KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY (KNUST)

ARC 155: CLIMATE AND ARCHITECTURE

(ARCHITECTURAL SCIENCE)

B.Sc. ARCHITECTURE ONE – 2020/21 ACADEMIC YEAR

Course Lecturer:
Prof. Samuel Amos-Abanyie, PhD
Office: 412 - New Studio Block
Department of Architecture
Faculty of Built Environment
 CLIMATE AND DESIGN

1. Basic Design Principles

2. Design in the Warm-Humid Climate Zone
3. Design in the Hot-Dry Climate Zone

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 BUILDING AS A CLIMATE FILTER

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 BUILDING AS A CLIMATE FILTER

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 BASIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• For optimum thermal performance, the following
factors are considered in building design:

1. Building form / shape / material

2. Building Orientation
3. Room arrangement
4. Internal heat gain
5. External (immediate) environment
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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
The climatic conditions (environmental),
functional and socio-cultural requirements
define the form of a building.

Heat exchange (loss or gain) between a

building and the environment depends on
the exposed building envelope surface area.

For a given form of a building, an appropriate

form has to adopted, surface area has to be
exposed, depending on the climatic
conditions.
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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
A compact building form gains/loses less heat during
daytime and at night.

An open (broken-up and spread-out) building

gains/loses more heat during the daytime and at
night.

The surface-to-volume ratio is an important factor to

assess the level of exposure of the envelope of a
building – heat gain and loss.
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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

Different forms have varying surface-to-

volume ratios.

They may have the same volume, but the

arrangement can change the surface-to-
volume ratios.

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

This can influence the decision for the form of a

building:
–as individual bungalows
–as row houses, or
–as a compact 3-storey building

A simple model of differently arranged building units

illustrates this:
– 12 building units of 7m length x 7m width x 3m height

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
As individual bungalows As row house As compact 3-storey building

Volume 1764m3
1764m3 1764m3

Surface 700m2
Area 1596m2 1134m2

Ratio 1:1 1 : 1.6 1 : 2.5

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
In general, where little heat exchange between the
interior and the environment is desired as in hot-
dry areas, the surface to volume ratio should be as
low as possible.

Where heat exchange is desired, for instance to gain

from cool nights in warm-humid areas, the surface
to volume ratio should be high.

Several other shapes may be adopted depending on

functional requirements or the designer’s concept.
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• Defined as the positioning of a building on a
site in addition to the arrangement of its
rooms within the site (Cairns Regional
Council, 2011).

• Building orientation is the positioning of a

building in relation to the east and west axis
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2000).

• Proper orientation of a building on a given

site can influence some factors such as
window sizes and positions and planning of
the internal spaces (Lorraine, 2007) .
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• Determinants for orientation include (Givoni,
1976; Raydan et al., 2005):

▪ Climatic factors - wind direction and solar

radiation
▪ Relation to roads/access around the site

▪ Vistas /views in different directions

▪ Privacy

▪ Protection from environmental noise

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• Orientation is often planned to take
maximum advantage of the daily and
seasonal variations of the sun’s radiation
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2000) .

• Building orientation could also be based on

either cooling or heating requirement of the
area.

• The intensity of solar radiation which falls

on a surface varies with the orientation of
the building (TERI, 2010).
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

• East and west facing walls receive the highest intensities of radiation

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• Orientation provides the precise location of
a building; whether north–south axis
position or east–west axis position, or other.

• Buildings in the tropics should be oriented

in east–west axis orientation and
rectangular in shape to reduce the exposure
to the sun.
• By this, only a small area of the building is
exposed to the solar radiation, thus creating
comfortable interior conditions for
occupancy.
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• A building has to be well placed for optimal
thermal performance with respect to:

1. Solar axis - solar radiation

2. Prevailing wind direction – ventialtion

• Optimum building orientation is based on a

compromise between its function, location,
and the prevailing environmental factors of
heat, light, and wind.
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

• Orientation is directly linked with the

prevailing wind direction and Solar
Radiation (also daylight) and therefore every
facade of a building has to be treated
differently (Lorraine, 2007) .

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

The term ‘aspect ratio’ is used to denote the ratio of

the longer dimension of a plan (rectangular) to
the shorter one.

In most instances the N & S walls should be longer

than the E & W and the ratio should be greater
than 1.

East and west walls should normally be kept as small

as possible, containing few and small openings

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
• Building orientation can affect indoor climate
through effects of Solar radiation and its heating
effect on walls and rooms facing different
directions (Givoni, 1976).

• Proper orientation of a building can also:

– maximise daylighting through its facade hence

decreasing the need for artificial lighting.

– enhances the admission of diffuse daylight from

the sky into the interior space.
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

The direction of prevailing wind does not coincide

with the best orientation according to the sun

A compromise should be found, paying attention to

the effects of solar radiation

The direction of the wind can be influenced by

structural elements (fins, etc)

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

KIT

LIVING-DINING BEDROOM BEDROOM BEDROOM

TERRACE

40
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

W E

Wind direction

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

W E

Wind direction

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION
N

KIT

LIVING-DINING BEDROOM BEDROOM BEDROOM

TERRACE

44
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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

• What happens in the case of a circular

form?

• What happens when the orientation of the

site does not permit east-west axis?

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 BUILDING ORIENTATION

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 ROOM ARRANGEMENT
When designing the floor plan of a building, besides
– functional arrangements
– room connections and
– privacy requirements

The following aspects should be considered:

– At what time of the day will the room be used?
– Is the room of prime importance or is it an
auxiliary space?

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 ROOM ARRANGEMENT

Important rooms should be located at places with

climatic advantages

For instance, in hot climates a bedroom is preferably

located on the east side where it is relatively cool
in the evening

Auxiliary spaces should be located on the

disadvantaged sides, mainly on the western side

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 ROOM ARRANGEMENT
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KIT

LIVING-DINING BEDROOM BEDROOM BEDROOM

TERRACE

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 INTERNAL HEAT GAIN

Internal heat gain result from:

–heat output from occupants

–equipment

–lighting

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 INTERNAL HEAT GAIN

Heat gains from occupants :

As far as is possible, the number of people living in a

house should be reduced

To provide more space poses an economical question

To avoid overcrowded indoor areas the outdoor

space should be designed in such a way that as
much activity as possible can take place there

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 INTERNAL HEAT GAIN

Heat gains from equipment:

heat-producing equipment should be placed

remotely, away from occupants

When placing such equipment, the prevailing air

movement should be considered in placing heat
placing equipment

Placed on the leeward-side of the main rooms, if

possible in a separately ventilated, detached room

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 INTERNAL HEAT GAIN

Heat gains from lighting:

Where artificial lighting is needed, high efficiency

light sources should be used which produce less
heat

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 IMMEDIATE EXTERNAL SPACE

In tropical and subtropical regions the outdoor space

is actively used

Major part of social life and daily routine work takes

place outdoors

Depending on the climatic conditions;

– various forms of courtyards are common
– Effective use of vegetation in landscaping

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 HEAT STORAGE

The capacity of building components to store heat

and to release it later has an important regulating
effect on the indoor climate

A high thermal mass reduces the indoor temperature

swing

During the daytime it is thus cooler and at night

warmer than outdoors

This effect can be ignored in conditions with a

narrow diurnal temperature range
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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS

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 1. SHELTER FOR HOT–DRY CLIMATE

2. SHELTER OF WARM HUMID CLIMATE

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SHELTER FOR HOT–DRY CLIMATE

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 PHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT OBJECTIVES

There is intense solar radiation from sun, ground and

surrounding buildings

Outdoor air has high dust content (must be dust

filtered)

External living space has to be protected from

intense solar radiation and hot-dry dusty wind

There is high diurnal temperature range

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

Building form in this climate must have low surface-

to-volume ratio
– Buildings are compact to ensures less heat gain

– Buildings have inward-looking character

– Spaces should not be excessively deep to

achieve sufficient natural lighting

– High density development

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

Buildings have maximum contact with the ground

• the ground is a valuable source for heat storage
• buildings are not placed on stilts

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

Much of the accommodation are placed under one

roof to reduce thermal load from the sun.

Non-habitable rooms are used to create thermal

barriers: stores and toilets, etc are placed on
east/west facades.

Buildings are orientated such that the long surfaces

face north-south, unnecessary east-west
orientation are avoided.

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING
Walls, openings and outdoor spaces are
appropriately shaded (roof overhangs and shading
devices)

Maximum shade is provided to reduce impact of

radiation, stress and fatigue

Buildings are arranged to provide mutual shading

▪ Buildings are closely grouped (small-enclosed
courtyards - width do not exceed the height)
▪ narrow roads and streets are used
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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

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 BUILDING FORM & PLANNING

Trees, plants, ground cover and water bodies are

used to:
▪ keep down dust
▪ reduce re-radiation
▪ provide shade
▪ cool the air by evaporation
▪ offer visual and psychological relief

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

• Materials selected must have high thermal

capacity due to the large diurnal
temperature variation of this climate.

• Walls and roofs must be constructed with

heavyweight material e.g. mud, concrete,
stone.

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

The high thermal mass capacity allows

buildings to:
–absorb the cool night air;
–release it during the day;
–keep the interior spaces comfortable all
time

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BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION
 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

Surfaces employed must be easily cleaned (smooth

surfaces) because of dusty nature of air.

Light coloured external surfaces must be employed

to reflect a large part of solar radiation (white or
bright surfaces).

External surfaces should be treated to reduce glare

and reflected heat radiation.

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

Windows should be as small as possible and be

shielded from direct solar radiation.

High-level windows may be employed

The use of ceiling with a ventilated roof space

can be employed (or use of double roofs).

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

• Openings are closed during the day and

opened at night

• Surfaces that are easily cleaned are used

because of dusty nature of air

Materials with time lag of 9 – 12 hours

employed to delay the emission of heat
until time of lowest air temperature at
night
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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

Surgical Clinic and Health Centre

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

• The clinic has large overlapping roofs that protect

the walls from rain and shade the interiors from
the hot daytime sun.

• Buildings are sited around a central outdoor

corridor with inward looking character

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

Surgical Clinic and Health Centre

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

Primary School

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 School Library

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

• The school library has a roof with traditional clay

pots that have been cut in half and inserted in the
ceiling, letting in light and allowing air to circulate.

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 BUILDING MATERIAL SELECTION

School Library

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SHELTER FOR WARM HUMID CLIMATE

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 PHYSIOLOGICAL COMFORT OBJECTIVES

The combined effect of high humidity

and solar radiation causes discomfort

High humidity limits evaporative heat

losses

Radiant heat loss to the sky is prevented

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 BUILDING FORM AND PLANNING

Buildings are spread out

Buildings are of low density development

▪allows free movement of air

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM AND PLANNING

Buildings must have large surface to volume ratio to

enhance high heat exchange

Buildings have open elongated plan forms

▪single rows of rooms used to allow cross ventilation

Open verandas are used to provide shading

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BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
BUILDING FORM / SHAPE
 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

Buildings have very large openings (windows)

▪free passage of air
▪sufficient air circulation to provide ventilation
for cooling.

Surfaces are shaded (both walls and openings)

▪with broad overhanging eaves, trees and plants

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

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 BUILDING FORM / SHAPE

Fencing are designed to allow air passage

Emphasis is placed on outdoor spaces

▪most activities take place outdoors

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 BUILDING MATERIALS SELECTION

Materials of low thermal capacity are used

▪lightweight construction is employed

▪principle of thermal storage cannot be relied upon

in this climate

Roofs must have reflective upper surfaces.

Double roof construction or ceiling with ventilated

roof space can be employed.
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 BUILDING MATERIALS SELECTION

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 Building Materials Selection
• The upper surface of the ceiling must be
reflective.

• Very large openings for windows must be

employed for free passage of air.
▪ fully openable
▪ fixed glass not acceptable
▪ placed suitably within prevailing wind
direction
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 SUMMARY
Design Recommendations:
The design recommendations are made on the basis of the
remedial actions needed to be taken to alleviate thermal
distress. They deal with separate aspects of design.

Layout:
the layout reduces the exposure to the sun when the heat is
a problem while compact court yard planning is used
when thermal storage is needed.

Spacing:
the spacing ensures good ventilation in hot and humid
climates and reduces breeze penetration in colder
climates.
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 SUMMARY
Air movement:
The decision to use single or double banking is made on the
basis of the need for ventilation and the thermal storage.

Size of openings:
affects the ventilation rate. Large windows are
recommended for hot and humid regions while small
windows should be used when high insulation is required.

Position of openings:
this affects the ventilation required from body cooling
especially in hot and humid climates.

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 SUMMARY
Protection of openings:
from the direct sunlight and rainfall depend on the amount
of excess heat and rainfall.

Walls and floors:

this may be light or heavy depending on the need for
insulation and thermal storage.

Roofs:
this may be in the form of heavy, and light and well
insulated or light with reflective surface and cavity.

Outdoors sleeping:
this is provided when comfortable conditions cannot be
maintained
2/21/2021
indoorsProf.
atSamuel
certain periods of the year.
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