BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING
ES 10– MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES
Engr. Gladys V. Conge
Engr. Ma. Lourdes P. Amante

College of Engineering
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PREFACE

The main purpose of this module is to provide the student with a clear and detailed
presentation of the theory and application of mechanics of deformable bodies.

To achieve this objective despite of this pandemic due to COVID-19, this work has
been shaped by the comments and suggestions of the peer reviewer in the teaching
profession, as well as the other faculty members who will ensure quality of the
modules that will be distributed to the LGU.

Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest
or motion of bodies that are subjected to the action of forces. In general, this subject
can be subdivided into three branches: rigid-body mechanics, deformable-body
mechanics, and fluid mechanics. In this book we will study rigid-body mechanics
since it is a basic requirement for the study of the mechanics of deformable bodies
and the mechanics of fluids. Furthermore, rigid-body mechanics is essential for the
design and analysis of many types of structural members, mechanical components,
or electrical devices encountered in engineering.

Mechanics of materials is a study of the relationship between the external loads

applied to a body and the stress and strain caused by the internal loads within the
body.

The mechanics of deformable bodies deals with how forces are distributed inside
bodies, and with the deformations caused by these internal force
distributions. These internal force produce "stresses" in the body, which could
ultimately result in the failure of the material itself. Principles of rigid body
mechanics often provide the beginning steps in analyzing these internal stresses, and
resulting deformations. These will be studied in courses called Strength of Materials
or Mechanics of Materials.

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UNIT I: LOAD CLASSIFICATION

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Learn and understand different classification of loads and corresponding
stresses.

1.1 Introduction
Products, machines, and structures must be designed to be safe and to
provide satisfactory performance during the intended use. Safety is
paramount and the designer plays a critical role. The load-carrying
components must not fracture during use. Excessive deformation is another
form of failure. Buckling, occurring when the shape of a load-carrying
member becomes unstable, must be avoided. You will learn about the basic
nature of stresses and strains in this course. You will be able to recognize
several types of stresses created by different loading and support situations.
You will analyze situations where more than one kind of stress is experienced
by a load-carrying member at the same time.

Design requires that you determine the shape and size of a load-
carrying member and specify the material from which it is to be made. You
will learn how to design safe load-carrying components of machines and
structures. Before being able to design safe and effective components, a
designer must be able to properly calculate all loads, a skill generally
developed through previous study of statics.

1.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

 Pre – assessment
1. Convert 2 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑚/𝑠 How many 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 is this?
2. Convert the quantities 300 𝑙𝑏 ∙ 𝑠 and 52 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 3 to appropriate
SI units.
3. Evaluate each of the following and express with SI units having an
appropriate prefix:
(𝑎) (50 𝑚𝑁)(6 𝐺𝑁), (𝑏) (400 𝑚𝑚)(0.6 𝑀𝑁)2 , (𝑐) 45 𝑀𝑁 3 > 900 𝐺𝑔.
4. What is the weight in newtons of an object that has a mass of
(𝑎) 8 𝑘𝑔, (𝑏) 0.04 𝑘𝑔, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑐) 760 𝑀𝑔?
5. Round off the following numbers to three significant figures:
(𝑎) 58 342 𝑚, (𝑏) 68.534 𝑠, (𝑐) 2553 𝑁, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑑) 7555 𝑘𝑔.

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Loads are classified according to the following:

1. Concentrated load
2. Uniform load
3. Uniformly varying load
4. Applied Couple

1. Concentrated Load

• A normal concentrated load is one that acts perpendicular

(normal) to the major axis of the beam at only a point or
over a very small length of the beam.

2. Uniform Load

• Loads of constant magnitude acting perpendicular to the

axis of a beam over a significant part of the length of the
beam are called uniformly distributed loads.

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3. Uniform Varying Load

• Loads of varying magnitude acting perpendicular to the axis

of a beam over a significant part of the length of the beam
are called varying distributed loads.

4. Applied Couple

• When a moment acts on a beam at a point in a manner that

tends to cause it to undergo pure rotation, it is called a
concentrated moment.

What is a BEAM?
• A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing
the longitudinal of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be
determinate or indeterminate.

TYPES OF BEAM
• Simply supported beams or simple beams
• Overhanging beams
• Cantilever beams or cantilevers
• Propped Beams
• Fixed or restrained beam
• Continuous beams

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UNIT II: CONCEPT OF STRESS, NORMAL AND SHEAR

STRESS

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Learn and understand concept and principles behind every type of
stresses.

2.1 Introduction

The study of strength of materials depends on an understanding of the

principles of stress and strain produced by applied loads on a structure or a
machine and the members that make up such systems. These principles are
introduced here and applied to relatively simple types of loading with an
emphasis on analysis. That is, the loads and the geometry of the members are
given in the problems, and your task is to analyze the resulting stress within
the members and the deformation that is caused by the stress.
We use “direct loading” here to develop the concept of stress and,
later, the concept of strain. By the term “direct stress” we refer to cases where
the total applied force is shared equally by all parts of the cross section of the
load-carrying member.

2.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

2.2.1 Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from
which a member is made to an externally applied load. We are concerned
with what happens inside a load-carrying member. We must determine the
magnitude of force exerted on each unit area of the material. The concept of
stress can be expressed mathematically as

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝑁
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = = = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑃𝑎)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑚

In the SI unit system, the standard unit for force is the newton ( ) and
area is in square meters. Thus, the standard unit for stress is the / 2 , given
the name pascal and abbreviated as . Typical levels of stress in mechanical
and structural analysis are several million pascals, so the most convenient
unit for stress is the megapascal or . This is convenient for another
reason. In calculating the cross-sectional area of load-carrying members,
measurements of dimensions in mm are usually used. Then, the stress would

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2
be in / , and it can be shown that this is numerically equal to the unit of
. For example, assume that a force of 5 000 is exerted over a square
2
area 50 on a side. The resisting area would be 2500 and the
resulting stress would be

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5000 𝑁 6.0 𝑁

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = = 2
=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2500 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚2

Converting this to pascals would produce

I
n 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5000 𝑁 6.0 𝑁
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = = 2
=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2500 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚2
s
𝟔. 𝟎 𝑵 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝑵
u 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = × = 𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟔
= = 𝟔. 𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐
m
m
ary, the unit of is identical to the . Stress in SI units can be
reported as
or Pascal or Pa
or megapascal or MPa

2.2.2 One of the most fundamental types of stress that exists is the normal stress,
indicated by the lowercase Greek letter σ (sigma), in which the stress acts
perpendicular, or normal, to the cross section of the load-carrying member.
If the stress is also uniform across the resisting area, the stress is called a
“direct normal stress.” Normal stresses can be either compressive or tensile,
defined as follows:
 A compressive stress is one that tends to crush the material of the load-
carrying member and to shorten the member itself.
 A tensile stress is one that tends to stretch the member and pull the
material apart.

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The equation for direct normal stress follows from the basic definition
of stress because the applied force is shared equally across the entire cross
section of the member carrying the force. That is,

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜍 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴

The area of the cross section of the load-carrying member is taken

perpendicular to the line of action of the force.

Example 1. Figure A shows a support stand designed

to carry downward loads. Compute the
stress in the square shaft at the upper
part of the stand for a load of 120 kN. The
line of action of the applied load is
centered on the axis on the shaft, and the
load is applied through a thick plate that
distributes the force to the entire cross
section of the stand. Figure A

Given:

Load = F = 120 kN; load is centered on the

stand.
The cross section is square; the dimension of
each side is 35 mm.
Solution:

= = = ( )

= 20

= (35 )2 = 225 2

20000
= = 2
= 98.0 2
= .
225

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Example 2. The Figure shows two circular rods carrying a

casting weighing 11.2 kN. If each rod is 12.0
mm in diameter and the two rods share the
load equally, compute the stress in the rods.

Solution:
.2
𝐹= .2 𝑘𝑁 =
2
𝜋𝐷 2
𝜋( 2) =
2 5.60 𝑘𝑁 𝑜𝑟 5600 𝑁 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑑
𝐴= = = 3 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
𝐹 5600 𝑁 𝑁
𝜍= = = 49.5
𝐴 3 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
= 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂

2.2.3 Shear refers to a cutting-like action. When you use common household
scissors, often called “shears,” you cause one blade of the pair to slide over
the other to cut (shear) paper, cloth, or other material. A sheet metal fabricator
uses a similar shearing action when cutting metal for ductwork. In these
examples, the shearing action progresses along the length of the line to be cut
so only a small part of the total cut is being made at any given time. And, of
course, the objective of the action is to actually cut the material. That is, you
want the material to fail.

Figure B

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝝉 = =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨𝒔

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑨𝒔 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 × 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒑 × 𝒕

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Example 3. For the punching operation shown in Figure B (page 10), compute the
shear stress in the material if a force of 5500 kN is applied through the
punch. The thickness of the material is 1.5 mm.

Solution:
= 5500 ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
,
= 2(20.0 ) ( 5.0) = 87.
ℎ ,
2
= × = (87. )( .5 ) = 30.7
ℎ ,

= = = .
3 .

Example 4. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a
tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the
stress is limited to 120 MN/ 2 .

Solution:

𝑃 = 𝜍𝐴
where:

𝑃 = 400 𝑘𝑁 = 400 000 𝑁

𝜍 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐴= 𝜋𝐷 2 − 𝜋( 002 )
4 4

𝐴= 𝜋(𝐷 2 − 0000)
4
thus,

400,000 = 20 𝜋(𝐷 2 − 0000)

4
400,000 = 30𝜋𝐷 2 − 300000𝜋
400,000 300,000𝜋
𝐷2 =
30𝜋
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎

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Example 5. A homogeneous 800 − bar AB

is supported at either end by a
cable as shown in the figure
below. Calculate the smallest area
of each cable if the stress is not to
exceed 90 in bronze and
20 in steel.

Solution:

By symmetry:

𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 𝑃𝑠𝑡 = (7848)

2
𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 3924 𝑁
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 3924 𝑁
For bronze cable:
𝑃𝑏𝑟 = 𝜍𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑟
3924 = 90𝐴𝑏𝑟
𝑨𝒃𝒓 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐
For steel cable:
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝜍𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡
3924 = 20𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝟐

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UNIT III: STRESSES UNDER CENTRIC LOADING

3.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. To determine strain, .
b. To determine the modulus of elasticity , yield strength and ultimate
strength from a stress vs. strain plot ( . ).

3.1 Introduction
One of our principal concerns in this course is material behavior (Strength).
But strength models are often intimately related to stress. Thus, we need to be
able to compute stresses. Stresses, however, cannot be directly measured, but
stain is measurable and can be directly related to stress.
The main concern in the preceding chapter was the strength of a material, that
is, the relations among load, area, and stress. Now, we have to consider the other
major field of strength of materials – the changes in shape, that is, deformations
that accompany a loading. In particular, we shall learn how to apply the
geometric relations between elastic deformations that, in combination with the
conditions of equilibrium and the relations between loads and deformations, will
enable us to solve statically indeterminate problems.

3.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

3.2.1 Stress-Strain Diagram
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length
caused by the applied force, to the original length.

Strain, also called “unit deformation,” is found

by dividing the total deformation by the original length
of the bar. The lowercase Greek letter epsilon (ε) is
used to denote strain:

𝛿
𝜀=
𝐿
where 𝛿 is the total deformation and 𝐿 is the
original length, thus 𝜀 is dimensionless.

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.
= . /
.
Strain could be said to be dimensionless because the units in the
numerator and denominator could be canceled. However, it is better to report
the units as mm/mm to maintain the definition of deformation per unit
length of the member.

Suppose that a metal specimen be

placed in tension-compression-testing
machine. As the axial load is gradually
increased in increments, the total elongation
over the gauge length is measured at each
increment of the load and this is continued
until failure of the specimen takes place.

Knowing the original cross-sectional

area and length of the specimen, the normal
stress and the strain can be obtained. The
graph of these quantities with the stress along
the y-axis and the strain along the x-axis is
called the stress-strain diagram.

The stress-strain diagram differs in

form for various materials. The diagram
shown below is that for a medium-carbon
structural steel.

 Proportional Limit (Hooke’s Law)

- From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve
is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force
causing was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke’s
Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to
strain or = .
- The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or
Young’s Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from
O to P. Then = .

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Elastic Limit

- The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back
to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress
that may developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation
when the load is entirely removed.
 Elastic and Plastic Ranges
- The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The
region from P to R is called the plastic range.
 Yield Point
- Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
 Ultimate Strength
- The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or
tensile strength.
 Rapture Strength
- Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known
as the breaking strength.
 Modulus of Resilience
- Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from O to P, in ∙ / 3 . This may be calculated
as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic
limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its
ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.
 Modulus of Toughness
- Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the
force is gradually increased from O to R, in ∙ / 3 . This may be calculated
as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of
a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.
 Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety
- Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given
loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the
allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit.
- However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the
allowable tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided
by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to
allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

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3.2.2 Axial Deformation

In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the stress is proportional
to strain and is given by

𝜍 = 𝐸𝜀

since = and = , then =

𝑃𝐿 𝜍𝐿
𝛿= =
𝐴𝐸 𝐸

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform
cross-sectional area, and the stress must not exceed the proportional limit.

If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation

can be determined by considering a differential length and applying
integration.

𝐿
𝑃 𝑑𝑥
𝛿=
𝐸 𝐿

where = and and , if variable, must be expressed in terms of .

For a rod of unit mass suspended vertically from one end, the total elongation
due to its own weight is

𝜌𝑔𝐿2 𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝛿= =
2𝐸 2𝐴𝐸

where is in / 3 , is the length of the rod in mm, is the total mass of

2
the rod in kg, is the crosssectional area of the rod in , and = 9.8 / 2.

Stiffness,

Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to the
resulting displacement. It has the unit of / , = .

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Example 6. A uniform bar of length , cross-sectional area , and unit mass is

suspended vertically from one end. Show that its total elongation is
= . If the total mass of the bar is , show also that = .
2 2

Solution:

𝜌𝑔𝐿
Show that the total elongation 𝛿 = .
2𝐸
𝑀𝑔𝐿
If the total mass is M, show that 𝛿 = 2𝐴𝐸

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
From the figure:
𝛿 = 𝑑𝛿
𝑃 = 𝑊𝑦 = (𝜌𝐴𝑦)𝑔
𝐿 = 𝑑𝑦
(𝜌𝐴𝑦)𝑔 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝛿 =
𝐴𝐸
𝐿
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝑦 2 𝐿
𝛿= 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =
𝐸 𝐸 2 0
𝜌𝑔
𝛿= 𝐿2 − 02
2𝐸
𝝆𝒈𝑳𝟐
𝜹=
𝟐𝑬
Given the total mass M
𝑀 𝑀
𝜌= =
𝑉 𝐴𝐿
𝑀 2
𝜌𝑔𝐿2 𝐴𝐿 ∙ 𝑔𝐿
𝛿= =
2𝐸 2𝐸
𝑴𝒈𝑳
𝜹=
𝟐𝑨𝑬

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Example 7. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 .2 carries the axial
loads applied at the positions shown in the figure below. Compute the
total change in length of the bar if = 0 × 0 . Assume the bar is
suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

Solution:
2
Cross – section area = 0.5
= 0 × 0

𝑃 = 6000 𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃2 = 000 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃3 = 4000 𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
𝛿 = 𝛿 − 𝛿2 𝛿3
6000(3 × 2) 6000(3 × 2) 6000(3 × 2)
𝛿= −
0.5( 0 × 0 ) 0.5( 0 × 0 ) 0.5( 0 × 0 )
𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟔 𝒊𝒏 (𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈)

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UNIT IV: PLANE STRESS

4.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. To determine the point on the body in which the principal stresses are to
be determined.
b. Calculate the principal stresses, the maximum shear stress and the
principal plane if required.

4.1 Introduction
Plane stress typically occurs in thin flat plates that are acted upon only
by load forces that are parallel to them. In certain situations, a gently curved
thin plate may also be assumed to have plane stress for the purpose of stress
analysis. This is the case, for example, of a thin-walled cylinder filled with a
fluid under pressure. In such cases, stress components perpendicular to the
plate are negligible compared to those parallel to it.

4.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

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Stress Elements and Plane Stress

When working with stress elements, keep in mind that only one intrinsic state
of stress exists at a point in a stressed body, regardless of the orientation of the
element used to portray the state of stress.

We are really just rotating axes to represent stresses in a new coordinate

system.

Normal Stress 𝜍𝑥 , 𝜍𝑦 , 𝜍𝑧 (tension positive)

Shear Stresses 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦

Sign convention for 𝜏𝑎𝑏

Subscript a indicates the “face” on which the stress acts (positive x “face” is
perpendicular to the positive xdirection) Subscript b indicates the direction in which
the stress acts Strictly 𝜍𝑥 = 𝜍𝑥𝑥 , 𝜍𝑦 = 𝜍𝑦𝑦 , 𝜍𝑧 = 𝜍𝑧𝑧 .

When an element is in plane stress in the xy plane, only the x and y faces are
subjected to stresses 𝜍𝑧 = 0 and 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 0.

Such an element could be located on the free surface of a body (no stresses
acting on the free surface).

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Plane Stress Element in 2D

Stresses on Inclined Sections

The stress system is known in terms of coordinate system 𝑥𝑦. We want to

find the stresses in terms of the rotated coordinate system𝑥 𝑦 .

Why? A material may yield or fail at the maximum value of 𝜍 or 𝜏. This

value may occur at some angle other than 𝜃 = 0. (Remember that for uniaxial
tension the maximum shear stress occurred when 𝜃 = 45 degrees. )

Transformation Equations

Forces can be found from stresses if the Left face has area 𝐴. Bottom face has
area on which the stresses act is area 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃. Inclined face has area
known. Force components can then be 𝐴 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃.
summed.

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Example 8. The state of plane stress at a point is

represented by the stress element
below. Determine the stresses acting on
an element oriented 30° clockwise with
respect to the original element.

Solution:

Define the stresses in terms of the established sign convention:

𝜍𝑥 = −80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜍𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑃𝑎

We need to find 𝜍𝑥 , 𝜍𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥 𝑦 when 𝜃 = −30°.

Substitute numerical values into the transformation equations:

𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜍𝑥 = cos 2𝜃 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
−8 + −8 −
𝜍𝑥 = cos 2(−30°) (−25) sin 2(−30°) = −25.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜍𝑥 𝜍𝑦 𝜍𝑥 − 𝜍𝑦
𝜍𝑦 = − cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃
2 2
−8 + −8 −
𝜍𝑦 = − cos 2(−30°) − (−25) sin 2(−30°) = −4. 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

𝜍𝑥 − 𝜍𝑦
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 =− sin 2𝜃 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
(−8 − )
𝜏𝑥 𝑦 = sin 2(−30°) (−25) cos 2(−30°) = −68.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2

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UNIT V: PRINCIPAL STRESSES FOR PLANE STRESS

5.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Learn to compute principal stresses for plane stress.
b. Analyze the composition of the Mohr Circle.

5.1 Introduction
The principal stresses are the maximum normal stress and
minimum normal stress . In general, these maximum and minimum or
principal stresses can be determined by plotting curves but it can also be
solved by general methods.

5.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

The maximum and minimum normal stresses ( 2 ) are known as
the principal stresses. To find the principal stresses, we must differentiate the
transformation equations.

−
= cos 2 sin 2
2 2
−
= cos 2 sin 2
2 2

=− − sin 2 2 cos 2 = 0

𝜽𝒑 are principal angles associated

=
− with the principal stresses

We can now solve for

the principal stresses by
substituting for in the stress
transformation equation for
. This tells us which
principal stress is associated
with which principal angle.

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Substituting for R and re-arranging gives the larger of the two principal stresses:

To find the smaller principal stress, use 2 = .

− 2
2 = − = − √( ) 2
2 2

These equations can be combined to give:

−
, = √( )

To find out which principal stress goes with which principal angle, we could use the
equations for , and or for .

Summary:

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Example 9. The state of plane stress at a point is

represented by the stress element below.
Determine the principal stresses and
draw the corresponding stress element.

Solution:

Define the stresses in terms of the

established sign convention:
𝜍𝑥 = −80 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜍𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −25 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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UNIT VI: MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

6.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Calculate and analyze plane stresses through Mohr’s Circle.
b. To draw, scale and plot the stresses using Mohr’s Circle.

6.1 Introduction
A visual interpretation of the formulas in the preceding sections, devised by
the German engineer Otto Mohr in 1882, eliminates the necessity of remembering
them. In the representation, a circle is used; accordingly, the construction is called
Mohr’s Circle.
Mohr’s circle is often used in calculations relating to mechanical engineering
for material’s strength, geotechnical engineering for strength of soils and,
structural engineering for strength of built structures respectively. It is also used
for calculating stresses in many planes by reducing them to vertical and
horizontal components. Mohr’s circle can also be used to find the principal
planes and the principal stresses in a graphical representation.

6.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)

When a structural element is subjected to several types of loads say
bending or torsion, principal stresses occur. These stresses act on principal
planes where the shear stresses are zero.
This graphical representation is extremely useful because it enables
you to visualize the relationships between the normal and shear stresses
acting on various inclined planes at a point in a stressed body.

Take Note!
The angle between the radii to selected points on Mohr’s Circle is twice the
angle between the normal to the actual planes represented by the two points.

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 Principal stresses occur on principal planes on which there exist zero shearing

𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 =
𝟐

𝝈𝒙 − 𝝈𝒚 𝟐
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑹 = √( ) 𝝉𝒙𝒚𝟐
𝟐

𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 − 𝝈𝒚 𝟐
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √( ) 𝝉𝒙𝒚𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝑹
𝟐 𝟐

𝟐𝝉𝒙𝒚
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝜽𝒑 =
𝝈𝒙 − 𝝈𝒚

stresses.

Example 10. For state of plane stress shown,

solve the following.
a. Construct a Mohr’s circle.
b. Find the principal planes.
c. Solve for principal stresses.
d. Solve for the maximum shearing
stress and corresponding
normal stress.
Solution: 𝜍𝑥 𝜍𝑦 50 (− 0)
𝜍𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
𝐶𝐹 = 50 − 20 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝐹𝑋 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑅 = 𝐶𝑋 = 302 402 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

O  Principal planes and stresses

𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐶 𝐶𝐴 = 20 50
𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 70 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝐵𝐶 = 20 − 50
𝜍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −30 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐹𝑋 40
tan 2𝜃𝑝 = =
𝐶𝑋 30
2𝜃𝑝 = 53. °
𝜃𝑝 = 26.6°

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Assessment. Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution.

(5 points each)

1. The homogeneous bar shown in the

figure is supported by a smooth pin at C
and a cable that runs from A to B around
the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in
the cable if its diameter is 0.6 inch and the
bar weighs 6000 lb.

2. Determine the largest weight W that can be

supported by two wires shown in the figure.
The stress in either wire is not to exceed 30
ksi. The cross-sectional areas of wires AB and
AC are 0.4 .2 and 0.5 .2 , respectively.

3. For the truss show in the figure, calculate the stresses in members CE, DE,
and DF. The cross-sectional area of each member is 1.82 .2 . Indicate tension
(T) or compression (C).

4. Compute the shear stress in the pin shown in the figure.

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5. For state of plane stress shown, find (a) principal planes and the principal
stresses, (b) stress components on element obtained by rotating given element
counterclockwise through 30 degrees.

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6.3 References
1. Pytel, Andrew and Ferdinand, Singer L. Strength of Materials. 4th Edition.
2. Mott, Robert L. and Untener, Joseph A. (2018). Applied Strength of
Materials. Sixth Edition.
3. Subramanian, BY R. (2010). Strength of Materials. Second Edition.

6.4 Acknowledgement

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken
from the references cited above.

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6700

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