CHAPTER 2

1. Describe the Discrete Control Elements

(Actuators & Sensors) in control system.
2. Describe Control Circuits & Ladder diagram.

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Industrial Actuator:
 Some of industrial actuator available in industry as
below:
1. Relay
2. Directional Control Valve
3. Cylinders
4. DC Motor
5. Stepper Motor
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  A relay is an electrically operated switch.

 Consist of 2 major part:-

i. Coil
ii. Contact

 Contact will activated when the coil is

energize.

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1. Physical size and pin arrangement
 Make sure the dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable for your
project.
2. Coil voltage
 The relay coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering
the relay coil. Many type in market. For example 5VDC, 9VDC, 12VDC or
24VDC.

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3. Coil resistance
 The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil.

4. Relay coil current = supply voltage/coil resistance

5. Switch/contact ratings
 The relay switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to
control in term of voltage and current. Example : 7A 240VAC, 10A 28VDC.
6. Switch contact arrangement
 Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO).

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1. Able to switch AC and DC, transistors can
only switch DC.
2. Can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
3. Better choice for switching large currents
(> 5A).
4. Switch many contacts at once.

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1. Bulkier than transistors for switching small
currents.
2. Cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays),
transistors can switch many times per second.
3. Used more power due to the current flowing
through their coil.
4. Required more current than many chips can
provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
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 Step 1: Didn’t press switch, motor OFF Step 2: Press switch, motor ON

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 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

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Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

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Principle Operation:
 Time delay relays are simply control relays with a
time delay built in. Their purpose is to control an
event based on time. The difference between relays
and time delay relays is WHEN the output contacts
open & close. On a control relay, it happens when
voltage is applied and removed from the coil. On
time delay relays, the contacts can open or close
before or after some time delay.
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 Timer relay timing diagram

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Principle Operation:
 A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear
force/motion. When fluid or air is pumped into one side
of the cylinder under pressure, causing that side of the
cylinder to expand, and advancing the piston. The fluid
or air on the other side of the piston must be allowed to
escape freely. If the incompressible fluid was trapped
the cylinder could not advance. The force the cylinder
can exert is proportional to the cross sectional area of
the cylinder.
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 Single acting cylinders apply
force when extending and
typically use a spring to
retract the cylinder.

 Double acting cylinders apply

force in both direction.
Single Acting Cylinder Double Acting Cylinder
Spring Return
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 Pneumatic Valve

 Principle Operation:
 The flow of fluids and air can be
controlled with directional
controlled valves. The solenoid is Hydraulic Valve
mounted on the side. The bottom of
the valve body has a single pressure
line in the center with two exhausts
to the side.
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 3/2 Valve & Single Acting Cylinder 5/2 Valve & Double Acting Cylinder
Spring Return

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1. Pipe size: inlets and outlets are typically threaded to
accept NPT (national pipe thread).
2. Flow rate: the maximum flow rate is often provided to
hydraulic valves.
3. Operating pressure: a maximum operating pressure will be
indicated. Some valves will also require a minimum
pressure to operate.
4. Electrical: the solenoid coil will have a fixed supply
voltage (AC or DC) and current.
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5. Response time: this is the time for the valve to fully
open/close. Typical times for valves range from 5ms to
150ms.
6. Enclosure: the housing for the valve will be rated as:
i. type 1 or 2 - for indoor use, requires protection against
splashes
ii. type 3 - for outdoor use, will resists some dirt and
weathering
iii. type 3R or 3S or 4 - water and dirt tight
iv. type 4X - water and dirt tight, corrosion resistant

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Principle Operation:
 In a DC motor there is normally a set of coils on the
rotor that turn inside a stator populated with
permanent magnets. The magnetics provide a
permanent magnetic field for the rotor to push
against. When current is run through the wire loop it
creates a magnetic field. The power is delivered to
the rotor using a commutator and brushes. The
commutator is split so that every half revolution the
polarity of the voltage on the rotor, and the induced
magnetic field reverses to push against the
permanent magnets.
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 The direction of rotation will be determined by the polarity of the
applied voltage.
 The speed of DC motor is proportional to the voltage input. The
controller to drive a DC motor normally uses a Pulse Width Modulated
(PWM) signal. Effective voltage that is relative to the time that the
signal is on. The percentage of time that the signal is on is called the
duty cycle. When the voltage is on all the time the effective voltage
delivered is the maximum voltage.
 A feedback controller is used with these motors to provide motor
positioning and velocity control.

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  H-Bridge circuit for direction control.

 To turn the motor in forward direction the

PWM signal is applied to the Va inputs,
while the Vb inputs are held low. In this
arrangement the positive voltage is at the
left side of the motor.

 To reverse the direction the PWM signal is

applied to the Vb inputs, while the Va
inputs are held low. This applies the
positive voltage to the right side of the
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Principle Operation:
 Stepper motors are designed for positioning. They
move one step at a time with a typical step size of
1.8 degrees giving 200 steps per revolution. Other
motors are designed for step sizes of 1.8, 2.0, 2.5, 5,
15 and 30 degrees. There are two basic types of
stepper motors, unipolar and bipolar. Stepper motors
do not require feedback except when used in high
reliability applications and when the dynamic
conditions could lead to slip. A stepper motor slips
when the holding torque is overcome, or it is
accelerated too fast.

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 The figure shown is a stepper motor
gearing system to drive a motor. In the
figure, rotor has 25 teeth and it takes
4 steps to rotate by one teeth
position. So there will be 25*4 = 100
steps per full rotation and each step
will be 360/100 = 3.6 degrees.

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Some of digital sensor available in industry as below:
 Contact switches

 Reed switches

 Capacitive sensor

 Inductive sensor

 Optical sensor

 Hall effect sensor

 Encoder

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 Purpose of using digital sensor is to detect or
indicate condition “OFF” or “ON”.
 Output from digital sensor is binary output which is
“1” or “0”.
 Must consider operating voltage supply, output type
(NPN @ PNP), contact current rating and switching
frequency.

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 3 major features to be considered :
 Contact type (SPST,DPST,SPDT,DPDT)
 Contact rating (Maximum voltage and current)
 Method of operation:
(Toggle, Slide, Push, Momentary, Roller)

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 Type of Switch Symbols
SPDT , Centre-OFF

SPDT

DPST

N.C 1

C1

DPDT N.O 1

N.C 2

C2

N.O 2

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 Control, as applied to control circuits, is a broad term that means
anything from a simple toggle switch to a complex system of
components which may include relays, contactors, timers, switches,
and indicating lights. Every electrical circuit for light or power has
control elements. One example of a simple control circuit is a switch
used to turn lights ON and OFF.
 Control is considered to be manually operated when someone must
initiate an action for the circuit to operate.
 For example, someone might have to flip the switch of a manual
starter to start and stop a motor.

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 While manual operation of machines is still common practice, many machines are
started and stopped automatically. Frequently there is a combination of manual
and automatic control. A process may have to be started manually, but may be
stopped automatically.
 The elements of a control circuit include all of the equipment and devices
concerned with the circuit function. This includes enclosures, conductors, relays,
contactors, pilot devices, and overcurrent-protection devices.
 Contact symbols are used to indicate an open or closed path of current flow.
Contacts are shown as normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). Contacts shown
by this symbol require another device to actuate them.

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 The standard method of showing a contact is by indicating the circuit
condition it produces when the actuating device is in the de-
energized or non-operated state.
 For example, in the following illustration a relay is used as the
actuating device. The contacts are shown as normally open, meaning
the contacts are open when the relay is de-energized. A complete
path of current does not exist and the light is OFF.

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NO Contact Example: NC Contact Example:

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 Switch symbols are also used to indicate an open or closed path of
current flow.
 Variations of this symbol are used to represent limit switches, foot
switches, pressure switches, level switches, temperature-actuated
switches, flow switches, and selector switches.
 Switches, like contacts, require another device or action to change
their state. In the case of a manual switch someone must manually
change the position of the switch.

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NO Switch Example: NC Switch Example:

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 There are two basic types of pushbuttons: momentary and
maintained.
 A normally open momentary pushbutton closes as long as the button is
held down.
 A normally closed momentary pushbutton opens as long as the button
is held down.
 A maintained pushbutton latches in place when the button is pressed.

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NO Pushbutton Example: NC Pushbutton Example:

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 Coils are used in electromagnetic starters, contactors, and relays.
 The purpose of contactors and relays is to open and close associated contacts.
 A letter is used to designate the coil; for example, “M” frequently indicates a motor
starter and “CR” indicates a control relay.
 Contactors and relays use an electromagnetic action which will be described later to
open and close these contacts. The associated contacts can be either normally open
or normally closed.

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Coil Example using Normally Open Contacts

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 The method of expressing the language of control symbols is a line diagram, also
referred to as a ladder diagram.
 Line diagrams are made up of two circuits, the control circuit and the power
circuit.
 Electrical wires in a line diagram are represented by lines. Control-circuit wiring is
represented by a lighter-weight line and power-circuit wiring is represented by a
heavier-weight line. A small dot or node at the intersection of two or more wires
indicates an electrical connection.

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 Ladder diagrams show the functional relationship of
components and devices in an electrical circuit, not the
physical relationship. For example, the following illustration
shows the physical relationship of a pilot light and a
pushbutton.

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 Ladder diagrams are read from left to right.
 Depressing the pushbutton would allow current to flow from
L1 through the pushbutton, illuminating the pilot light, to
L2.
 Releasing the pushbutton, stops current flow turning the
pilot light off.

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Power Circuit and Control Circuit
 The power circuit, indicated by the
heavier-weight line, is what actually
distributes power from the source to
the connected load (motor).
 The control circuit, indicated by the
lighter-weight line, is used to “control”
the distribution of power.

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Connecting Loads and Control Devices
 Control circuits are made up of control loads and control devices.
 The control load is an electrical device that uses electrical power.
 Pilot lights, relays, and contactors are examples of control loads. Control devices
are used to activate the control load.
 Pushbuttons and switches are examples of control devices.
 Refer to the diagram, in this example the voltage potential
between L1 and L2 is 120 VAC. The pilot light selected
must be rated for 120 VAC. When the pushbutton is
depressed, the full 120 volt potential is applied to
the pilot light.

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Connecting the Load to L2
 Only one control load should be placed in any one circuit line between L1 and L2.
 One side of the control load is connected to L2 either directly or, in some instances,
through overload relay contacts.
 In the following example a pilot light is directly connected to L2 on one circuit line.
A contactor coil is indirectly connected through a set
of overload contacts (OL) to L2 on a second circuit
line. This is a parallel connection.
Depressing the pushbutton would apply 120 VAC to
the pilot light and the “M” contactor.

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 The following illustration shows the control loads are improperly
connected in series. When the pushbutton is depressed, the voltage
across L1 and L2 is divided across both loads, the result being that
neither load will receive the full 120 volts necessary for proper
operation. If one load fails in this configuration, the entire circuit is
rendered useless.
 In the other instance the loads are properly connected in parallel. In
this circuit there is only one load for each
line between L1 and L2. The full 120 volts will appear across each
load when the pushbutton is depressed.
If one load fails in this configuration, the
other load will continue to operate
normally.
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Connecting Control Devices
 Control devices are connected between L1 and the load.

 The control device can be connected in series or parallel, depending on the desired results.

 In the following illustration, the pushbuttons are connected in parallel. Depressing either
pushbutton will allow current to flow from L1, through the depressed pushbutton, through
the pilot light, to L2.

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Connecting Control Devices
 In the following illustration, two pushbuttons are connected in series.
Both pushbuttons must be depressed in order to allow current to flow
from L1 through the load to L2.

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Line Numbering
 Numbering each line makes it easier to understand more
complex line diagrams. In the following illustration, line 1
connects pushbutton 1 to pilot light 1. Line 2 connects
pushbutton 2 to pilot light 1. Line 3 connects switch 1 to pilot
light 2 and the “M” contactor on line 4.

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 AND Gate

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 OR Gate

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 NOT Gate

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 Ladder Diagram to Gate conversion:

Ladder Diagram Boolean Gate Diagram

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 Assign control elements:
 (Actuators / Sensors) @ (Output / Input)

 Design - Ladder diagram with respective terminal no.

 Hard wire connections.

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 Terminal Block Push Button
L(+) N(-) START STOP

Input

3 2 1 3 2 1

8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5

RELAY 1 RELAY 2

** 4 Pole Relay Numbering (OMRON) 12 11 10 9 12 11 10 9

(+) (-)
Coil 13 14
Common 9 10 11 12
N.O. 5 6 7 8 4 14 13 4 14 13
N.C. 1 2 3 4

Output
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Exercise 1: Terminal Block Push Button
PB press Relay energize, L(+) N(-) START STOP
release PB Relay de-energized.
Input

3 2 1 3 2 1

8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5

RELAY 1 RELAY 2

12 11 10 9 12 11 10 9

4 14 13 4 14 13

Output
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Exercise 2: Terminal Block Push Button
Press PB 1 & 2 simultaneously L(+) N(-) START STOP
to ON Lamp1 using 2 Relay.
Input

3 2 1 3 2 1

8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5

RELAY 1 RELAY 2

12 11 10 9 12 11 10 9

4 14 13 4 14 13

Output
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Exercise 3: Terminal Block Push Button
Press PB2, Motor ON. L(+) N(-) START STOP
Press PB1, Motor OFF.
Input

3 2 1 3 2 1

8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5

RELAY 1 RELAY 2

12 11 10 9 12 11 10 9

4 14 13 4 14 13

Output
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Thank You