Administrative & Business Communication EC, FBE, Management Department

CHAPTER - TWO
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
2.1 Introduction
The general contribution of this chapter is to induct students with the process of communication and the
various elements of communication. The different barriers of communication that hinder both the day to
day personal and organizational activities will be clearly discussed under this chapter. Additionally, oral
and written communication with their respective merits and demerits are also covered in this chapter.
Various channels of nonverbal communication are additional agenda of the chapter.
Communication is a process that involves steps or sequences of activities to be followed in the exchange
of messages between senders and receivers. The diagram on next page shows all the major elements of the
communication process.
2.2 Elements of the Communication Process
People (Senders - Receivers)
Communicators or elements are the primary elements in the communication process in an organization.
They can be managers, non-managers, departments, or the organization itself. Managers communicate
with other managers, subordinates, supervisors, client’s customers, and parties outside the organization.
When we say communication involves people, it involves the exchange of interpersonal characteristics
such as perceptions, their speaking and listening skills, their nonverbal behaviors, etc. Communication is
thus an interpersonal process. People or senders-receivers make communication two ways.

Feedback

Se n d e r
Thought Encoding Message
Objective Channel Receiver
Informing (Medium to Receiving Decoding
Persuading transits Message
Reminding message) Understanding (or Action)

Noise

Communications within the organization are important means for coordinating the work of separate
departments. And more and more organizations communicate with employees, unions, the public, and
government. Each of these communicators has a message, an idea, or information to transmit to someone
or some group.
 Administrative & Business Communication EC, FBE, Management Department
Encoding
Within the communicator, an encoding process must take place that translates the communicator’s ideas
into a systematic set of symbols expressing the communicator’s purpose. The major form of encoding is
language. For example, accounting information, sales reports, and computer data are translated into a
message. The function of encoding is to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be expressed as a
message.
Message
The result of the encoding is the message-either verbal or nonverbal. Message is a meaningful idea that
people want to share with others. It is an encoded idea with some purpose. Managers have numerous
purposes for communicating, such as to have others understand their ideas, to understand the ideas of
others to gain acceptance of ideas, and to produce action.
The message, then, is what the individual hopes to communicate, and the exact form that the message
takes depends to a great extent on the medium used to carry it. Decisions relating to the two are
inseparable. An ideal message is that is understood by the receiver as intended by the sender.
Channel
The channel is a path, route or medium through which a message is transmitted. Organizations provide
information for their members by a variety of channels, including face-to-face communication, telephone,
group meetings, computers, memos, policy statements, reward systems, production schedules, sales
forecasts, and videotapes.

Less obvious, however, are unintended messages that can be sent by silence or inaction of a particular
issue, as well as decisions about which goals and objectives are not to be pursued and which methods are
not to be utilized. The choice between oral and written communication channels may be determined by:
 Background of the audience such as education, sex, age, experience, etc.
 Availability and cost of the channel
 Nature of the message such as confidentiality, length, etc.
Nonverbal communication, communication that doesn’t use words, is a part of everyday life. A friendly
smile, a worried expression, the seating arrangements at a committee meeting, the size and location of an
office, the reception area, furniture all are nonverbal communicators. They indicate a person’s power,
status, position or friendliness. The interpretation of nonverbal cues is important however; nonverbal cues
are as easily misinterpreted as verbal messages (words).
Body language is fascinating nonverbal communication open body positions include leaning forward with
uncrossed arms and legs. Closed, or defensive, body positions include leaning back with arms and legs
crossed. Open positions are assumed to suggest acceptance and openness to what is being discussed.
Closed positions suggest that people are physically or psychologically uncomfortable.

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Decoding
For the process of communication to be completed, the message must be decoded by the receiver.
Decoding is the technical term for the thought processes of the receiver. Thus, it involves interpretation.
Receivers interpret (decode) the message in light of their own previous experiences and frames of
reference. The closer the decoded message is to the intent of the communication, the more effective is the
communication. In a business organization, if the message that the chief executive receives from the
marketing research department includes technical terms known only to marketing researchers, no
communication exists. In fact, an often cited complaint in organizations that employ staff specialists is
that they frequently cannot communicate. Each staff group (e.g accountants, personnel, and marketing
research) has a unique language and symbols that persons outside the group cannot decode.
Feedback
One-way communication processes do not allow receiver-to-communicator feedback. Two-way
communication processes provide for such feedback. It is desirable to make provision for feedback in the
communication process. It decreases the potential for distortion between the intended message and the
received message. A feedback loop provides a channel for receiver response, enabling the communicator
to determine whether the message has been received and has produced the intended response. For the
manager, communication feedback may come in many ways.
In face-to-face situations direct feedback is possible through verbal exchanges as well as through such
subtle, means as facial expressions that indicate discontent or misunderstanding. In addition,
communication break downs may be indicated by indirect means, such as declines in productivity, poor
quality of production increased absenteeism or turnover, and conflict or a lack of coordination between
units.
Effective Use of Feedback
For effective use of feedback the following guidelines are vital.
Guidelines in receiving feedback
1. Tell people you want feedback. When people feel that their opinions and observations may be used
against them or that your feelings may be easily hurt, they withhold feedback. Therefore, let them know
that you consider feedback (including personal opinions, questions, and disagreement) not only useful but
also necessary.
2. Identify the areas in which you want feedback. If you want personal feedback, you might say, “I am
trying to improve my speaking and am interested in how many times I said ‘okay’ in today’s meeting.” If
you want only feedback pertaining to the organization, then specify the topics in which you are most
interested.
3. If you are a manager, set aside time for regularly scheduled feedback sessions. Such sessions show
employees that you value feedback and tend to make it easier for them to ask questions and express
opinions.

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4. Use silence to encourage feedback. Too many people ask a question wait two or three seconds, and
then begin talking again. It takes more than two or three seconds for most people to organize and
verbalize their responses. If you remain silent for at least a full ten seconds, you will probably get more
response.
5. Watch for non-verbal responses- because none verbal symbols may comply or contradict with
nonverbal symbols.
6. Ask questions. Do not assume that you understand the meaning of the feedback you receive from
others. When in doubt, ask for clarification.
7. Use statements that encourage feedback. People usually adjust their feedback by monitoring the
listener’s verbal and nonverbal reactions. If you want a person’s honest opinion, you must encourage it by
purposely saying such things as “Really?” “Interesting.” “So, you feel that . . .”
8. Reward feedback. If you are a manager, you can reward feedback by complimenting the person,
preferably in front of his or her colleagues. Some companies have a “Best-Idea-of-the-month” contest and
put the winners’ names on a placard or give them a company pen with their names engraved on them. As
an employee, you can sincerely thank people for their comments and perhaps write them a thank-you note.

Guidelines in sending feedback

In sending feedback make sure your own feedback to others:
Is directed toward behavior rather than toward the person- Often, someone who is angry criticizes the
person rather than the behavior that caused the anger. Telling a secretary “You are a poor excuse for a
secretary” is an attack on the secretary rather than on the offensive behavior and causes a defensive,
emotional response. Your feedback is much more likely to be received positively if you mention the
action or behavior that is unacceptable and focus on what can be done to avoid it in the future.
Is descriptive instead of evaluative. Descriptive feedback is tactfully honest and objective, whereas
evaluative feedback is judgmental and accusatory. Evaluative feedback: “Where is your sales report?
You know it is due on my desk no later than 9:00 each morning. You’re obviously not reliable anymore.”
Descriptive feedback: “When you don’t turn your sales reports in on time, I’m unable to complete the
departmental sales report on time. This makes me look bad and the departments look bad. You’ve been
late twice this month. Is there something I can do to help you get those reports in on time?” Evaluative,
judgmental words cause defensiveness and hurt feelings; words that simply describe the situation in a
nonjudgmental way are more likely to result in cooperation.
Involves sharing ideas instead of giving advice- It is not always sensible to give advice to other people.
If your advice does not work, you will be blamed. One of the best ways to improve a relationship is by
openly sharing opinions and ideas. Suppose a manager who is having trouble with some employees comes
to you and asks, “What am I doing wrong?” Instead of giving advice, share a personal experience with the

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manager. For example, you might describe a similar problem you had and how you handled it. It is then
up to the manager to decide what to do.
Includes only as much information as the person can handle at one time. Suppose during a performance
appraisal you give an employee a list of twenty items that need improvement. Is this type of feedback
beneficial? You may feel better now that you have “dumped” your feelings, but how can anyone improve
on twenty things at the same time? When giving feedback, include only two or three suggestions at a
time-a number the person can reasonably handle.
Is immediate and well time Immediate feedback is obviously more valuable than delayed feedback. After
a foul-up shipping, instead of waiting for two weeks to discuss the problem with the responsible employee,
discuss the error immediately or at least within a day or two. Immediate feedback allows the person to
correct actions or behaviors while they are still fresh in mind. But feedback should also be well timed, and
sometimes this means that it can’t be immediate. If you point out an employee’s mistakes in front of a
group of co-workers, such feedback is likely to be resented. And if you confront an employee anxious to
get home after quitting time, your suggestions may be received absent mindedly. This type of feedback
should be given in a private, relaxed atmosphere. Unfortunately, many people tend to give feedback in
anger and don’t stop to consider the consequences.
Noise
In the framework of communications noise is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the intended
message. Noise can be present in any element. i.e. the sender, channel or receiver. Noises are of two
types: Psychological noise and Physical noise. Physical noise is unwanted sound created in the external
environment or in transmission. On the other hand psychological noise is created in the mind of senders-
receivers. It generally refers to absentmindedness that may be caused by pain, hunger, headache, and other
factors that preoccupy human mind.
2.3 Barriers to Communication
Any factor that impedes the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver is a barrier to
communication.
It is not possible that every time an order, instruction, guideline, direction program, information, etc
transmitted by the superior is properly understood and assimilated by those for whom it is intended.
Similarly suggestions, reports, advices recommendations, complaints etc transmitted by the subordinates
to their superiors may be misunderstood or misinterpreted. In any case, the purpose of the communication
is defeated.
The process of communication is not always smooth. Many obstacles or hindrances obstruct it. These are
referred to as barriers to communication. It refers to these factors which cause disturbance either in the
mind of the communicator (sender) or the communicatee (receiver) or in the process which will create
distortion of the message leading to lack of response ignoring or misunderstanding.

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Such barriers are extremely common in everyday life, and they appear in an almost unlimited variety of
forms. The following are some of the most common barriers to effective communication.

1. Differing perceptions
Perception is the process by an individual receives information from the environment through the use of
his sense organs and interprets them. One of the most common sources of communication barriers is
individual variation. People who have different backgrounds of knowledge, experience, and other
demographic characteristics often perceive the same phenomenon from different perspectives.
Suppose that a new supervisor compliments an assembly line worker for his or her efficiency and high-
quality work. The supervisor genuinely appreciates the worker’s efforts and at the same time wants to
encourage the other employees to emulate his or her example. Others on the assembly line however, may
regard the worker’s being singled out for praise as a sign that he or she has been ‘buttering up to boss”
they may react by teasing or being openly hostile. The event is the same but individual’s perspectives on
it differ radically. The environment in which it occurs influences the way a communication is perceived.
Events that are considered appropriate in some circumstances are inappropriate in others.
2. Language Differences & poor Expressions
Language differences are often closely related to differences in individual perceptions. For a message to
be properly communicated, the words used must mean the same thing to the sender and the receiver. The
same symbolic meaning must be shared. Suppose that different departments of a company receive a
memo stating that a new product is to be developed in “a short time”. To people in research and
development “a short time” might mean two or three years. To people in the finance department on the
other hand, it might be three to six months, whereas the sales department might think of it as a few weeks.
Since may different meanings can be assigned to some words, great care must be taken to ensure that the
receiver gets the message that the sender intended.
Further barriers to communication may result from the use of poorly chosen words, omissions, lack of
coherence, poor organization of ideas, unnecessary jargon and so on. Communication in the international
environment becomes even more difficult because of different languages, cultures. Etc.
3. Loss by Transmission and poor Retention
In a series of transmissions from one person to the next, the message becomes less and less accurate when
a communication is being conveyed from the higher management level to the lower level step by step.
Much of it is likely to be lost in transit. Most of the time, this problem arises in oral communication. At
every successive step some of the message will drop until it reaches the last person when it will be only a
part of the original message, which might be meaningless.
This problem may arise in case of written communication as well. At every level the superior will
interpret the message in his own way and present it accordingly. Hence the original message is likely to
be destroyed. Further the meaning will change if some words are dropped, changed or misspelt. On the

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other hand managers may be main causes for loss of information in organizational communication.
Consciously or unconsciously, information may be lost or distorted in downward and upward
communications.
Loss of information in upward communication
In upward communication may be lost or distorted because of mobility aspiration. Mobility aspiration is
the desire of subordinates for upward movement or promotion. It is likely that subordinates manipulate
upward messages in a way it facilitates their future promotion. Thus mobility aspiration adversely affects
the accuracy of upward messages.
Loss of information in downward communication
Generally replicating a message is difficult; there are neither perfect senders nor receivers. In addition to
this middle level managers may intentionally withhold information for several reasons.
a) Tyrannical managers – are those who do not have confidence in their subordinates. Because
responsibility is ultimate such managers may withhold key information in their drawers in order to make
their subordinates completely dependent in making decisions or taking actions. This is designed to prevent
subordinates from making important decisions.
b) Insecure managers – are managers who do not have self-confidence. Such managers try to hide
some key information from their subordinates to prevent their subordinates from making decisions that
affect the superior’s position. Less confident managers may fear that if they release all information the
subordinates may make more sound decisions and thereby threat the superior’s position.
Some superiors may also withhold information from lack of awareness about the relevance of the
information to their subordinates
Poor retention of information is another serious problem. Most of the times there are problems in handling
and retrieving information, particularly when records management is manual. Poor records and filing
system are often major causes for loss of information in organizational communication. This makes the
necessity for repetition of the message and the use of several channels rather obvious. Consequently,
companies often use more than one channel to communicate the same message.
4. Poor Listening and Pre-mature Evaluation
There are many talkers but few listeners. Listening demands full attention and self-discipline. It also
means avoiding pre-mature evaluation of what the other person has to say. A common tendency is to
judge to approve or disapprove what is being said rather than trying to understand the speaker’s frame of
reference. Yet listening without making hasty judgments can make the whole organization more effective
and more efficient. Sympathetic listening can result in better labor- management relations and greater
understanding among managers. In short, listening with empathy can reduce some of the daily frustrations
in organized life and result in better communication.
5. Emotionality

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Emotional reactions- anger, love, defensiveness, hate, jealousy, fear, embarrassment-influence how we
understand other’s messages and how we influence others with our own messages. If for example, we are
in an atmosphere where we feel threatened with loss of power or prestige we may lose the ability to gauge
the meanings of the messages we receive and will respond defensively or aggressively.
6. Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal Communication
We think of language as the primary medium of communication, but the messages we send and receive
are strongly influenced by such nonverbal factors as body movements, clothing, our posture, gestures,
facial expression, eye movements, and body contact. Even when our message is as simple as “Good
morning”, we can covey different intents by our nonverbal communication. A busy manager who does not
want to be disturbed might respond to a subordinate’s greeting without looking up from his or her work for
example.
7. Noise, Distance and Time
Noise is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication. Little
communication occurs in totally noise-free environments of course. Noise is a big menace to
communication; it creates a great barrier to communication. It is a very common experience that noise
proves a big hindering factor if two persons are talking. If somehow the noise is not controlled it may not
be possible for the communicators to listen anything or make out the sense.
Distance acts as barriers in the process of communication. If the two parties are far from each other there
will be difficulty in communication. Telephone solves this difficult in many cases. But bad weather,
technical defects, breakdown etc may render the telephone useless.
The effectiveness of our communication may be reduced if our timing is not right. First, we must consider
the time of the day. Our attempts at communication must be made at the appropriate hour of the day. A
telephone call will not normally be welcome at 5 o’clock in the morning and very few of us welcome a
string of requests or enquiries on matters of high importance, the minute we arrive at our office. Second,
the time of convenience is important. In other words, we should not endeavor to communicate with
another person if he is pre-occupied with other matters: we will receive less than proper attention. For
instance if the company secretary is concentrating on arranging the agenda for a particularly important
management meeting, he is not likely to pay much attention to a request for authority to buy a new office
equipment. The request could quite well wait for a more propitious moment. Therefore, to be effective,
we must communicate at the appropriate time both by the clock and by opportunity.

8. The Medium and Method of Communication

A disregard of the medium of communication and the method used often create conditions that lead to a
lack of expected response or to a less than perfect understanding. In all cases the medium of the
communication and the method must be appropriate to the case in hand. Generally speaking great care is

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required in this direction. Most people are very sensitive about how certain subjects are approached and to
ignore their sensitivity will often result in faulty communication.
Matters of routine nature such as the opening and closing times of the canteen may well be appropriately
conveyed by a notice on a notice board. At other times a discrete personal word is called for instance
where a staff member has started habitually to arrive late in the morning. A bold statement on a notice
board about lateness would be most inappropriate.
A more complicated situation, such as an alteration in working conditions requires even more care in the
choice of medium and method. Personal consultations with representatives of those affected are imperative
to prevent misunderstanding and to gain the cooperation of those concerned. In brief for effective
communication, the medium and method used to carry the communication must be appropriate to the
circumstances.
9. Distrust/Lack of Credibility of the Source
Credibility refers to the confidence, faith or thrust that the receiver has on the actions and/or words of the
sender. The credibility of a message is to a large extent, a function of the credibility of the sender in the
mind of the receiver. A sender’s credibility is, in turn determined by a variety of factors. In some cases, the
fact that a message comes from a manager will enhance its credibility, but it can also have the opposite
effect. In negotiations between labor and management, for example, labor often regards the claims of
managers with some suspicion. In this situation, as in others, the perceived character or honesty of the
sender is important.
Distrust can be the result of inconsistent behaviors by the superior, or it can be due to experiences in which
the subordinate was punished for honestly reporting unfavorable, but true, information to the boss. In any
case, the loss of confidence in the superior will drop the effect of the communication. What is needed is a
climate of trust, which facilitates open and honest communication.
The above being the most common barriers to effective communication there are many others. For
instance closely related to perception is the influence of attitude, which is the predisposition to act or not,
to act in a certain way, it is a mental position regarding a fact or state, clearly. If we have made up our
minds, we cannot objectively listen to what is said. Differences in status and power between the sender
and the receiver still affect communication.
In brief, often our efforts to communicate are quite successful but at other times we fail dismally. Many
factors are at works that has a bearing on our success or failure some of which we can control and some of
which are outside our control.
Other barriers may include:
- Information overload
- Unqualified assumptions
- Position awareness, etc.

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2.4 Types of Interpersonal communication

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Ideas and feelings can be shared only if they are represented by symbols. Symbols are things that stand
for something else.
1. Verbal symbols – refer to the words in our language.
2. Nonverbal symbols – are anything we communicate without using words, figures, or letters. This may
include various tools such as facial expressions, gestures, body movements, etc.
Verbal Communication: Written and oral communication media have favorable and unfavorable
characteristics. Consequently, they are often used together so that the favorable qualities of each can
complement the other. The question as to which medium of communication to use depends on the
communication the message to be transmitted, the audience (communicate) and the situation.
Written Medium (Communication): As the name implies it is the communication which is produced in
black and white. A written communication is conveyed through a letter, reports, circulars, memoranda,
notices, etc. It is a very common form of communication in most organizations and is suitable for many
situations.
Advantages of Written Medium (Communication
- It provides records for future references and can serve as a legal document.
- It provides enough time for serious thinking and as a result the message can be prepared carefully.
- It is useful when the message to be transmitted is lengthy and the receivers are large in number and
located at a distance from the sender.
- It can promote uniformity in policy and procedures.
Disadvantages of Written Medium (Communication
Written messages may create mountains of paper
As compared to oral communication it is more time and money consuming.
 There is less flexibility. Once the message has been sent it will be difficult to withdraw. Frequent
amendments and changes in written communication leads to loss of trust and prestige.
 It will be difficult to keep a matter confidential if it is considered necessary
 It may not provide an immediate feedback, consequently, it may take a long time to know whether or
not a message has been received and properly understood.
Oral Medium (Communication): In this medium of communication the two parties in communication
exchange their ideas or the message with the help of words of mouth. The message-instruction order,

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directive, etc, is conveyed through spoken words. This method can be observed in a number of forms of
communication such as conferences, committee meetings, interviews, telephone conversations, face-to-
face talks etc.

Advantages of Oral Medium (Communication)

 It provides for speedy interchange with immediate feedback. People can ask questions and clarify
points at the spot and in face-to-face communication the effect can be noted.
 In most cases, it economical both in terms of time and money.
 It brings people together, eliminates the gap between the communicator and the communicate
facilitates free discussion and promotes the chance of better understanding. Furthermore, it may give
a subordinate a feeling of importance.
 It can be supported by non-verbal symbols.

Disadvantages Oral Medium (Communication)

 It does not provide any proof. There is nothing on record. One can forget completely or partially
what had been said.
 It does not provide for serious thinking as decisions are to be taken immediately.
 It is not appropriate if there is a distance between the communicator and the communicatee.
 It is not suitable if the message to be communicated is quite lengthy.
In brief, before employing a certain medium of communication, one must weight its advantages and
disadvantages and select the one that best suits the overall situation under which the communication takes
place.
Nonverbal Communication
We communicate in many different ways. What we say can be reinforced or contradicted by nonverbal
communication, such as facial expressions and body gestures. Nonverbal symbols are expected to support
the verbal. But it is not always so. For example, an autocratic manager who pounds a first on the table
while announcing that from now on participate management will be practiced certainly creates a
credibility gap. Similarly, managers who state that they have an open-door policy, but then have a
secretary carefully screen people who want to see the boss create incongruence between what they say and
the way they behave. Clearly, nonverbal communication may support or contradict verbal
communication, giving rise to the saying that actions often speak louder than words.
Nonverbal communication is any message (information) the sender communicates without using words.
This type of communication, sometimes referred to as body language, is an important part of the
communication process. It takes place through body language (body movement) such as gesture, eye
contact, facial expression, and voice intonations as well as physical appearance. A meaning is attached to

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these nonverbal symbols. The meaning of nonverbal communication is in the observer, who both reads
specific signals and interprets them in the context of the particular situation.

Channels of nonverbal communication

1) Facial expressions and eye behavior
The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the intensity of a
person’s feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used to
indicate attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and to establish dominance.
Although the eyes and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes manipulate their
expressions to simulate an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
2) Gestures and Postures
By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a wave of
the hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or goodbye.” The other
types of body movement are unintentional and express general messages. These unconscious signals
reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or passive, powerful or
powerless.
3) Vocal characteristic/tones
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are, your
relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
4) Personal/physical/ appearance
The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on the basis
of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people think we are
capable and attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior, which in turn affects
other people’s perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our appearance.
5) Use of time and space
This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and determines
how comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves important functions
with respect to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it, substitute for it, or accent it.
It is important for the receiver to understand the real message conveyed by the nonverbal communication.
Although verbal and nonverbal communication works together best when they are complementary,
nonverbal communication may take the place of or even contradict formal communication or is
misleading. One should look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender’s
words; he should particularly be aware of contradictions of the messages. For instance, a boss may say
that he/she is free to talk to him about a grievance but he may see nonverbal signals that suggest that this is

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not the time to discuss the subject. Regardless of what is being said, an individual who frequently glances
at his/her wristwatch is giving the message that he/she would prefer to terminate the conversation. These
contradictions suggest one saying that “actions speak louder-and more accurately-than words.

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