I.

Introduction to Chemistry for Engineers

Lesson 1: Chemistry for Engineer: An Overview

CHEMISTRY is defined as the study of matter and the changes material substances undergo. It has been called the
“Central Science” because it is important to so many other fields of scientific study. Pure Chemistry goals are to gather
knowledge for the sake of knowledge, it does not necessarily have an application. While Applied Chemistry is using
chemistry to attain certain goals and it has a practical application in society, it is applied because the goal now is to apply the
newly formulated vaccine to a certain community.

There is two level of understanding or perspective in chemistry: Macroscopic and Microscopic. In macroscopic
perspective, we observe chemical reactions in the laboratory or in the world around us. Microscopic is observing chemical
reaction in atomic level.

Lesson 2: Branches of Chemistry

There are five major branches of chemistry. Under that several sub-branches than encompasses the field of
chemistry:

1. Organic Chemistry. The study of carbon and its compounds; it involves the structure, properties
and preparation of chemical compounds that consist of carbon-hydrogen bond.
2. Inorganic Chemistry. The study of properties and behavior of all chemical compound except organic chemistry. It
studies such as crystal structure, minerals, metals, catalyst, and most elements in the periodic table.
3. Biochemistry. The study of chemical processes that occur inside of living organisms.
4. Analytical Chemistry. The study of the chemistry of matter and the development of tools to measure properties of
matter. It involves the qualitative and quantitative determination of the chemical components of substances.
5. Physical Chemistry. The study of the effect of the chemical structure on the physical properties of a substance. This
branch of chemistry applies physics to the study of chemistry, which commonly includes the application of
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to chemistry.

Lesson 3: Scientific Method

Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge. Science is not simply
a set of facts but also a plan of action – a procedure for processing and understanding certain
types of information. The process that lies at the center of scientific inquiry is called the
scientific method.

Steps is the Scientific Method Scientist conducts their study following this cycle of
observation, predicting and experimenting. After an experiment, a new observation will be form
that will undergo again of the cycle.
 1. Making observations. Observations may be qualitative or quantitative. A Qualitative Observation does not involve
a number. While Quantitative Observation (Called A Measurement) involves both number and a unit.
2. Formulating hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation. The hypothesis may not be
correct, but it puts the scientist’s understanding of the system being studied into a form that can be tested.
3. Performing Experiments. Experiments are systematic observations or measurements, preferably made under
controlled condition in which a single variable changes. An experiment is carried out to a test a hypothesis. This
involves gathering new information that enables a scientist to decide whether the hypothesis is valid – that is, whether
it is supported by the information learned from the experiment. Experiments always produce new observations, and
this brings the process back to the beginning again.

Scientific Models

Once a set of hypotheses that agrees with the various observations is obtained, the hypotheses are assembled to
create a models and theories. The words “model” and “theory” are sometimes used interchangeably but the distinction
between these two terms is that model is used for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has a limitation on its
validity. Scientist often use such idealized models to get an initial grasp on analyzing complex situations. While theory
represents a hypothesis which has been confirmed through repeated testing. Generally, a theory is an interpretation or a
possible explanation of why nature behaves in a particular way. Theories are evolving as more information becomes
available. Whereas theory explains why a phenomena happened, a law simply states what happens, it is a verbal or
mathematical description of a phenomenon that allows for general predictions.

Lesson 4: Development of Chemistry

Timeline of major events in chemistry history:

 Democritus (465 BC). First to propose the matter combination of small particles to form molecules.
exists in the form if particles, coined the term Differentiated between compounds and mixtures.
‘atoms’.  Torricelli, Evangelista (1643). Invented the
 Alchemists (~1000-1650). Among other things, mercury barometer.
the alchemists sought a universal solvent,  Von Guericke, Otto (1645). Constructed the first
attempted to change lead and other metals into vacuum pump.
gold, and tried to discover an elixir which would  Dalton, John (1766-1844). Proposed atomic
prolong life. The alchemists learned how to use theory based on measurable masses. Stated law
metallic compounds and plant-derived materials to of partial pressure of gases.
treat diseases 1100s. Oldest written description of  Avogadro, Amedeo (1776-1856). Proposed
lodestone used as a compass. principle that equal volumes of gasses contain the
 Boyles, Sir Robert (1637-1691). Formulated the same number of molecules.
fundamental gas laws. First to propose the
 Davy, Sir Humphry (1778-1829). Laid foundation  Boltsmann, L. (1844-1906). Developed kinetic
of electrochemistry. Studied electrolysis of salts theory of gasses. Viscosity and diffusion
in water. Isolated sodium and potassium. properties are summarized in Boltzmann’s law.
 Gay-Lussac, J.L. (1778-1850). Discovered boron Published results from experiments showing that
and iodine. Discovered acid-base indicators heat is a form of energy. (1849)
(litmus). Improved method for making sulfuric  Lord Kelvin (1838). Described the absolute zero
acid. Researched behavior of gasses. point of temperature. Stated the second law of
 Coulomb, Charles (1795). Introduced the thermodynamics (1874)
inverse-square law of electrostatics.  Becquerel, Henri. (1851-1908). Discovered
 Faraday, Michael (1791-1867). Coined term radioactivity of uranium (1896) and deflection of
‘electrolysis’. Developed theories of electrical electrons by magnetic fields and gamma rays.
and mechanical energy, corrosion, batteries, and Nobel Prize in 1903 (with Curies).
electrometallurgy. Faraday was not a proponent of  Moisson, H. (1852-1907). Developed electric
atomism. furnace for making carbides and purifying metals.
 Pasteur, Louis (1822-1895). First recognition of Isolated Fluorine (1886). Nobel prize in 1906.
bacteria as disease-causing agents. Developed  Thomsons, Sir J.J. (1856-1940). Research on
field of immunochemistry. Introduced heat- cathode rays proved existence of electrons (1896)
sterilization of wine and mil. Saw optical isomers Nobel Prize in 1906. Discovered electron. (1897)
in tartaric acid.  Maxwell, James Clerk (1859). Described the
 Carnot, Sadi (1824). Analyzed heat engines. mathematical distribution of the velocities of
 Nobel, Alfred (1833-1896) Invented dynamite, molecules of a gas. Proposed that electric and
smokeless powder, and blasting gelatin. magnetic fields filled space. (1873)
Established international wards for achievements  Nerst, Walther Hermann (1863-1941). Nobel
in chemistry, physics, and medicine (Nobel Prize). Prize in 1920 for work in thermochemistry.
 Mendeléev, Dmitri (1834-1907). Discovered Performed basic research in electrochemistry and
periodicity of the elements. Compiled the first thermodynamics.
Periodic Table with elements arranged into 7  Curie, Marie (1867-1934). With Pierre Curie,
groups (1869). discovered and isolated radium and polonium
 Gibbs, Josiah W. (1839-1903). Stated three laws (1898). Studied radioactivity of uranium. Nobel
of thermodynamics. Described the nature of Prize in 1903 (with Becquerel) in physics; in
entropy and established a relation between chemistry 1911.
chemical, electric, and thermal energy.  Staudinger, Hermann (1881-1965). Studied
 Joule, James (1843). Experimentally high-polymer structure, catalytic synthesis,
demonstrated that heat is a form of energy. polymerization mechanism. Nobel Prize in 1963.
  Hertz, Heinrich (1888). Discovered radio waves.  Heisenberg, Werner (1927). Stated the quantum
 Chadwick, Sir James (1891-1974). Discovered uncertainty principles. Described atoms using a
the neutron (1932). Nobel Prize in 1935. formula based on the frequencies of spectral lines.
 Bohr, Niels (1913). Devised quantum model of  Anderson, Carl (1932). Discovered the positron.
the atom in which atoms has orbital shells of  Fermi, Enrico (1934). Formulated his theory of
electrons. beta decay.
 Crick, F.H.C. (1916-) with Watson, James D.  Seaborg, Glenn (1941-1951). Synthesized
Described the structure of the DNA molecules several trans uranium elements and suggested a
(1953). revision to the layout of the periodic table

Lesson 5: Matter and Classification

Matter is anything that has mass and

occupies space. It can be classified either with
respect to its physical phase or with respect to its
composition.

 According to Phase

Matter can be either rigid (meaning unbending or

inflexible) or fluid (substance have tendency to
flow). A solid is rigid form of matter so that it
maintains its shape when subjected to outside
force. A liquid and gas are a fluid form of matter
which occupies the space of the container.

 According to Composition

Matter can be classified according to its composition: either pure substance or mixture.

Pure substance cannot be separated by physical means. It has a fixed composition and a unique set of properties.
Pure substances are either elements or compounds.

An element is a type of matter that cannot be broken down into two or more pure substances by breaking bonds.
There are 118 known elements, of which 91 occur naturally. It is identified by its symbol. Elements can be classified according
to its valence electrons either metal or metalloid or non-metal.

A compound is a pure substance that can be broken down into two or more elements by chemical meals.
Compounds have fixed compositions. That is, a given compound always contains the same elements in the same percentages
by mass.

Mixture contains two or more substances combined in such a way that each substance retains its chemical identity.
There are two types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous.
 Homogeneous or uniform mixtures are ones in which the composition is the same throughout. Another name for
a homogeneous mixture is a solution, which is made up of a solvent most commonly a liquid. While solid homogeneous are
alloys.

Heterogeneous or non-uniform mixtures are those in which the composition varies throughout. Most rocks all into
this category like granite. Its part can be easily separated through different methods such as filtration, distillation and etc.

Lesson 6: Measurements and Instruments

Chemistry is a quantitative science. Scientific measurements are expressed in the metric system. This is a decimal
system in which all of the units of a particular quantity are related to one another by factors of 10. The common prefixes used
to express these factors are listed in below.

The metric system is the main system of measurement units used in science. Each unit is considered to be
dimensionally independent of the others.

Meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. The devices most
commonly used to measure length are ruler, measuring tape, caliper and etc.

Mass is a measure o the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion. Mass is measured by the
force necessary to give an object a certain acceleration. On earth we use the force that gravity exerts on an
object to measure its mass. We call this force the object’s weight.

Graduated cylinder and volumetric flask are used for measuring volume. A pipet or buret is used when
greater accuracy is required. A pipet is calibrated to deliver a fixed volume of liquid. Different volumes can
be delivered accurately by a buret, perhaps to ±0.01mL.
 Temperature is the factor that determines the direction of heat flow. When two objects at a different
temperature are placed in contact with one another, heat flows from the one at the higher temperature to
the one at the lower temperature. Thermometer used in chemistry marked in degrees Celsius.

Lesson 7: Properties of Substance

Intensive properties do not depend on the sample’s size or mass. Extensive properties depend on the amount of
matter in the sample.

The Physical properties of matter are any properties that can be perceived or observed without changing the
chemical identity of the sample. In contrast, chemical properties are those that can only be observes and measured by
performing a chemical reaction, thus changing the molecular structure of the sample.

Density

The density of a substance is the ratio of mass

to volume:

Solubility

Solubility is referred to as the process by which

a solute dissolve in a solvent, and is ordinarily
a physical rather than a chemical change.

II. Energy and Chemistry

Lesson 1: Nature of Energy

Scientists define energy as the ability to do work.

Energy is essential to life and all living organisms.

It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. Energy can be
transferred in one of two ways – as heat, or as work, energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has
been transferred, energy is always designated according to its nature.

Heat is the term given to energy that is transferred from a hot object to a cooler object due to the difference
in their temperatures. Hence, heat transferred may become thermal energy, while work is the term given to energy that is
transferred as a result of a force applied over a distance, work done may manifest itself in the form of mechanical energy.

The energy we use to power everything from our homes

to schools and workplaces comes from a variety of different
sources. These can be broken down into renewable and non-
renewable energy sources.
Lesson 2: Forms of Energy

Energy exists in many different forms, but they all fall into two basic categories Potential energy and Kinetic energy.

 Potential energy is any form of energy that has stored potential that can be put to future use.
 WHERE: m – mass, g – acceleration due to gravity, h – altitude/height
o Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules.
o Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the
nucleus together. Large amounts of energy can be released when the nuclei are combined
(fusion) or split (fission) apart.
 Kinetic energy is the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules, substances, and objects.
 WHERE: m – mass, v – velocity of object
o Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible
light, x-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves. Light is one type of radiant energy.
o Thermal energy, or heat, is the energy that comes from the movement of atoms and molecules in a
substance. Heat increases when these particles move faster. Geothermal energy is the thermal energy in
the earth.
o Mechanical energy is the energy a substance or system has because of its motion like machines use
mechanical energy to do work.
o Electrical energy is delivered by tiny charged particles called electrons, typically moving through a wire.
Lightning is an example of electrical energy in nature. Other forms of energy are also converted to electrical
energy.
o Sound Energy is produced when an object is made to vibrate. Sound energy travels out as waves in all
directions. Sound needs a medium to travel through.

Lesson 3: Conversion of Energy

Energy conversion, the transformation of energy from forms provided by nature to forms that can be used by humans.
The same amount of energy exists after the conversion as before. Energy conversion obeys the law of conservation of energy.

Energy can be converted from one form to another. The energy we use to power everything from our homes to
schools and workplaces comes from a variety of different sources. These can be broken down into renewable (wind energy,
solar energy, hydropower and geothermal energy) and non-renewable energy (oil, coal and natural gas) sources.

Renewable energy is any natural energy resource that can replace itself quickly and dependably. Non-renewable
energy is a source of energy that will eventually run out. Most are fossil fuels.

Lesson 4: Law of Conservation of Energy

It is common for energy to be converted from one form to another; however, the law of conservation of energy, a
fundamental law of physics, states that although energy can be changed in form it can be neither created nor destroyed, the
energy of the universe is constant. Another way of stating this law of chemistry is to say the total energy of an isolated system
remains constant or is conserved within a given frame of reference.

This can be expressed as follows:

The law of conservation of energy also applies to other forms of energy. When a lamp is turned on, some of the
electrical energy in the lamp is converted to light energy, though most may be changed to thermal energy, or heat. The total
amount of energy in the system before the lamp was switched on will equal the total energy afterward, even though the form
of energy changed.

This can be expressed as follows:

In a chemical system, energy is contained within chemical bonds. Energy is released when bonds are formed between
molecules in a chemical reaction; when molecules are broken down, the energy is released. As with physical systems,
however, the total amount of energy at the start of a chemical reaction must equal the total amount at the end.

Lesson 5: Thermochemistry

Thermochemistry is the study of the heat released or absorbed as a result of chemical reactions. It is a branch of
thermodynamics and is utilized by a wide range of scientists and engineers. Chemical reactions involve the conversion of a
set of substances collectively referred to as "reactants" to a set of substances collectively referred to as "products."

Thermochemical changes are often discussed in terms of the "system" and the "surroundings." The system is
regarded as the reaction products and reactants, whereas the surroundings consist of everything else in the universe. A
boundary separates the system from the surroundings. A system is the specific portion of the universe that is being studied.
Everything outside the system is considered the surroundings or environment. A system may be:

 A Isolated System which can exchange neither energy nor matter with the surroundings, such as an
insulated bomb calorimeter
 A Closed System which can exchange energy but not matter, such as an uninsulated closed piston or balloon
 An Open System which it can exchange both matter and energy with the surrounding, such as a pot of boiling water

Two fundamental principles of thermochemistry are:

 Lavoisier and Laplace’s law (1780): The energy change in any transformation is equal and opposite to energy
change in the reverse process.
 Hess' law (1840): The energy change in any transformation is the same whether the process occurs in one step or
many.

These statement helps in formulation of first law of thermodynamics in 1845. Lavoisier, Laplace and Hess also
investigated specific heat and latent heat, although it was Joseph Black who made the most important contributions to the
development of latent energy changes. The study of energy and its interconversions is called thermodynamics. The law of
conservation of energy is often called the first law of thermodynamics and is stated as follows: The energy of the universe
is constant.

Calorimetry

The device used experimentally to determine the heat associated with a chemical reaction is called a calorimeter.
Calorimetry, the science of measuring heat, is based on observing the temperature change when a body
absorbs or discharges energy as heat. Constant-pressure calorimetry is used in determining the changes in enthalpy (heats
of reactions) for reactions occurring in solution. The heat capacity of the
entire calorimeter may be obtained by measuring the change in temperature
of the surroundings resulting from a known heat input.

There is no mass or number of moles term here for the quantity of material. The calorimeter constant is the heat
capacity of a particular object (or set of objects) rather than that of a material. Once the calorimeter constant is known, we are
ready to use the calorimeter for our actual measurement.

Commonly includes calculations of:

1. The Enthalpy is a state function. A change in enthalpy does not depend on the pathway between two states.
The enthalpy H, (, where E is the internal energy of the system, P is the pressure of the system, and V is the volume of the
system). At constant pressure (where only PV work is allowed), the change in enthalpy H of the system is equal to the energy
flow as heat. This means that for a reaction studied at constant pressure, the flow of heat is a measure of the change in
enthalpy for the system. For a chemical reaction, the enthalpy change is given by the equation at constant pressure,
exothermic means ∆H is negative; endothermic means ∆H is positive.

2. The internal energy E of a system can be defined most precisely as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies
of all the “particles” in the system. The internal energy of a system can be changed by a flow of work, heat, or both. That is,
where represents the change in the system’s internal energy, q represents heat, and w represents work.

3. The heat capacity C of a substance, which is a measure of this property, is defined as

When an element or a compound is heated, the energy required will depend on the amount of the substance present.
Thus, in defining the heat capacity of a substance, the amount of substance must be specified. If the heat capacity is given
per gram of substance, it is called the specific heat capacity, and its units are J/°Cg or J/Kg. If the heat capacity is given per
mole of the substance, it is called the molar heat capacity, and it has the units J/°C mol or J/K mol.

Lesson 6: Endothermic Reaction

Endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually in the form of heat, for the reaction to
proceed. Since endothermic reactions draw in heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments to cool
down.
 They are also generally nonspontaneous, since endothermic reactions yield products that are higher in energy than
the reactants. As such, the change in enthalpy for an endothermic reaction is always positive.

In an endothermic reaction, the products (C in diagram) are higher in

energy than the reactants (A+B in diagram). Therefore, the change in enthalpy is
positive, and heat is absorbed from the surroundings by the reaction.

Whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on the direction

that it is going; some reactions are reversible, and when you revert the products
back to reactants, the change in enthalpy is opposite.

Lesson 7: Exothermic Reaction

Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in the form of heat or light.

In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the total energy of the

products is less than the total energy of the reactants. For this reason, the change
in enthalpy, for an exothermic reaction will always be negative. In an exothermic
reaction, the total energy of the products (C in diagram) is less than the total energy
of the reactants (A+B in diagram). Therefore, the change in enthalpy is negative,
and heat is released to the surroundings.

Lesson 8: Specific Heat

The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required
to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. The relationship
between heat and temperature change is usually expressed in the form
shown below where c is the specific heat specific heat capacity (c,
usually simply called the specific heat)

Molar heat capacity is a physical property that describes

how much heat is required to raise the temperature of one mole of
a substance by 1°C. So if we choose to express
the amount of material in terms of moles rather
than mass, our equation changes only slightly.