TURBULENCE MODELS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN HYDRAULICS

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR HYDRAULIC RESEARCH

ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES

lAHR

AIRH MONOGRAPH SERIES

This monograph was effected under the auspices of the lAHR Section on Fundamentals of Division II:
Experimental and Mathematical Ruid Dynamics

In the same series:

T. Takahashi, 1991. Debris flow.
M. Bouvard, 1992. Mobile barrages and intakes on sediment transporting rivers.
I. Nezu & H. Nakagawa, 1993. Turbulence in open-channel flows.
Zhaohui Wan & Zhaoyin Wang, 1994. Hyperconcentratedflow.
Philippe Coussot, 1997. Mudflow Rheology and Dynamics.
Franz S. Rys & Albert Gyr, 1998. Physical Processes and Chemical Reactions in Liquid
Flows.
Turbulence Models and Their
Application in Hydraulics
A state-of-the-art review
WOLFGANG ROD!
Institut für Hydromechanik, University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe

THIRD EDITION

) Taylor 8iFrancis
Taylor & Francis Group

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 - V -

FOREWORD

by Chao-Lin C hiu, Professor of C iv il Engineering

University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U .S .A .

M r . J .E . Prins, Secretary of lA H R /invited me to w rite this Foreword as this book

is presented by the Section on Fundamentals of Division II and I happen to be the Chairman
of the D ivision. Under the leadership of Messrs. M . Hug (past President) and H .J .Schoemaker
(former Secretary), the lAHR began promoting publications of books by members. This book
represents one of the first to be published as a part of the plan to provide a better service
to lAHR members. The book was reviewed, approved and edited by lAHR prior to publication.

The topic of this book is tim e ly . The scope is broad that makes it d iffic u lt to satis­
fy readers who may demand information in great depth or wide areas of practical applica­
tions in hydraulics. However, efforts were clearly mode to present promising or proven
turbulence models useful in calculating turbulence terms that appear in time-averaged
equations governing m ean-flow quantities, and to give examples to illustrate possible ap pli­
cations. The book should be able to serve as a concise but informative reference to resear­
chers in the field of hydraulics where applications of turbulence models are gaining momentum,

I am pleased that the Sections in Division II are very active in support of the pre­
sent lAHR effort to serve its members. There w ill be more publications of this nature coming
out of our D ivision. I am fu lly aware of the fact that it is not an easy task to find a person
who has both the qualifications and willingness to work on a s ta te -o f-th e -a rt review such as
this. Efforts which D r. Rodi put into this book should, therefore, deserve a proper apprecia­
tion by readers.
 VII -

C O N TE N TS

PREFACE IX

SU M M A R Y/R E S U M E XI
NOMENCLATURE XIII

IN T R O D U C T IO N

1.1 The Role of Turbulence Models

1 .2 Scope and O u tlin e of the Review

TURBULENCE M O D E L L IN G

2 .1 M ean-Flow Equations and the Problem of Closure

2 .2 The Nature of Turbulence

2 .3 Basic Concepts and Classification of Turbulence Models 10

2 .4 Zero-Equation Models 14
a) Constant Eddy Viscosity/ Diffusivity 14
b) M ixin g Length Models 16
c) Prondtl's Free Shear Layer Model 20
2 .5 One-Equation Models 20
a) Models Using the Eddy Viscosity Concept 20
b) Bradshaw et a l's Model 24
c) Heat and Moss Transfer C alculation and Buoyancy 25
Effects
d) Assessment 25

2.6 Two-Equation Models 26

a) Length-Scole Equations 26
b) The k - e Model 27
c) Nonisotropic Eddy Viscosity 30
d) Heot / Moss Transfer and Buoyancy 30
e) k~ e Model for Depth-Average Calculations 31
f) Assessment 33

2 .7 Turbulent Stress / Flux-Equation Models 33

a) Reynolds-Stress Equations ___ 34
b) Equations for Scalar Fluxes Ujq) and Fluctuations ip2 38
c) Algebraic Stress / Flux Models 41
d) Assessment 43

2 .8 Boundary Conditions 44
 - VIII -

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS T O HYDRAULICS PROBLEMS 47

3.1 Channel Flow 47

a) Two-Dimensional Calculations 47
b) Three-Dimensional Effects 50

3 .2 Recirculating Flow Due to Abrupt Changes in Channel 52

Geometry

3 .3 Submerged Jets and Wakes 55

a) Non-Buoyant Jets and Wakes 55
b) Buoyant Jets and Wakes 57

3 .4 Discharges into N early Stagnant W ater 60

a) Surface Discharges 60
b) Submerged Discharges into Shallow W ater 64

3 .5 Discharges into Moving Streams 66

a) Two-Dimensional Calculations 66
b) Three-Dimensional Calculations 69

3 .6 Unsteady Flow Calculations 73

C O N C L U S IO N S 79

APPENDIX A : Introduction to Tensor Notation 82

APPENDIX B : The Length Scale Specification Proposed by 84

Bernard et a l . [44]

APPENDIX C : Table 5 : Summary of Turbulence Models and 86

In itia l Conditions Used in the Application
Examples

REFERENCES 92
 -IX -

PREFACE

Turbulent motions contribute significantly to the transport of momentum, heat and

moss in most flows of practical interest and i-herefore ha>œ a determining influence on the
distributions of ve lo c ity , temperature and species concentration over the flow fie ld . It is
the basic task of engineers working in the field of fluid mechanics to determine these dis­
tributions for a certain problem, and if the task is to be solved by a calculation method,
there is now ay around making assumptions about the turbulent transport processes. Basically,
this is what turbulence modelling is about ; because the turbulent transport processes cannot
be calculated with an exact method, they must by approximated by a turbulence model which,
with the aid of empirical information, allows the turbulent transport quantities to be re la t­
ed to the mean flow fie ld .

Until recently, the availab le turbulence models did not appear very promising for
solving but the simplest re a l-life flow problems, and they were used particularly seldom in
the field of hydraulics. There, calculations were carried out mainly for so-called fa r-fie ld
situations where the turbulent transport is either relatively unimportant or can be approxi­
mated to sufficient accuracy by crude assumptions. For n ear-field situations where turbulen­
ce dominates the flow behaviour and requires refined modelling, hydraulic engineers re­
sorted so far mainly to physical m odelling. O ver the last ten years however, advances in
computer technology have made it possible to thoroughly test increasingly complex turbul­
ence hypotheses and to apply them in practical calculations. As a result, the situation has
changed, and the theorel-ica! treatment of near-field problems is now also within reach:
although the advanced turbulence models presently availab le require further testing, it can
already be stated that they w ill in many coses provide good estimates for problems that
defied a theoretical treatment so fa r. To demonstrate this is one of the purposes of this book.

Most of the turbulence-model-development and application work was carried out

in the area of mechanical and aeronautical engineering, even though the modelling of tur­
bulent transport processes is equally important in many hydraulic flow problems. It is there­
fore perhaps not easy for hydraulic engineers to acquire u p-to -d ate knowledge about the
existing turbulence models described mainly in the literature of other areas, and to judge
the applicability of these models to hydraulic flow problems. The present book therefore
aims to provide an introduction to the subject of turbulence modelling in a form easy to
understand for anybody with a basic background in fluid mechanics, and to summarize the
present state of the a rt. The review deals specifically with certain modelling aspects pe­
culiar to hydraulic flows, but it is kept general enough to be of interest also to workers
in other areas in which turbulent transport processes play an important ro le. In order to
help hydraulic engineers judge the suitability of the various turbulence models for their
problems, a review is given also of published model applications to hydraulic flow problems,
with the emphasis on n ear-field issues.

Application of the more advanced (and also more promising) turbulence models to
hydraulic flow problems did not commence until 1970 and was even then pursued by a few
researchers only. Therefore the range of flows for which these models were tested so far is
unfortunately somewhat restricted, and final judgement on the general applicability must
await further testing. Also, most of the calculations presented for any one flow example
were obtained with only one m odel. Comparisons of the performance of various models when
applied to the same problem would certainly have been more valuable, but such compari­
sons have seldom been reported in the literature, and itwos not w ithin the scope of this
 - X -

work to carry out new predictions. The so-called k - 8 turbulence model receives most
attention in this review and is recommended as the most suitable model at the present state-
o f-th e-art; os I was personally involved in the development and application of this particu­
lar model, this may seem as a lack of objectiveness. I should like to state however that to
the best of my knowledge there is no other model that has been tested successfully for near­
ly os many different hydraulic flow problems as has the k - e model.

The suggestion to w rite this review for the International Association for Hydraulic
Research came from D r. G . Abraham in his capacity os Chairman of the Association's Com­
mittee on Fundamentals, and I should like to thank him for this stimulus as w ell os for his
valuable comments on earlier drafts. I should also like to thank Professor H . Kobus, secre­
tary of the Committee on Fundamentals, and Professor E. Naudascher, Chairman of the
Division II of lAHR and Director of my home Institute, for their constant support and advice.
M y thanks are due further to D r. L. Fink, D r. M . F . G authier, Professor B .E . Launder,
D r. J . M c G u irk , D r. A .K . Rostogi, D r. U . Svensson, and D r. D .S . Trent for making
availab le unpublished information and results. The effort of D r. I . A . Sherenkov, who pro­
vided a short summary on turbulence-model work in the Soviet Union, is also greatly acknow­
ledged. Further, I am grateful to D r. J . M c G u irk and D r. C .B . Vreugdenhil for helpful
comments on an earlier draft, to D r. M . A . Leschziner for his careful proofreading, and
to Miss G . Bartman and M rs. S. Issel for their great effort and patience in producing the
manuscript. Finally I should lik e to acknowledge the financial support of the Deutsche For­
schungsgemeinschaft. A German version of this review was accepted by the Fakultät für
Bauingenieur- und Vermessungswesen of the University of Karlsruhe os H abilitation thesis.

Karlsruhe, March 1979 W . Rodi

 - XI -

SUMMARY

A survey is given of existing mathematical models for describing the turbulent

transport of momentum, heat and moss in flows. The merits and demerits of the individual
models are discussed with respect to their predictive ab ility and computational economy.
Examples of model applications to a fairly large variety of small-scale (near-field) hydrau­
lics problems are presented, with emphasis on recently developed more refined models.
The performance of the models is judged by comparison with experiments, and conclusions
are drown on th e range of applicability of the individual models. The so-called tw o-equa­
tion models employing differential transport equations for the velocity and length scales
of the fluctuating motion are found to offer the best compromise between width of a p pli­
cab ility and computational economy at the present state of development. In particular,
the k - e model is shown to predict reasonably well a fa irly large range of basic hydrau­
lics problems with the same empirical input. Simpler models lik e the mixing length hypo­
thesis or one-equations models using only a transport equation for the turbulence velocity
scale are suitable mainly for shear-layer problems for which the length-scale distribution
can be prescribed re a lis tic a lly . The more complex models employing transport equations
for the individual turbulent stresses and heat or mass fluxes are conceptually superior, but
they are at present insufficiently developed and tested, and the increased computational
effort they require seems not justified for most hydraulics problems. A ll these models are
recommended for application to small-scale problems only. Refined modelling is not w ar­
ranted for calculating the horizontal turbulent transport in large woter bodies where the
use of suitably chosen exchange coefficients is more appropriate.

RESUME

Passage en revue des différents modèles mathématiques destinés à l'é tu d e des phé­
nomènes de transport turbulent des quantités de mouvement, thermiques ou massiques dans
les fluides en écoulement. Examen des odvantages et des inconvénients de ces modèles,
dans l'o p tiq u e de leurs capacités prévisionelles et du volume des calculs nécessaires. Pré­
sentation d'examples d 'ap plicatio n des modèles 6 l'é tu d e de problèmes hydrauliques rela­
tivement diversifiés et intervenant dans un champ lim ité ("champ proche"), notamment en
ce qui concerne certains modèles "affinés" de conception récente. Appréciation des possibi­
lités des différents modèles, à la lumière de comparaisons par rapport aux procédés éxpêri-
mentaux, et conclusions relatives aux domaines d 'u tilisatio n de ces modèles. Les modèles
dits "d deux équations", dont les échelles de vitesse et de longueur des phénomènes flu c ­
tuants sont définies par des équations de transport différentielles, permettraient à l'é ta t
actuel de leur développement, d'associer au mieux un domaine d 'ap plicatio n étendu des
modèles d un volume minimal des calculs nécessaires. En particulier, le modèle k - £
permet, d partir des mêmes données d 'en trée empiriques, une étude assez précise des
problèmes hydrauliques fondamentaux intéressant des domaines relativement étendus. Les
modèles plus simples, tels que réposant sur l'hypothèse de la longueur de mélange, ou d
une seule équation (une seule équation de transport, définissant l'é c h e lle de vitesse de la
turbulence) se prêtent, essentiellement, d l'é tu d e des problèmes relevant des couches
d'écoulement en cisaillem ent, pour lesquels il est possible de se fixer une répartition réa­
liste de l'é c h e lle des longueurs. Les modèles plus complexes, reposant sur la définition
des contraintes de turbulence et des flux thermiques ou massiques par des équations de
transport, sont supérieurs sur le plan conceptuel, mais ne sont, ni tout d fa it au point, ni
suffisamment éprouvés; d 'a u tre part, ils nécessitent des calculs d 'u n e ampleur difficilem ent
 " XII -

justifiable pour ia plupart des problèmes hydrauliques. L'emploi de tous ces modèles n'est
recommandé que pour les problèmes en "champ proche", n'intéressant qu'un domaine lim i­
té . L'emploi d 'u n modèle "affiné" pour calculer les phénomènes de transport se déroulant
au sein de grandes masses d 'e a u ne serait guère justifié, puisque ces problèmes s'abordent
bien mieux au moyen de coefficients d'échange judicieusement choisis.
 - XIII -

NOMENCLATURE

A empîrîcal constant în dîffusîvîty law (2 .2 2 )

B channel width

b discharge w id th /d e p th

C empirical constant in diffusivity low (2 .2 1 )

c concentration,
constants in turbulence models

D ,d diameter or other geometrical parameter

E entrainment rote,
friction parameter in log low (2 .8 5 )

distance between shear zones (Eq. B.5)

F densimetric Froude number

G buoyancy production/destruction of k

G ij buoyancy production/destruction of ujuj

g gravitational acceleration,
velocity gradient

H width of recirculation zone,

water depth

h water depth

Ji depth-average flux of Çl in direction X|

k = 1 /2 u|Uj = turbulent kinetic energy

L length scale of turbulence

«rr, Prandtl mixing length

n Manning roughness factor

P mean pressure,
stress production of k

PVP production of vp2

stress production of UjUj

P fluctuating pressure

Q flow rate

q heat flux at surface

R radius,
velocity ratio,
ratio of time scales of scalar and velocity fluctuations

Re Reynolds number
 - XIV -

flux Richardson number

Ri gradient Richardson number, Eq. (2.20)

S salinity

r radial coordinate,
radius

volumetric source / sink term of quantity ^

T temperature

t time

u ,v ,w mean velocity components in x ,y , z direction

u ,v ,w fluctuating velocity components in x , y , z direction

Ui instantaneous or mean velocity component in x| direction

uî fluctuating velocity component in x| direction

U x ,U ^ = l/x w /P = friction velocity

U e / U cx, free-stream velocity

V velocity scale of the turbulent motion

x ,y ,z co-ordinates

co-ordinates in tensor notation

h alf-w idth of jet or w ake, defined by cross-stream distance from the

y \n
axis to a point where (U - Uoo) = 1 /2 ( U m a x - U oo)
+
= U ^ y /v = dimensionless w all distance

Greek Symbols

a empirical constant in (2.19)

P volumentric expansion coefficient,

empirical constant in (2.19)
r eddy d iffusivity

Y constant in pressure-strain model (2 .6 4 )

5 shear-layer thickness

Kronecker d e lta , = 1 for i = j and = 0 for i

6 ij
e dissipation rate of k

dissipation rate of vp2

T) surface elevation

e momentum thickness of jets

X von Karman constant in log law (2 .8 5 )

 - XV -

molecular diffusivity of scalar quantity,

constant for specifying the mixing length in boundary layers

kinematic molecular viscosity

eddy (or turbulent) viscosity

TCi pressure-St rain term

Tl l\p press ure -sc al ar-g rod i en t corre I at ion

P fluid density

Of turbulent Prandtl / Schmidt number

°k,e constants in k - z model

X shear stress

w all shear stress

stress acting in direction x| on a face perpendicular to xj

'I
C|> instantaneous or mean scalar quantity

'i> fluctuating scalar quantity

Subscripts

B, b bottom

d discharge

E external

r river,
reference

s surface

o at e x it,
cose without buoyancy

OO condition in external (free) stream

t at cen tre-lin e
 -1 -

1. IN T R O D U C T IO N

1,1 The Role of Turbulence Models

In hydraulics, as in other areas of fluid mechanics, the flows of practical rele­

vance are almost always turbulent; this means that the fluid motion is highly random, un­
steady and three-dimensional. Due to these complexities, the turbulent motion and the
heat and mass-transfer phenomena associated with it are extremely d iffic u lt to describe and
thus to predict th eo retically. Y e t, the basic task of hydraulic engineering is that of pre­
dicting w ater-flo w phenomena, and, because "predictions" by way of experiments are
usually very expensive, calculation methods are in great practical demand.

In spite of all the recent advances in computer technology, turbulent flows cannot
at present be calculated with an exact method. The exact equations describing the tur­
bulent motion are known (the Navier-Stokes equations), and numerical procedures are
available to solve these equations, but the storage capacity ond speed of present-day
computers is still not sufficient to allow a solution for any practically relevant turbulent
flo w . The reason is that the turbulent motion contains elements which are much smaller
than the extent of the flow domain, typically of the order of 10“^ times smaller. To re­
solve the motion of these elements in a numerical procedure, the mesh size of the nu­
merical grid would have to be even smaller; therefore at least 10^ grid points would be
necessary to cover the flow domain in three dimensions. Storing the flow variables at so
many grid points is still far beyond the capacity of the fast-access memory of present-
day computers, and, in addition, the number of arithmetic operations which would be re­
quired is so large that the computing time would also be prohibitive. Saffman [ i j recent­
ly claimed that in about 20 years'tim e computers w ill have been developed with suffici­
ent capacity to solve numerically the exact equations for turbulent flows; for the near
future however an exact treatment of turbulence is certainly out of the question.

Until very recently there was not even the glimpse of a hope of ever solving the
exact equations for turbulent flows. Since engineers nevertheless needed calculation
methods, they took recourse to empirical and semi-empirical methods. Empirical methods
simply correlate experimental results and con therefore be used with confidence only
for direct interpolation of these results; the Chezy friction law is a typical example.
W ith the aid of dimensional analysis, experimental data were condensed into many useful
empirical formulae. However, these can describe only the simplest phenomena of interest
and are not suitable for complex geometries; for whenever there are more than just a few
parameters determining the problem in question, generally valid empirical correlations
are d iffic u lt if not impossible to a tta in . Therefore, at an early stage, another approach
was also followed and methods were developed which make use of our theoretical know­
ledge about flu id -flo w phenomena. These methods are based on the conservation laws
for mass, momentum and energy and are therefore, at least potentially, of greater ge­
neral valid ity than strictly empirical relations. The basic conservation laws are expres­
sed by the exact equations mentioned above, which describe all details of the fluid mo­
tion . Because there was (and still is) little hope of solving these equations, and because
engineers are in any case not interested in the details of the fluctuating motion, a statis­
tical approach was taken (as first suggested by Osborne Reynolds) and the equations were
averaged over a time scale which is long compared with that of the turbulent motion.
The resulting equations describe the distribution of mean v elo city, pressure, temperature
and species concentration in the flow and thus the quantities of prime interest to the en­
gineer. Unfortunately, the process of averaging has created a new problem : now the
 -2 -

equations no longer constitute a closed system since they contain unknown terms repre­
senting the transport of mean momentum, heat and moss by the turbulent motion. The sy­
stem can be closed only with the aid of empirical input, whence the calculation methods
based on the averaged flow equations are sem i-em pirical.

Empirical information can be put into the system of equations in two distinctly d if­
ferent ways. Integral methods, which are suitable mainly for thin shear layers (boundary-
layer-type flows), introduce empirical profile shapes so that the originally partial differen­
tial equations can be reduced to ordinary ones. Further input is necessary which describ­
es the global effect of turbulence, like the entrainment lows for free shear flows and
the friction or energy dissipation laws for wall boundary layers. In contrast, the so-called
field methods, which employ the original partial differential equations, require specifi­
cation of the turbulent transport terms appearing in the equations at each point in the flo w .
This specification is accomplished by a mathematical model of the turbulent transport pro­
cesses which is called a "turbulence m odel". Therefore, a turbulence model is defined as
a set of equations (algebraic or differential) which determine the turbulent transport terms
in the m ean-flow equations and thus close the system of equations. Turbulence models
are based on hypotheses about turbulent processes and require empirical input in the
form of constants or functions; they do not simulate the details of the turbulent motion
but only the effect of turbulence on the mean-flow behaviour.

Turbulent transport processes are strongly problem-dependent; for example, they

depend on geometrical conditions of large and small scale (e .g . w all shape and rough­
ness), on viscous and swirl effects, and on buoyancy. O nly the exact but intractable
equations form a mathematical model that accurately describes the processes under all pos­
sible situations. Turbulence models can only give an approximate description, and, with
a particular set of empirical constants, they are valid only for a certain flow or at the
most a range of flo w s .lt is of course desirable in a turbulence model to achieve a good
approximation with a single set of constants for a fairly wide range of flows; only then has
a fie ld method incorporating the turbulence model real predictive power. A model for
which the constants have to be adjusted from flow to flow is in essence little more than a
method for interpolating experimental data, similar to the empirical formulae mentioned
above. A good turbulence model should however allow extrapolation from the empirical
data which entered the model. It is of course important to examine the limits up to which
an extrapolation is meaningful.

The most universal turbulence model is not necessarily also the most suitable one
for a particular problem. In practical applications,the economy and ease of use of a model
are also important factors, and the more universal models are usually more complex and
thus require more computing tim e. Thus, for each problem, the right level of complexity
has to be chosen from amongst the available models.

1 ,2 Scope ond O u tlin e of the Review

Starting with Prandtl in 1925, researchers have been increasingly active develop­
ing turbulence models during the last 20 years. The first turbulence models, of which the
PrandtI-m ixing-length hypothesis is the most well-know n example, related the turbulent
transport terms uniquely to local mean-flow quantities. Even these relatively simple mo­
dels could, for a long tim e, be used only to calculate self-sim ilar flows (e .g . far fie ld
of jets and wakes) for which the partial differential equations expressing mass and mo­
 - 3 -

mentum conservation can be reduced to ordinary ones. The partial differential equations
governing the more general flow situations could not be solved at that tim e. Even for the
few flows to which they could be applied, the early models lacked universality in that
they required different empirical constants for different flows; the desire to remedy this
led to the development of more complex models starting in the 1940's. These models
give up the d irect, algebraic link between the turbulent transport terms and the mean-
flow quantities and employ differential transport equations for turbulence quantities such
as the kinetic energy of the turbulent motion. Some of these models are conceptually
os advanced as the most complex turbulence models in use today. However, it took an­
other 20 years before these models could actually be applied and tested. In the 1960's
computers became sufficiently powerful and, shortly thereafter, numerical techniques
sufficiently w ell-developed to allow the partial differential equations for the mean flow
(and in complex turbulence models) also for turbulence quantities, to be solved for many
flow situations. As a consequence, the main effort in developing, and almost all the
effort in testing turbulence models has been confined to the last 10 years.

This development and the resulting application of turbulence models was mainly
restricted to the area of mechanical and aeronautical engineering. Various reviews are
available on this work [ 2 , 3 , 4 ] , which give a fa irly comprehensive picture of the state-
o f-th e -a rt in these fields. In hydraulic engineering however, the application of turbul­
ence models was, until very recently, restricted to the early, most simple models.

As advanced turbulence models have shown great promise in other fields of enginee­
ring, it seems worthwhile (and opportune) for the further development of calculation me­
thods for turbulent-flow problems in hydraulics to review c ritic a lly the range of available
turbulence models with the aim of assessing their suitability for application to hydraulics
problems. In particular, it is important to find out how w ell the various models can cope
w ith the manifold complications present in hydraulics problems, such as irregular geome­
tries, buoyancy and free-surface effects. It is the purpose of this review to present such
an assessment and to show/by way of examples/what problems have been and can be tack­
led with the presently available models.

The number of turbulence models suggested in the literature over the last 70 years
is rather large so that not all models can be included in this review . Some of the mo­
dels suggested have been tested very little (or not at a ll) and are therefore d iffic u lt to
assess; others are used no longer because they have been found to perform poorly. The
present review concentrates on those models which are still in use and hove been tested
to a fair degree; further, the models which have already been applied to hydraulic flow
problems or are specially geared to them w ill receive special attention. Assessment of the
applications w ill focus on free surface flows because flows in closed ducts are not pecu­
liar to the field of hydraulics (they are very similar to gas flows occuring in other areas
of fluid mechanics and are therefore covered by the reviews mentioned above). Futher,
the review concentrates on small-scale (or near-field) issues; for reasons to be explained
in detail later, use of the refined models mainly described in this book is not warranted
for simulating the large-scale horizontal turbulent transport in natural water bodies. Pre­
vious reviews on turbulence models for hydraulic problems can be found in References [5 ]
to [8 ] . These provide valuable accounts of the state of the art at the time of their ap­
pearance, but they are not representative of the present state since significant progress
has been achieved in the meantime. In his survey for the 1971 lAHR Congress in Paris,
Biesel [8 ] expressed the hope that one w ill learn sufficiently quickly from the imper-
 - 4 -

fections of the then existing models in order to soon arrive at models of greater prac-
tical value; it is one of the main tasks of this work to examine whether this hope has
become true in the meantime.

The present review is restricted to turbulence models describing the local state of
turbulence, such as are employed in fie ld methods. The global description of turbulence
used in integral methods is not discussed here. Further, the numerical procedure to solve
the resulting set of partial differential equations representing the complete mathematical
model (mean-flow and turbulence equations) are not dicussed either.Readers interested
in numerical procedures in fluid mechanics are referred to the book of Roache [ 9 ] .

In the section to follow (Sec. 2 .1 ) , the problem of calculating turbulent flows

is posed more precisely by introducing and discussing the time-averaged equations gov­
erning the mean-flow quantities. The appearance of turbulent transport terms in these
equations makes apparent the necessity of introducing turbulence models. Before turning
to such models, it is helpful to describe briefly some important features of the turbulence
phenomenon, and this is done in Sec. 2 . 2 . In order to review a fairly large number of
different turbulence models, a scheme of classification is needed. This scheme is in tro ­
duced in Sec,. 2 .3 together with some basic ideas, for example the eddy viscosity con­
cept, common to many models. The heart of this book is the actual review of models in
Sections 2 .4 to 2 .7 ; the models ore discussed in order of increasing com plexity. A se­
cond major contribution is contained in Chapter 3 , where model applications are present­
ed and compared with experimental results, starting with relatively simple problems such
as steady channel and jet flows and moving on to increasingly complicated situotions,
e .g . discharges into stagnant water and into rivers, recirculating and unsteady flows.
Chapter 4 closes the review with an assessment of what the available models can achieve
and in which areas further research is necessary.
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