EDU 2310: SUBJECT METHODS CHEMISTRY

LSSONS 1, 2 & 3
LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is part of science and it could be seen as an anchor that unified
all the other areas of science.
Chemistry is that branch of science that deals with the chemical composition, structure and properties of
matters and other substances. Human body itself is made up of chemical compositions and the
environment required for the human life to sustain is inseparable from the chemical composition of
matters.
Chemistry Teaching Methods as a course is aimed at enabling the teacher trainees to internalize and
effectively choose appropriate methods for teaching Secondary Science in order to be able to impart
knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs in Science in general, and Chemistry in particular.

THE CHALLENGES OF SCIENCE TEACHING

 The Science Teacher
 The Learner
 The Subject Matter
 Hypothesis, Theories and Law of Science
There are some concepts, which are peculiar to the teaching of science which needs to be explained.
Besides, the language of science is different from the language of other subjects; this is why the social
dimension of science needs to be discussed.
The Science Teacher
The three basic functions of the science teacher are to:
instruct, to supervise and to manage learning resources or facilities. However, the primary function of a
science teacher is the transmission of selectedexperiences in science to his students. For this to happen
effectively, themodern professional teacher should know a great deal about his learners -how they grow,
how they learn their needs and how to satisfy such needs at school, their capabilities or their individual
differences, and a variety of methods to use in order to help the children learn easily.
METHODS
He should realize that children are learning directly from his teaching as well as indirectly from
their surrounding environments. What the teacher has to offer and what the environment teaches
indirectly are of equal importance to the growth and development of the child. In effect, modern teaching
must be child centered that is, the interest and needs of the children at their various stages of development
must determine what the teacher is to teach.

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Some of the teacher-based factors which influence the quality of
learning are:
(i) The quality of training given to and acquired by the teacher.
(ii) The adequacy of instructional methods and materials used in a
particular lesson.
(iii) The teacher’s grasp of the subject matter
(iv) The teacher’s degree of attachment to textbooks
(v) The teacher’s level of motivation relative to the atmosphere
surrounding his job.
(vi) The teacher’s capacity to take initiative.
(vii) The teacher’s level of self-confidence.

The Learner
The learner is the teacher’s audience. The teacher’s work depends on who the learner is. He has to plan
the lesson with the nature of the learner at the back of his mind. The learner brings into the
classroomcertain factors; some of which the teacher can control and some he cannot control. Some of the
factors are: innate characteristics, his attitude tothe subject and level of discipline, his capacity for
cognitive adjustmentand readiness to persevere at learning tasks, the level of supervisiongiven to him at
home, his social orientation, motivation and backgroundin the subject among others. The quality of
learning is determined by the student’s performance in an assessment task.
3.1.2 The Subject Matter
The knowledge of the subject matter by the teacher is very important. Without the subject matter,
teacher can not plan his lesson and effectiveteaching –learning can not take place. The interest of the
students in thesubject matter will depend on how interesting the teacher’s teaching is.
Exercise
What do you think makes a good teacher?

The Language of Science

Science subjects have their own peculiar languages. The language of Chemistry is different from the
language of physics for example. This isbecause science is operating on a different culture. The language
of science consists wholly of declarative sentences. By means of them, the
Scientist talks about the world. It is therefore the duty of the science
teacher to translate this highly codified language into a language that hisstudents can understand.
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Most science educators have recognized the central role of language inthought and learning processes.
Often the science teacher as an adult, speaks a language completely alien to the students. This is obvious
of background experiences that is, within his frame of reference. The
student, having no such frame of reference, see’s him as a foreigner with a strange language. More often
than not, the four languages which tend to conflict in the learning of chemistry are: the language of the
subject, language of mathematics, English Language and indigenous language. NB: English is the
language of instruction.

Hypothesis, Theories and Law of Science

Hypothesis
The word hypothesis is a special name for scientific guess. When the statement of hypothesis is made, the
statement is usually subjected toverification through experiments. If the statement is found to be true, it
could then be proclaimed to be a law. A very good example of a hypothesis is Gay-Lussac’s hypothesis,
which states that “When gasesreact, they do so in volumes which bear simple ratio to one another
andto the volume of the products if gaseous temperature and pressure are constant.

Laws
A law is a statement, which summarizes the behaviour of substances orsome of their characteristics. For
example, it is found from experimentsthat when the temperature of a gas is kept constant, the volume
variesinversely with pressure. This is the situation with all gases. This
explained Boyles law, which states that “the volume of a given mass ofgas in inversely proportional
to its pressure if the temperature is kept constant. Some related laws are Graham’s law of diffusion.
Chemical laws describe the ways in which chemical changes take place. For example, when elements
combine together to form compounds, they do so in fixed proportions by weight. This is the law of
definite proportion.

Theories
When a question is raised in science, the explanation we advance for scientific laws are called theories.
For example, when we start by giving explanation for the question “why are the volumes of different
gases affected in the same way by changes of pressure?

Theories emerge. The theory could be that “Gases take the shape of the container. Occasionally, a
possible explanation has to be provisionally accepted without experimental testing because
the statement of the theory made is not testable. This explanation is
called hypothesis.

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Actually, scientist test theories by finding whether predictions based on them work out in practice. Thus,
in the example given above, if gases are kept in the same sized container and
it is found out that theirvolumes are affected in the same way by pressure
change, it means thathe theory advanced is confirmed within the available
evidence. A theory can never be proved, because some unknown facts many affect the
situation. For example, in the above explanation, effect of pressure, on the volume of gases may be
influenced by other factors other than the shape of the container. Theories are usually tested by making
models. Theories are modified based on additional information. For example, atoms were first regarded
as indivisible units until the discovery of the fundamental particles of atoms.
Exercise
Positive contributions of Chemistry to society in the fields of:
 Medicine
 Chemical engineering
 Storage of perishables
 Preservation of life eg embryos, sperms, ova
 Agriculture- herbicides, pesticides
 Biological weapons
 Generation and storage of electrical energy
 Industrial & factory products
 Nutrition
 Detection of good/poisonous chemicals in the body of man, animals and the soil
 Treatment of nutrient depleted soils
 The food we eat, the cosmetics we use or the medicines we take, all of these undergo chemical
reactions.
 It can help you make decisions related to a wide range of things like watering plants based on
seasons, setting the temperature to bake a cake, choosing the right medicine for acidity, applying a
particular SPF sunscreen, etc.
 It helps you understand which element your body needs more. For instance, some may require
Vitamin D more than others.

Chemistry has potential for misuse

Scientific evidence shows that many commonly produced and disseminated synthetic chemicals are
capable of wreaking havoc with the body's hormone system, leading to impairments of reproductive
capacity, immune system function, neurological development and intelligence.
Chemically produced drugs of abuse have caused a lot of misery to humankind , such as drug addiction,
neurological damage, kidney, brain, liver, poisoning, drug induced psychosis, death
Acid rain as a result of poorly managed acidic emissions have caused death of crops, livestock, and
humankind, destruction of ozone layer, and corrosion of buildings iron sheets, etc
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But what of chemistry and practising chemists? Here, the most pertinent concern is of course chemical
weapons and the 1997 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC). This defines chemical weapons, in part,
as toxic chemicals and their precursors and a toxic chemical as ‘any chemical which through its
chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm’.
This applies to all chemicals, however and wherever they are produced. So chemists, like biologists, have
a responsibility to ensure that their work is not used for hostile purposes. It is also vital that chemists use
their expertise to assist the ongoing efforts to strengthen the CWC as it transitions from an agreement
focused on destroying stocks of chemical weapons to one that attempts to prevent the renewed
development and use of chemical weapons. 

LESSON TWO: AIMS OF TEACHING CHEMISTRY IN KENYAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The main aim
The main aim of teaching chemistry in secondary schools is to prepare students for college chemistry,
conceptualize the basic facts, introduce students to scientific methods, to develop their scientific mind,
reasoning and approach, to stimulate their curiosity, interest, enjoyment and good attitudes.
This preparation enables learners to gain an understanding in the areas listed below:
A. Reasons to study chemistry.
 Chemistry helps you to understand the world around you. ...
 Basic knowledge of chemistry helps you to read and understand product labels.
 Chemistry can help you make informed decisions
 Chemistry is at the heart of cooking
 A command of chemistry can help keep you safe
 Prepare students for further study and research in the field of Chemistry and research in general

B. Use Chemistry to Address Scientific Inquiries

Students must develop questions and use chemistry to determine the answers. This process is achieved by
planning and implementing controlled experiments in which students make educated guesses, or
hypotheses, about how chemicals will interact. When the experiments are complete, students must
analyze and record their findings.

C. Examples of Chemistry in Everyday Life

 Discolouration of leaves.
 Food Digestion.
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  Common salt.
 Ice floating on water.
 Tears while chopping onions.
 Sunscreen.
 Medicines.
 H Production of Tears While Chopping Onions

Most of us can relate to this chemistry in everyday life example and how tough at times it gets to chop an
onion. The tears you get while cutting or peeling an onion are because of Sulphate. The sulphenic acid
gets converted to propanediol Sulphur-oxide which causes irritation and triggers the production of
tears. 

Sunscreen 

Sunscreen is an important cosmetic which saves us from harmful UV rays and preserves the natural
complexion we have. But why do we only use sunscreen, why not the normal moisturizer? The various
organic and inorganic chemicals like TiO2 present in the sunscreen blocks the rays and prevents them
from further penetrating the deeper layers of skin.

Medicines 

Why is there a specific medicine for every disease? This is because, in every disease, a different
biological or chemical reaction takes place. , that is why different chemicals are needed to help patients
get cured. 

Hygiene

We are taught to wash our hands before eating food & now after Covid- 19 hit us before & after doing
anything we have to wash our hands. Have you ever wondered if your hands become cleaner using just a
drop of hand wash or soap? Soaps contain fatty acids of sodium & potassium that act as an emulsifying
agent & clean your hands.

D. Learners should use Chemistry to:

1. Use Chemistry to Address Scientific Inquiries

Lerners must develop questions and use chemistry to determine the answers. This process is achieved by
planning and implementing controlled experiments in which students make educated guesses, or
hypotheses, about how chemicals will interact. When the experiments are complete, students must
analyze and record their findings.

2. Connect Chemistry with Physical Science

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Learners must understand the structure of atoms and chemical reactions. Students may meet these
objectives by creating and labeling models of atoms and writing and balancing chemical equations that
show the new substances were created as a result of blending specific elements identified on the
Periodic Table of Elements. Achieving this objective also means that students should familiarize
themselves with key vocabulary words such as "catalyst," "proton," "neutron" and "electron."
3. Connect Chemistry with Life Science
Learnres must investigate the relationship between chemical signals and cellular development. They
also must study the way that body chemistry keeps humans alive and well. This objective may be met in
part by creating models of neurons and analyzing the effects that specific behaviors have on humans'
neurological development.

4. Connect Chemistry with Earth Science

Learners should identify and describe geochemical reactions, or chemical changes in the Earth. They may
meet this objective by writing specific geochemical equations and investigating how geochemical
reactions create natural phenomena such as mountain ranges and volcanoes. They also may meet this
standard by researching chemical reactions that occur in outer space.
5. Use Technology to Promote Scientific Understanding
Learners must consciously integrate technology when conducting experiments. Students may use certain
computer technology to simulate certain chemical reactions.
6. Connect Chemistry and Contemporary Concerns
Learners should investigate and demonstrate knowledge about the significance of chemistry to
contemporary concerns. This study includes man-made and natural disasters. Lessons may meet this
requirement by focusing on the chemical components of alternative energy, chemical creation of
environmentally friendly products, effects of efforts to clean up the 2010 Deep Water Horizon oil spill,
effects of the 2011 Fukushima meltdown and controversy surrounding the chemical components of
vaccines.
7. Connect Chemistry with History
Students must demonstrate knowledge of chemistry's effect on history by studying famous chemists.
They also may identify and analyze the ways that specific chemical innovations have changed the way
society functions and had a global effect on the world.

LECTURE 3: AIMS AND OBJECTIVES IN CHEMISTRY

3.1 Introduction
Someone once said that if you are not sure where you are going you are likely to end up in some place…
and you may not even know what place it is! That is what is likely to happen to a teacher who teaches
without clearly define objectives. Aims and objectives act as milestones that assist us in identifying the
progress of our “trip” in the classroom. They assist us in batch-testing the progress of a curriculum, a
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scheme of work, or even a single lesson. They give us a clear directional framework. Since aims and
objectives are meant for all in the learning environment, they are as much for the teacher as they are for
the students

3.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture you should be able to; -
1) Define the main characteristics of aims in education in
chemistry.
2) Define the main characteristics of objectives in education in chemistry.
3) Write correct objectives for a chemistry lesson.
3.3 Aims
Aims and objectives are related just like you and your family. You are part of your family as your family
is part of the human race. By this extension you are part of the human race. The human race is global
compared to you. Aims are global as compared to objectives. Aims are expressions of general intents of
an educational set-up. They are the more general targets that an educational system hopes to achieve. All
school subjects should be supportive of the set aims because aims form the basis of the school curriculum.

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 Examples of aims of education.

1. Education shall foster a sense of national unity.

2. Education shall interest people in science.
3. Education shall prepare people for careers.
4. Education shall develop enquiring minds.

If you inspect these aims you will see that they take a long time to achieve. How long, for example, does
it take to foster a sense of national unity? To interest people in science? Or to prepare people for careers?
But in the context of setting aims they are correct intentions. It remains for the classroom teacher to
interpret them within the context of science and chemistry in particular.

II. Activity 3.1 An aim of education

“Education shall foster a sense of national unity” How do

you see chemistry contributing to this?

3.4 Objectives
Objectives are borne out of aims. Objectives are subsumed under aims. Let us look at the relationship
with an example. Consider the following aim;-
“The student shall demonstrate an understanding of combustion”
Several objectives can be derived of this aim.

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 1) The student should be able to write five equations each of exothermic and endothermic
reactions.
2) The student should be able to calculate heats of combustion given various volumes of
ethanol.
3) The student should be able to assemble equipment necessary to dehydrate copper
sulphate.
And so on.
The idea of using education objectives was pioneered by an American educationist, Ralph Tyler in the
1930’s.Let us look at the main characteristics of educational objectives.
1) Educational objectives focus on the learner. It is the learner who is at the center of
attention. To be able to tell whether or not learning has occurred we look for a change in
the behaviour of the learner.
2) To establish a change in behaviour we must identify learner characteristics as they enter
the learning environment and as they leave the learning environment. The difference
between the two is attributed to the learning experiences.
3) To identify the change in behaviour we need to describe an action accurately. The key
descriptor is known as the action verb. Looking at the aims above the descriptor is
“should be able to…”
The rationale behind this thinking goes along this way. We cannot see into people’s minds. We
imply peoples’ minds by their overt actions. If we see someone shouting aimlessly along a high street
we imply that their state of mind is unsettled. If our student can solve simultaneous equation we imply
that they are knowledgeable in algebra. We can teach our students. That is one thing. But the only
way we can be sure that learning has occurred is if we can identify

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some external behaviour that is consonant with the teaching. This change in behaviour will be verbal or
non-verbal.
Question 3.1
What would you imply of a learner who demonstrates the
following;-

1. Says that element Y has a ground state configuration with one

electron in the outermost shell.
2. Says that neon belongs to the family of elements with an outer
configuration of octet.

An objective should identify the minimum kind of performance which will be accepted as evidence of
change of behaviour. It is in this context that the active verb becomes crucial. In all, objectives
should;-
1) Be stated in clear, unambiguous terms which the teacher and the student can
understand.
2) Be stated in terms of the behaviour of the learner.
3) Have a statement of minimum satisfactory performance.
4) Be stated for the right level of the education of the leaner.

Objectives can be stated from any of the three domains of learning. These are cognitive,
psychomotor or affective. Keeping in mind that cognitive deals with knowledge, psychomotor with
physical training and affective with values and emotions, let us consider a few examples of objectives
from each of these.
3.5 Cognitive
1. The student should be able to write five examples of Lewis acids.

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 2. The student should be able to define three characteristics of halogens.

3. The student should be able to derive the general formula of alkanes.

3.6 Psychomotor
1. The student should be able to identify a burette from a pipette.
2. The student should be able to set up an experiment to determine the water of crystallization
in copper sulphate.
3. The student should be able to perform a capillary tube analysis.

3.7 Affective
1. The student should recognize the variety of colours in diazonium compounds.

2. The student should appreciate the effects of radiation from a bomb.

3. The student should have a feel of chemical pollution in air.

If we consider the objectives from the cognitive and psychomotor domains we see that they can be
measured. We can judge when a student writes five examples of Lewis acids. We can tell when a
student differentiates a burette from a pipette. But we cannot measure accurately how a student
would have a feel of chemical pollution in the environment. Nor could we tell how this feel differed
between individuals. So we should avoid objectives from the affective domain in our teaching. What we
can acknowledge is that they arise as a result of teaching.

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Activity 3.2 From Aim to Objective

This is an aim of chemistry.

“The student should: Demonstrate an understanding of carbon.” “Write:
Three objectives that could be formed out of this aim.”

3.8 Summary
Objectives are a learning and teaching aid. They are derived out of stated aims of education.They
are stated in terms of a change in behaviour on the part of the learner. For the teacher they
provide a picture of the change in this behaviour . For the student they provide a learning frame
of
reference. Therefore each will use objectives as a milestone of performance. Objectives also act
to guide assessment.
3.9 References
1. Jenkins, E. and Whitfield, R. (1974): Readings in Science Education, London,
McGraw-Hill
2. Daniel, D.J. (Ed.) (1975): New Movements in the Study and Teaching of
Chemistry, Temple- Smith, London

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