular signaling.

o But many forms of communication entail binding of a signal molecule to

the ​receptors​ of target cells.

o Receptor-mediated signalling can be ​short-range​ (affecting only nearby cells)

or ​long-range​ (affecting cells throughout the organism).

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TYPE OF CELL JUNCTIONS

Tight junctions

Serve as selectively permeable seals in our body’s internal and external surfaces.

● Tight junctions are the closely associated areas of two cells whose membranes join
together to form a virtually impermeable barrier to fluid.

● Tight junctions perform vital functions—such as holding cells together—and form

protective and functional barriers.

● Tight junctions are composed of a branching network of sealing strands with each strand
acting independently from the others.

● The major types of proteins in junctions are the claudins and the occludins.

● Each strand is formed from a row of transmembrane proteins embedded in both plasma
membranes, with extracellular domains joining one another directly.

Not all junctions between cells produce cytoplasmic connections. Instead, ​tight junctions​ create
a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells.

At the site of a tight junction, cells are held tightly against each other by many individual groups
of tight junction proteins called ​claudins​, each of which interacts with a partner group on the
opposite cell membrane. The groups are arranged into strands that form a branching network,
with larger numbers of strands making for a tighter seal.

The purpose of tight junctions is to keep liquid from

escaping between cells, allowing a layer of cells (for
instance, those lining an organ) to act as an
impermeable barrier. For example, the tight junctions

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between the epithelial cells lining your bladder prevent urine from leaking out into the
extracellular space.

Desmosomes

● Desmosomes are intercellular junctions that provide strong adhesion between cells.
● Because they also link intracellularly to the intermediate filament cytoskeleton they form
the adhesive bonds in a network that gives mechanical strength to tissues.
● Thus desmosomes are particularly abundant in tissues such as epidermis and myocardium
that are continually assailed by mechanical forces.
● When desmosomal adhesion fails, as in certain genetic and autoimmune diseases, tissues
that are subjected to mechanical stress may fall apart.
● The desmosome–intermediate filament complex (DIFC) is a network or scaffolding that
maintains the integrity of such tissues.
Animal cells may also contain junctions called desmosomes, which act like spot welds between
adjacent epithelial cells. A desmosome involves a complex of proteins. Some of these proteins
extend across the membrane, while others anchor the junction within the cell.

Cadherins​, specialized adhesion proteins, are found on the membranes of both cells and interact
in the space between them, holding the membranes together. Inside the cell, the cadherins attach
to a structure called the cytoplasmic plaque (red in the image at right), which connects to the
intermediate filaments and helps anchor the junction.

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Desmosomes pin adjacent cells together, ensuring that cells in organs and tissues that stretch,
such as skin and cardiac muscle, remain connected in an unbroken sheet.

Gap Junctions

A gap junction is a specialized cell junction that directly connects the cytoplasm of two cells.

● Gap junctions allow various molecules and ions to pass freely between cells.

● A gap junction channel is composed of two connexons, also known as hemichannels that
line up across the intercellular space.

● Most gap junction hemichannels are composed of a complex of six connexin proteins,
each characterized by four transmembrane domains. Six connexin sub-units assemble to
create one connexon, or hemichannel.

● Channel composition influences the function of the gap junction.

● Gap junctions allow for electrical communication between cells, and also allow the
passage of small second messengers.

● Gap junctions are expressed in virtually all tissues and cells, but most notably in cell
types that are involved in direct electrical communication, such as neurons and cardiac
muscle.

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Gap junctions are found in many places throughout the body. This includes epithelia, which are
the coverings of body surfaces, as well as nerves, cardiac (heart) muscle, and smooth muscle
(such as that of the intestines).

Their primary role is to coordinate the activity of adjacent cells. For instance, when heart cells
need to beat in unison, gap junctions allow for the transmission of electrical signals between the
cells.

TYPES OF CELL COMMUNICATION

Autocrine Signaling

● Similar to paracrine signaling, but the target cell is the signaling cell. The cell is sending
signals from one cell membrane area to another.

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Autocrine signaling is similar to paracrine signaling but acts on the cell that initially secretes the
signal. The original cell produces a chemical signal, but the receptors for the signal are on the
same cell. As a result, the cell stimulates itself to change its behavior.

For example, a cell could secrete a chemical that promotes cell growth. The signal diffuses
throughout the local tissue but is captured by receptors on the originating cell. The cell that
secreted the signal is then stimulated to engage in more growth. This feature is useful in embryos
where growth is important, and it also promotes effective cell differentiation, when autocrine
signaling reinforces a cell's identity. Autocrine self-stimulation is rare in adult healthy tissue but
can be found in some cancers.

Paracrine Signaling

● The signaling cell secretes a chemical that diffuses locally to target cells​.

During panacrine signaling, a cell secretes a chemical that eventually causes specific changes in
the behavior of neighboring cells. The originating cell produces the chemical signal that diffuses

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throughout the tissue nearby. The chemical is not stable and deteriorates if it has to travel long
distances. As a result, paracrine signaling is used for local cell communication.

The chemical that the cell produces is targeted at other specific cells. The targeted cells have
receptors on their cell membranes for the secreted chemical. Non-targeted cells don't have the
required receptors and are not affected. The secreted chemical attaches itself to the receptors of
targeted cells and triggers a reaction inside the cell. The reaction in turn influences targeted cell
behavior.

For example, skin cells grow in layers with the top layer made up of dead cells. Cells of a
different tissue lie underneath the bottom layer of skin cells. Local cell signaling ensures that the
skin cells know in which layer they are located and whether they have to divide to replace dead
cells. Paracrine signaling is also used to communicate inside muscle tissue. A paracrine chemical
signal from the nerve cells in the muscle causes the muscle cells to contract, allowing for muscle
movement in the larger organism.

Endocrine Signaling

● Endocrine signaling produces a hormone that travels throughout the organism via the
circulatory system.

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In endocrine signaling, the originating cell secretes a hormone that is stable over long distances.
The hormone diffuses through the cell tissue into capillaries and travels through the circulatory
system of the organism. Endocrine hormones spread throughout the body and target cells in
locations that are remote from the signaling cell. The targeted cells have receptors for the
hormone and change their behavior when the receptors are activated.

For example, cells in the adrenal gland produce the hormone adrenaline, which causes the body
to enter the "fight or flight" mode. The hormone spreads throughout the body in the blood and
causes reactions in targeted cells. Blood vessels constrict to increase blood pressure for the
muscles, the heart pumps more quickly and some sweat glands are activated. The whole
organism is placed into a state of readiness for extra exertion. The hormone is the same
everywhere, but when it triggers receptors on cells, the cells change their behaviors in different
ways.

Synaptic Signaling

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 ● The sending and receiving cells have built a synaptic structure bringing their cell
membranes in close contact for easy exchange of signals.

When two cells continuously have to exchange extensive signaling, it make sense to build
special communication structures to facilitate the exchange of chemical signals. The ​synapse​ is a
cell extension that brings the outer cell membranes of two cells into close proximity. The
signaling across a synapse always links only two cells, but a cell can have such close
associations with several cells at the same time.

Chemical signals released into the ​synaptic gap​ are immediately taken up by the partner cell
receptors. For some cells, the gap is so small that the cells are effectively touching. In that case,
chemical signals on the outer cell membrane of one cell can directly engage receptors on the
membrane of the other cell, and communication is especially fast.

Typical synaptic communication takes place between ​neurons​ in the brain. The brain cells
construct synapses to establish preferred communication channels with some neighboring cells.
The cells can then communicate especially well with their synaptic communication partners,
exchanging chemical signals rapidly and frequently.

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SUMMARY

Cell signaling can occur through a number of different pathways, but the overall theme is that the
actions of one cell influence the function of another. Cell signaling is needed by multicellular
organisms to coordinate a wide variety of functions. Nerve cells must communicate with muscle
cells to create movement, immune cells must avoid destroying cells of the body, and cells must
organize during the development of a baby.

Some forms of cell signaling are intracellular, while others are intercellular. Intracellular signals
are produced by the same cell that receives the signal. On the other hand, intercellular signals can
travel all throughout the body. This allows certain glands within the body to produce signals
which take action on many different tissues across the body. Cell signaling is how a tiny gland
within the brain can react to external stimuli and coordinate a response. In response to stimuli
like light, odors, or touch, the gland can, in turn, release a hormone which activates responses in
diverse body systems to coordinate a response to a threat or opportunity.

REFERENCE

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005273607002751

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/cytoskeleton-junctions-and-ext
racellular-structures/a/cell-cell-junctions

https://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/index.php/Cell_Junctions

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/cell-junctions/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/cell-junctions/

https://sciencing.com/factors-involved-cell-differentiation-6935462.html

https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccmajorsbio/chapter/a-summary-of-cell-communication/

https://www.ck12.org/biology/cell-communication/lesson/Cell-Communication-Advanced-BIO-ADV/

http://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Black/communication/communication.html

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https://study.com/academy/lesson/an-overview-of-cell-communication.html

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT
CELL COMMUNICATION
PROGRAMME : DIPLOMA IN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
AND HEALTH (DOSH)
SUBJECT NAME : BIOCHEMISTRY
SUBJECT CODE : DNML 1173
STUDENT NAME : MUHAMMAD SHAHRUL MUKMIN BIN
ABDUL MAJID
STUDENT ID NO : 201807030018

LECTURER NAME : MR.T.NANTHAKUMAR

TAMILSELVAM
LEARNING CENTRE : CITY UNIVERSITY
DATE OF SUBMISSION : 28​TH​ JUNE 2019

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