- EE: { PoE a) MA iin sheOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRUSS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It forthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Oxford University Press 2017 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted First published in 2017 All rights reserved. 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Printed in Great Britain by CPL Acknowledgements The publishers would like to thank the following for permissions to use their photographs: Cover: Colin AndersonjGetty Images. Header: Shutterstock. Although we have made every effort to trace and contact all copytight holders before publication this has not been possible in ll cases. If notified, the publisher will rectify any errors or ‘omissions at the earliest opportunity. Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work. AQA material is reproduced by permission of AQA.AS Pure 1 Loci, Graphs and Algebra LA Loci 1.2. Rational functions 1.3 Conic sections Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 2 Complex Numbers 2.1 Whatis a complex number? . 2.2. Calculating with complex numbers 2.3 Argand diagram 24 Lociin the complex plane Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 3 Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation 3.1 Roots of a quadratic equation 3.2. Finding an equation with roots that are a function of existing roots Summary . Review exercises a Practice examination questions , 4 Series 4.1 Summation formulae 4.2. Method of differences Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions , 5 Trigonometry 5.1 General solutions of trigonometric equations |... 5.2. Solving equations involving more ‘complicated terms Summary Review exercises a Practice examination questions , 6 Calculus 6.1 Gradient of a tangent to a curve 6.2. Rates of change un 16 oT wT 20 22 25 28 31 32 33 4 36 39) 39, 40 42 45 46 a7 47 49, 53 35 56 56 58 6.3 Improper integrals Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 7 Matrices and Transformations 7.1 Introduction to matrices 7.2, Transformations 7.3. Common transformations 7.4 Invariant points and lines Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 8 Linear graphs 8.1 Relationship between data 8.2 When the power of xis unknown, or when. xis in the exponent Summary Review exercises .... _ Practice examination questions 9 Numerical Methods 9.1 Solutions of polynomial equations 9.2 Step-by-step solution of differential ‘equations Summary Review exercises : Practice examination questions AS Statistics 10 Bayes’ Theorem 10.1 Tree diagrams 10.2 Bayes’ Theorem Summary Review exercises .. Practice examination questions .. 63 65 66 66 . 68 72 76 78 80 al 82. 84 87 90 91 92 94 99 101 102 102 lod 109 uz 2 13, 11_ Discrete Uniform and Geometric Distributions 11.1 Discrete uniform distribution 11.2 Geometric distribution Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 116 121 125 126 12712 Probability Generating Functions 12.1 Probability generating functions and their properties 131 12.2 Some standard distributions ._ 135 12.3 Sums of independent random variables ... 139 Summary 44 Review exercises... 144 Practice examination questions 145 13 ear Combinations of Discrete Random Variables 13.1 Linear combinations of discrete random variables 148 13.2 Independent discrete random variables 153 Summary 155 Review exercises . ._ 155 Practice examination questions ., 156 AS Mechanics 14 Constant Velocity in Two imensions 14.1 Vectors in component form 158 14.2 Position, displacement, distance, velocity and speed 159 14.3 Resultant velocity 162 14.4 Relative velocity, closest approach and interception 165 Summary 170 Review exercises, . 17 Practice examination questions 171 15 ensional Analysis 15.1 Dimensions and dimensional consistency . 174 15.2 Finding a formula 177 Summary 179 Review exercises 180 Practice examination questions 181 16 Collision in One Dimension 16.1 Impulse and momentum 182 16.2 ‘The principle of conservation of linear momentum 186 16.3 Elastic impact... 188 16.4 Multiple collisions 193, Summary 195 Reviewexercises 196 Practice examination questions , 196 A2 Pure 17 Roots and Polynomials 17.1 Roots of higher-order equations 17.2 Complex roots of a polynomial equation Summary Review exercises : Practice examination questions 18 Proof by Induction and Finite Series 18.1 Proof by induction 18.2 Finite series Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 19 Series and Li 19.1 Convergence 19.2 Maclaurin’s theorem 19.3 Finding the limits of a series 19.4 Improper integrals Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 20 De Moivre’s Theorem 20.1 De Moivre's theorem 20.2 Further applications of de Moivre's theorem to complex numbers 20.3 Trigonomettic identities Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 21 Polar Coordinates 21.1 Position of a point . . 21.2 Sketching curves given in polar coordinates oe 21.3 Area of a sector of a curve Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 22 The Calculus of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 22.1 Inverse trigonometric functions 22.2 Differentiation and integration of inverse trigonometric functions ... Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 198 201 204 205 206 208 215 217 27 217 220 221 227 228 230 231 231 234 239 245 252 253 253 256 259 262, 266 267 267 270 273 279 280 28123 Arc Length and Area of Surface of Revolution 23.1 Arclength sue 282 23.2 Area ofa surface of revolution sevssone 285, Summary . . 286 Review exercises 287 Practice examination questions... 287 24 Hyperbolic Functions 24.1 Hyperbolic functions 288 24.2 Differentiation of hyperbolic functions 292 24.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions 294 Summary 303 Review exercises 304 Practice examination questions 305 25 Differential Equations of First and Second Order 25.1 First-order linear equations 306 28.2 Second-order differential equations 308 25.3 Using a complementary function and particular integral to solve a first order equation a8 Summary a 318 Review exercises 319 Practice examination questions 319 26 Vectors and Three-Dimensional Coordinate Geometry 26.1 Vectors - st su 320 26.2 Vector product . ss 324 26.3 Applications of vectors to coordinate geometry ...... ssn BBB 26.4 Equation of aline , . son 329 26.5 Equation ofa plane 329 26.6 Scalar triple product and its applications .... 338 SuMMALY coo ; 342 Review exercises oan 344 Practice examination questions 344 27 Solutions of Linear Equations 27.1 Simultaneous linear equations 346 27.2 Using determinants to find the number of solutions of three simultaneous equations ..... 349 Summary - see 351 Review exercises 7 wn 352 Practice examination questions 352 28 Matrix Algebra 28.1 Inverse matrices 354 28.2 Transformations |... 356 28.3 Invariant points and lines von 36 Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions A2 Mechanics 29 Vertical Circular Motion 29.1 Circular motion with non-uniform speed 29.2 Leaving the circular path Summary Review exercises . Practice examination questions 30 Collisions in Two 30.1 Impulse and momentum in two dimensions 30.2 Elastic impact Summary Review exercises . Practice examination questions 31 Projectiles Launched onto Inclined Planes 31.1 Inclined plane 31.2 Other problems Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 32 Elastic Strings and Springs 32.1 Elastic strings and springs 32.2 Work and energy summary... Review exercises Practice examination questions 33 Application of Differential Equations 33.1 Variable forces Summary Review exercises Practice examination questions 34 Simple Harmonic Motion 34.1 Oscillation . 34.2 Solving the SHM equation of motion 34.3 Simple pendulum Summary . Review exercises Practice examination questions Answers. Index 367 368 368 370 375 378 378 379 382, 385 389 389 390 393 396 400 401 401 404 408 414 414 415 a8 424 424 425wat. Loct, Graphsiand Aflgebra Introduction Objectives Polynomial functions always form a continuous curve with no breaks. By the end of this chapter, ‘However, when you divide one polynomial by another, the graph of the ‘you should know how to: ‘new function can have breaks in it and is said to be discontinuous. An. Sketch graphs of example of such graphs is a conic section, which is the curve formed when rational functions. aplane intersects a right circular cone. Some of the curves you meet the Find equations of ‘most in the real world are examples of conic sections, such as the ellipse asymptotes to graphs. that describes Earth’s orbit around the Sun and the parabola that models Solve inequalities the path of a football. involving rational functions. Describe and sketch Recap various conic sections, Find the points of intersection between conic sections and You will need to remember how to Solve construction problems involving loci. Solve equations, including quadratics. Sketch basic graphs such as y= x. coordinate axes and Find the distance between two points in Cartesian coordinates. various straight lines. Solve simple inequalities such as 4x +7>3(x—4) and x*-7x +1020. Find the Cartesian Transform graphs using stretches, reflections and translations. equation of simple loci that are described verbally. 1.1 Lo In the context of graphs, a locus (plural loci) is a set of points that follow a given rule. Therefore, a locus can be represented by an equation. For example, a locus is given as the points that are a distance of four units from the point (2, 3). This locus forms a circle with centre (2, 3). You know from previous studies that the equation of a citcle is given in the form (x-a)++ (y—b}?=F, where ris the radius of the circle with centre (a, b) therefore, the locus described above can be given as the Cartesian equation (x- 2) +(y-3)* =16 To find the Cartesian equation of a given locus, consider a general point on the curve (x, y) and use what you know about loci to help you formulate an appropriate equation. Example 1 Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points that are equidistant from the point (~1, 4) and the line x = 2, (Te 6 Loci, Graphs and AlgebraCoston (x, y)isa general point that obeys the rule. Distance of (x,y) from line x = 2 is |x -2| rie irecieeneeenratene Distance from (x, y) to (-1, 4) is oye (r+ +4) (x-2)° You will discover later in this we det LP Byt 6x 4r 44 chapter that this is a conic Equation of the locus is (y — 4)" =-6x +3. ‘equation of a parabola. Exercise 1 @ Bind the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant from the point (3, -2) and the line y= © Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are a distance of four units from the point (2, -3). @ Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant from the point (-5, 3) and the line x=2. © Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are a distance of 4y2 units from the point (4, -4). 1.2 Rational functions During your A-level Mathematics studies you will have learned how to sketch. curves. In this chapter, you will learn how to sketch curves for functions that are more complicated than trigonometric or polynomial ones. ‘The graph of a rational function will always have a horizontal asymptote provided that the degree of x in the denominator is the same as or larger than. the degree of xin the numerator. In this chapter, you will only deal with cases where there is a horizontal asymptote. Sketching rational functions with a linear denominator In order to sketch rational functions equations of the form y = to start by finding the asymptotes. * younet +, youneed You should remember that in the context of sketching a curve, an asymptote is aline that becomes a tangent to the curve as x or y tends to infinity. (Vertical asymptotes are the lines where the graph is undefined.) ‘The asymptote occurs where . 4x-8 the graph is undefined, so to For example, take the eurve of y= “> ST In order for y+ +=, the denominator of this function must tend to zero. you need to equate the Thatis, as x +3 — 0, x9 -3. Hence, x=—3 is an asymptote. denominator of the rational To find the asymptote as x—> +», you express the function as ore ace -_* “3 x Divide the top and bottom Asx>te,3 50 and $0. by x. Therefore, y > Loci, Graphs and Algebra4 is also an asymptote. Notice that as x +, the largest terms in the numerator and the denominator are 4x and x respectively, and soy = 4x+x=4 3 is a vertical asymptote, as itis parallel to the y-axis. y=4 isa horizontal asymptote, as itis parallel to the x-axis. ‘To be able to sketch y = “*=*, you also need to find where it crosses the x- and yraxes, When x=0: y 50 = x=2 8 3 Wheny=0:4e— In summary, you proceed as follows: 1. Draw the asymptotes using dashed lines. 2, Mark the points where the curve crosses the axes; as the numerator and the denominator of the function each contain only a linear term in x, the curve cannot cross either asymptote. 3. Considering the curve for x >—3, you can see that y tends to -» as x approaches -3 from values of x greater than -3. Hence, the curve tends to + as x approaches ~3 from values of rless than ~3, 4. You can now complete the curve of y = 428 xe To sketch the curve of a rational function in the form y =. pd 1. Find the vertical asymptote by equating the denominator to zero; find the horizontal asymptote by dividing the numerator and denominator by x, 4o thatis, expressing the function as y="*5 and then considering what happens when x tends to infinity. 2, Substitute x=0 and y=0 into the function to find where the curve crosses the axes. 3. Ifnecessary, consider the curve for the x-values, to see what happens to the y-values as xtends totes, When x-o:y=—2=8 enx=0:Y= === Example 2 2x6 ” ! Sketch the graph of y= ' Horizontal asymptote: ; asx—> to, y—> 2,y=2 H Vertical asymptote: ‘ asy te, x-530,x=5 ' 0 - Graphs and Algebra When the degrees of the ‘numerator and denominator are the same, you can find the horizontal asymptote by dividing the leading coefficient of the numerator by the leading coefficient of the denominator. Note First, find the asymptotes. ia Next, find where the curve crosses the axes.aaa) When y=0:2x-6=0 = x=3 Note that the asymptotes here are parallel to the coordinate axes. Now copy and complete Exercise 2 the sketch of y= Soe by In questions 1, 2 and 3, state the equations of the asymptotes for the curve, algo considering what wil an 5 happen to the y-values as the Orme x42 xvalues change ye x3 © show that y=2is an asymptote for the curve y="** a + a-4x © Show that y=—1is an asymptote for the curve y =. x © sereny=24=8 rl © sketch y= 22+ stating the equations of the asymptotes of the curve. © sketch y= 2-3, xa nal functions with a quadratic denominator ror where both the numerator and the denominator are quadratics, you proceed as before by finding the asymptote, where the graphs cross the axes, and consider the shape of the curve. However, with these functions, the shape of the curve ‘When sketching rational functions with equations of the form y = requires consideration of stationary points and the number of asymptotes depends on the number of roots of the quadratic denominator. > Two different roots will result in two vertical asymptotes. > One repeated real root will result in one vertical asymptote. > Noroots indicates that there are no vertical asymptotes. Regardless of the number of asymptotes, there may be values of y that are not realised by any value of x. Therefore, you need to find the range of the rational function in order to determine the set of possible values of y and in turn find the maximum and minimum points (the stationary points) of the curve, Example 3 Find the range of possible values of ywhen y= Cross-multiplying, To find the range of values of y, yx 3yx—dy=3x—4 you need to find the values for For xto be real, we know that => yxt+ By—3)x+4—4y=0 which y= —\—* has real b?~4acz0. ‘Therefore, solutions for x. (3y-3)' -4y(4—4y) 20 (continued) Loci, Graphs and AlgebraEsa (continued) > (Y-D@y-9 +16) <0 => (y-Dl2sy-9) <0 9 Seye a 7%! ‘The range of possible values of yis-~ < y <1 To find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points, substitute the minimum and maximum values from the range of y into the original equations. ‘The solution of 1 is x = 0, and so one turning point is (0, 1). The other turning pointis (3 3) To discover which is a maximum and which is a minimum, you need to understand the shape of the curve, which means that you need to consider its, asymptotes Curves with two vertical asymptotes Some functions will have more than one vertical asymptote, for example the curve y = =302 J> ae ‘When the denominator is a quadratic expression that can be factorised: » There are always two vertical asymptotes if there are two distinct factors, and ‘The two vertical asymptotes » The curve will normally cross the horizontal asymptote. could coincide, as in Example 5. Hence, in addition to finding the asymptotes and the points where the curve crosses the axes, you need to establish where the curve crosses the horizontal asymptote. (x-3)(2x—5) (e+ I(r +2) Hence, there are four stages to sketching the curve with equationy (e-a02-5) E=9Es-9, express the equation as 1. Tofind the horizontal asymptote of y f1- 32-3} y= load fea Asx +e, 50nd y->2. Therefore, the horizontal asymptote is y=2. 2. To find the vertical asymptotes, equate the denominator to zero, which gives (x+I(x+2)=0. Hence, the vertical asymptotes are x=-1 and 3. To find where the curve cuts the axes, you have: When x=0: ye When y=0:x= Sand =F 4, To find where the curve crosses the horizontal asymptote, y= 2, you have (x-3)(2x-5) (x4 1(e+2) 2(2 + 3x42) =2e 11x +15 = Loci, Graphs and Algebraasymptotes Itis important to note that: > The curve can cross an axis or an asymptote only at the points found, > Ifone branch of the curve goes to +=, the next branch must return from —, The exception to this is when the two vertical asymptotes coincide as the result of a squared factor in the denominator. See Example 5. Example 4 _ (e+ 1)(e-4) Sketch Y= Gaye Note Horizontal asymptote: y= Vertical asymptotes:x=2 and x=5 4 Curve crosses axes atx =0, y= Th, and aty=0, Curve crosses horizontal asymptote when y= 1, (e+ DQ-4) (= 2)(@=5) Txt 10-28 3x4 = Example 5 _ (Dx +2) Sketch the eurve y= Horizontal asymptote: y=3. Vertical asymptotes: x=-I (twice). ran Curve crosses the axes at x=0, y=-2, and at 2 Equate the denominator to ye0,x=1and —% 2er0 Curve crosses the horizontal asymptote ‘To sketch the curve, you need to insert all four points, as well as the three Equate the denominator to or divide the leading Coefficient of the numerator by the leading coefficient of the denominator, as both are of the same degree, or Find x = O and y = 0. ard Use methods as before, Since x= 1 is a repeat asymptote, and the curve tends to +0 as x approaches the value of —1 from the right (that is, tends to —1 from above), it also tends to +s» as x approaches the value of -1 from the left that is, from below) Loci, Graphs and AlgebraQuestion 0 ~ Graphs and Algebra Curves with no vertical asymptotes Notall curves with equations of the form y = *-°2!*¢ have vertical asymptote. I the roots of px’ + qx-+r=0 are not real, the curve will not have a vertical asymptote, Example 6 2x? $5x43 axe +5x43 a sketch the curve Given that y= bb find the range of possible values for y find the maximum and minimum points. a Horizontal anympoterasx> yo} 2 Vertical asymptote: 41° + 5x +3=0, which gives a Noe ‘The roots are not real. therefore, the curve does not have a vertical asymptote Note 0, ‘The curve cuts the axes when y- 2xts5x+3=0 (2x4 3)Ger1 = Equate the denominator to ze10, Land —* 2 and when x=0, y=1 ‘The curve crosses the horizontal asymptote y = . when 1_ 2x? 45x43 2 2° ae +5x+3 4045x+3=40410x+6 2x $5x43, “48 ¥ 5x43 Aye + 5yx+3y =28 +543 = (ay—2)x? + Gy—S)x+3y-3=0 From the quadratic formula, bt ~4ac20 for the roots of x to be real. Therefore, (5y-5?—444y-2)(3y-3) 20 = 2y*—22y-150 > @y+Ny-D<0 b Cross-multiplying y = -deysi a2! ‘The range of possible values of y Be sys. 1 ¢ Hence, the maximum value of yis 1, and the minimum value is ——. > 23 11a 2 S888 hen axe Svs 3=20 4543 4x 45x43 ‘Therefore 2x*= 0, and x=0, so the maximum is (0,1). 1 _ 2x8 45x43 t-— ; 23 4x'+5x43 then (4x? + 5x43) =23 (24° +5x+3). (continued) Express the function as horizontal asymptote, o divide the leading coefficient of the numerator by that of the denominator, To find the coordinates of ‘the maximum and minimum Points, substitute these values of y into the original equations. To find the range of values of y, You need to find the values 2 +9043 foe wtleh eee real roots for x.aaa) (continued) ‘Therefore ~4x* 5x —3 = 46x" + 115x +69 0=50x?+ 120x472 0 = 25x? + 60x + 36 = (5x +6) ‘Then x=- = and so the minimum pointis ( Solving inequalities involving rational functions Sketching the graph of a rational function can help you to solve an inequality involving that function. When solving an inequality involving rational functions, you can add, subtract, ‘multiply and divide positive numbers asif there were an equals symbol. However, to multiply or divide by a negative number, you must change the sign of the inequality For example, 3>2but-3<-2and-2v>4 => x<-2, Hence, an inequality such as Pad > 2. cannot be solved simply by multiplying both sides of the inequality by cx’ d, since you do not know whether cx + dis positive, giving ax+b>2(cx +d), or negative, giving ax+b<2(cx+d). ‘To solve inequalities such as “**" > k, you can use either of these two methods: 1, Algebraic method: multiply both sides of the inequality by (cx +4)’, which must be non-negative. 2. Graphical method: sketch and then, by comparing the two results, write the solution to the inequality. ax ea Either method can be used to solve any problem, unless you are asked specifically to use a particular method. Example 7 Solve the inequality 2*=9 xe3 > 2using an algebraic method Multiplying by (¢+3), 5r-9 ae . + (x+3)'> 26043) (+3) isa factor, so factrise => (Bx-9)(x+3)>2(e43)* he tem So inequality > (Sx-9)(x+3)-26r+3)'>0 (x+3)[5x—9-2(0+3)]>0 = (x+3)(Br-15)>0 Consider the signs of x + 8 = Geaies)>0 and of x-5 to deduce when = XPS or x<-3 their product is positive, Example 8 Solve the inequality &+V@+*4 <> using a graphical method. (e-Dx-2) Loci, Graphs and Algebra(etD0e+4) (e-)@-2)" the horizontal asymptote is y= 1, and Given the curve of y = the vertical asymptotes are x= 1 and x=2. ‘The curve crosses the axes when y=0, x=—1 and 4, and when ‘The curve ctosses the horizontal asymptote when y=1, when y=2, (+044) | (e+ DG4+4) _ @-De-2), (&-De@=2) SM +Sxt4ax 3x42 9 +Sx+4=2(x°-3x42) => Bx=-2 => O=x—-1lx 1 => x=Oand1l x= 4 ‘Therefore, we have (e+De+4) | (x-DQ@-2) when x>11,1 xex-l Yoyo xn8 YO Paros © State the maximum and minimum points of the curves in question 10. In questions 11 to 13, solve each of the inequalities for x. +3 x45 Oe b Sor (x=1)(x-2) (+2)(-5) @ (rea)! > G32) ¢ aDer= 4) @+DG—5) wox-3 2x 42-5 ween p Been8, O: aerx-3 1.3 Conic sections Ifyou take a solid, right circular cone and cut a plane section through itin any direction, you obtain a curve that is a member of the class of curves known as conics or conic sections, ‘The shape of the curve obtained in this way is determined by the direction in which you make the cut. In other words, it is dependent on the inclination, 8, of the plane section to the axis. /\ a AN \ BA /| [| h COM TS OT Oe YN Parabola Blipse Hyperbola ‘With the cone standing on a horizontal plane, if you cut: » Ina direction parallel to the slant height of the cone, whereby @=@ you obtain a parabola > Inadirection for which «<0< pryou obtain an ellipse > Ina direction, not through the vertex, for which @< 9, you obtain a hyperbola x » Horizontally through the cone (tae 1s,0=7 vou obtain a circle. Loci, Graphs and AlgebraIn this chapter, you will see how to sketch each of these types of curve (except the circle), and how to apply transformations. The transformations of more complicated functions follow the same rules linear transformations do. Ify=f(x), then > y=f{x) +a results in a positive translation in the y-direction y= (x) ~a results in a negative translation in the y-direction ‘y= f(x+ a) results in a negative translation in the x ‘y= lor— a) results in a positive translation in the x-direction ‘y=al{x) results in a stretch parallel to the y-axis, with scale factor @ rection y= (ax) is a stretch parallel to the x-axis, with scale factor + y=-f (2) is a reflection in the y-axis « y=f{-2) is areflection in the x-axis. vryveryy Parabola ‘The standard equation of a conic parabolais y'=4ax. ‘The graph shows y* = 4x. Increasing the value of a causes the parabola to stretch in the x-direction, Note that parabolas do not have asymptotes. Example 9 Sketch (y- 3) = 4x then transite +3 units in the y-direction, 5 o isto 05° 05 10 15 “ (0.3) Ellipse ‘The standard equation of a conic ellipse is + z - a Ellipses do not have asymptotes. 2.9) @oy* _ ye The graph is of © 4 eee a 8 (0-3) 0 - Graphs and Algebra =1.Example 10 Sketch the ellipse 16x? - 64x +64 + 9y? = 144, 16(x - 2)? + 9y? = 144 Gar 916 ‘You might need to find the points of intersection of an ellipse with the coordinate axes or other straight lines. Example 11 ‘The number of intersection points of the ellipse x* + }; = 16 with the straight line y-+3x= k vaties according to the value of k, Calculate the value(s) of k that causes the line to be tangent to the ellipse Substituting for y, x Ea3)" ag 16 16x" +k —6kx + 9x" = 256 25x? — 6kx +k 256 =0 A quadratic equation has equal roots when b? —4ac=0. ‘This means You can use your knowledge (6k)? - 4(25)(k* -256) =0 of the number of solutions 25600 ~ 64k? =0 400-k =0 to a quadratic to find that the line intersects the ellipse at two distinct points when -20 Alocusis a set of points that obey a certain rule, and a locus can be expressed graphically, verbally or in the form of an equation. Asymptotes show the ‘end behaviour’ of a graph as x or y —> eo. » To sketch the graphs of rational, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola equations ‘you might need to find the + Asymptotes (if applicable; parabolas and ellipses do not have asymptotes) + Intercepts with the axes, if any + Coordinates of any maxima or minima (if applicable). > Youcan solve a rational inequality by: + Using algebra to multiply both sides ofthe inequality by (ex +d)” + Sketching y = then solving aS = k and comparing the two results to find the solution. > Conic sections are a family of curves with standard equations, and include the: + Parabola, y’=4ax + Ellipse, += + Hyperbola, 2% =1 * + Rectangular hyperbola, xy = ¢*. Loci, Graphs and Algebaoa » ‘he transformations of more complicated curves follow the same rules linear transformations do. {{3), then + y=f{2) +a results in a positive translation in the y-direction + y=f{x) —a results in a negative translation in the y-direction + y=f(x+a) results in a negative translation in the x-direction + y=f(~a) results in a positive translation in the x-direction + y=af{x) results in a stretch parallel to the y-axis, with scale factor a + y=f(ax) is a stretch parallel to the x-axis, with scale factor + y=-f(@) isa reflection in the y-axis + y=f(-x) isa reflection in the x-axis. Review exercises @ Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of points which are equidistant from the point (5, 1) and the y-axis. © sketch the graph of y= = *3*—> ae-2 Peaxed Sketch the graph of y= =~ 4"+4 QO sone 281 5 3, x43 @ sone 2-2-2 , waae+2 © sketch = 3! _ (+2 3*«S @ The curve x*4*-= 1 is translated by k units in the positive y-direction, a Show that the equation of the curve after this translation is 24 0-8 eee b_ Show that ifthe line x +y=3 intersects the translated curve, the y-coordinate of the points of intersection satisfies the equation © y8-(54+ 2b y+ ke +7250. Practice examination questions @a i_ Write down the equations of the two asymptotes of the curve yess (2 marks) =) i Sketch the curve y = 1, showing the coordinates of any points of intersection with the coordinate axes. (2marks) iff. On the same axes, again showing the coordinates of any points of intersection with the coordinate axes, sketch the line y= 22-5. (1 mark) b i Solve the equation (3marks) x ii Find the solution of the inequality <2x-5. (2 marks) AQA MEP! June 2010 Loci, Graphs and Algebra© Aparabola Phas equation y* =x ~ 2. a i Sketch the parabola P. (2marks) ii On your sketch, draw two tangents to Pwhich pass through the point (~2, 0). (2 marks) b i Show that, ifthe line y = m(x +2) intersects P, then the x-coordinates of the points of intersection must satisfy Px? + (4m? — Ix + (Am? +x) =0. (3 marks) ii, Show that, if this equation has equal roots, then 16m =1. (3 marks) ili Hence find the coordinates of the points at which the tangents to P from the point (2, 0) touch the parabola P. (3 marks) AQA MFPI June 2010 © Ihe diagram shows the hyperbola and its asymptotes. ‘The constants a and b are positive integers. ‘The point A on the hyperbola has coordinates (2,0). ‘The equations of the asymptotes are y= 2.x and y a Show thata=2 and b= 4. (marks) b The point Phas coordinates (1, 0)-A straight line passes through P and has gradient m. Show that, if this line intersects the hyperbola, the x-coordinates of the points of intersection satisfy the equation (m? - 4)x* - 2m?x + (m* +16)=0 (4marks) ‘Show that this equation has equal roots if 3m? = 16. (3marks) There are two tangents to the hyperbola which pass through P. Find the coordinates of the points at which these tangents touch the hyperbola. (No credit will be given for solutions based on differentiation.) (5 marks) AQA MFPI January 2010 © Acurve has equation xe 2x41 » 2x3 a Find the equations of the three asymptotes to the curve (3 marks) b i Showthatif the line y = kintersects the curve, then (k=1x? -2(k=1)x- (8k +1)=0 (1 mark) ii, Given that the equation (k=1)x° -2(k—1)x-(3k +1) = 0 has real roots, show that k# —k 20. (3 marks) Loci, Graphs and Algebaoa iii Hence show that the curve has only one stationary point and find its coordinates. (No credit will be given for solutions based on differentiation.) (4marks) Sketch the curve and its asymptotes. (3marks) AQA MFPI June 2013, © Anellipse is shown on the right. ‘Ihe ellipse intersects the x-axis at the points A and B. The equation ofthe ellipse is. oa +1 a Find the coordinates of A and B. (2 marks) b_ Theline y = mx (m> 0) isa tangent to the ellipse, with point of contact P. Show that the x-coordinate of P satisfies the equation (1+ 4m? ]x? - 8x +12=0 (3 marks) ii, Hence find the exact value of m. (4marks) ii Find the coordinates of P. (4marks) AQA MEP! January 2013 © Me curve Chas equation y = ——~_. a @NE-F ‘The line L-has equation y a Write down the equations of the asymptotes of C. (3 marks) b Theline L intercepts C at two points. Find the x-coordinates of these two points, (2marks) c Sketch Cand L on the same axes. (You are given that the curve Chas no stationary points), (8 marks) ~ 1 (marks) 4. Solve the inequality ay 5 AQA MFPI June 2012 Loci, Graphs and Algebrai iw Complex Number: Introduction ‘You have always been told that finding the square root of a negative ‘number is not possible since the square of any real number is always positive, Whilst itis the case that there is no real number that is 1, there is an imaginary number with this value: i. A complex number is a number consisting of an imaginary part and a real part. You can use the idea that 1 to perform calculations in the real world. For example, in ‘mechanics you can use the theory of complex numbers to explain the ‘motion of springs that have resistance. Recap You will need to remember How to solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula. 243 = 2 ‘That the displacement of a point with position vector a to a point with position vector bis given by the vector b—a. How to simplify expressions containing surds, such as 2.1 What is a complex number? A complex number consists of an imaginary part and a real part, for example 345 A complex number is a number of the form a +ib, where a and bare real numbers and #=-1. If a=0, the number is said to be wholly imaginary. If b=0, the number is real, If complex number is 0, both a and b are 0. In all your previous mathematics work, you have assumed thatit is not possible to have a square root of a negative number. Therefore, when you considered the solution of quadratic equations in the form ax* + bx + ¢=0, you noted that the equation has no real roots when b* ~4ac is less than zero. However, if you consider the imaginary number i, such an equation actually has two complex roots. 6 Complex Numbers Vi Objectives By the end of this chapter, ‘you should know how to: > Find complex roots of quadratic equations. > Find the sum, Aifference, product and quotient of two complex numbers. Compare real and imaginary parts of, two given complex numbers, ‘Write a complex number either in the Cartesian form, x+ iy, orin polar coordinate form, thatis, in terms of its modulus and argument, Representa complex number by a point on an Argand diagram, and draw simple loci in the complex plane.Example 1 Find the complex roots of the quadratic equation x’ + 2x+3=0. yatta noo 2 /8 Use the quadratic formula, 28 Se 2 Gite of the factors. 2 24 aT Note ~~ -2422J1 2 le y2VA rary 142i or 145) and -1-Vi Denote the value of /=ias Of course, i does not actually exist, but you can perform calculations using the simple rule that i?=—1. So, to find the complex roots (in the form a + ib) of quadratic equations where jis very occasionally used in there are no real roots (b* — 4ac is strictly less than zero), you factorise the Place of i. negative root by /=1 and then denote JI as i, Itis common to use x + jy to represent an unknown complex number, and in turn, zis used to represent x-+ iy. So, when the unknown in an equation is a complex number, you denote it by z. Ina similar way, you can use w to represent a second unknown complex number, where w=u + iv, The complex conjugate ‘The complex number x — iy is called the complex conjugate of x+ iy, and is, denoted by z* or. For example, 2 —3/is the complex conjugate of 2 +3i, and the complex conjugate of -8 ~ 9iis -8 +i. Ifz=x+iy is aroot of a quadratic equation which has real coefficients, then z*=x—iyis also a root of the equation, where z*is the conjugate of z ‘You saw this in Example 1, where the solutions of the quadratic x* + 2x +3=0 were found to be -1 + /2i and -1 - V2i. Example 2 Solve 2-42 + 40=0. to fig—Te0 _ 4412 at is 160 _ eu Use the quadratic formula, Roots are 2 +6i.Exercise 1 @ simplify cach of these. a’ bit cr © Express each ofthese complex numbers in the form a+ib a 342/71 b 6-3V1 © 4+ 99 a S100 - Jt @ Waite the complex conjugate of when zis a 344i Db 2-6 © 4-31 @ Find the solution of each of these equations. ae 4art7=0 b v+2r+6=0 @ Solve each of these equations. a f422+d=0 b 2-32+6=0 © 2tezt1=0 2.2 Calculating with complex numbers ‘When you work with complex numbers you can use the same algebraic methods that you would use with ‘ordinary’ numbers. $o, you cannot combine the real number part of a complex number with the i-term. For example, 2 +31 cannot be simplified. For two complex numbers to be equal, both the real parts must be equal and the imaginary parts must be equal. his is a necessary condition for the equality of two complex numbers. Hence, ifa+ib= c+ id, then a=cand b= x=2andy=3. | For example, if2+3i=x-+ iy, then Addition and subtraction ‘When adding two complex numbers, add the real terms and separately add the terms. For example, (+71) + (4-61) = +4)+ (7-61) =THi Generally, for complex numbers: > (etiy)+(utiv)=(e+u) +i(y +0) for addition > (x+iy)-(u+iv) =(x—u) +i(y—v) for subtraction. Complex NumbersExample 3 Subtract 8 —4ifrom 7 +-2i, 742i -(8-4i)=7-8 + (2i+4i) 1467 Sometimes you will need (o compare the real and imaginary parts of complex numbers in order to find the required solution. Example 4 Find x and yifx-+ 2i-+ 2(3-Siy) =8-13i, x+6=8 = quate the real terms. 2—10y=-13 => 15=10y 1 => ysd 2 Equate imaginary terms. Multiplication For multiplication of complex numbers, apply the general algebraic method for multiplication. Example 5 Simplify (2 + 3i)(4 —5i) = 2(4 —5i) + 31(4 —5i). (2+3i)(4=5i) =2(4 = 51) +3i(4 — 51) =8-10/+12/-157* 1, 8-10i+ 121-15 x-1 Since i*=: = 10i+12i+15 = 23425 Generally, for the multiplication of complex numbers, (a+ ib)(c+id) =ac—bd + i(ad +be) since #=-1. Htcan be simpler to multiply out the numbers every ‘time than to memorise thisDivision ‘To be able to divide by a complex number, you have to change it to a real number. Take, for example, the. fraction +3, Recall from your A-level Mathematics course that you can simplify an expression such as rd ‘by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by 1— ¥3. Similarly, to simplify an expression such as = you multiply its numerator and its denominator by 4 —5i, which is the complex conjugate of the denominator. Thus, 243i _ (2430(4-5), 455i (4+51(4-5i) _8412i—10/—15# =i 232i Note ~ 16425 iy? 8 m3 “(5 =-(-25)= To divide by a complex number, write the calculation as a fraction, and multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by the complex conjugate of the divisor. Example 6 34i Simplify 7 Note 341 _ 407430) SEE 7-31 (7 3i)(7 +31) _ 21+ Ti+ 91437 3 Mutiply the numerator and aieiei3 denominator ofthe fraction a7 teias by the complex conjugate of fo48 7-34, which is 743i, 18 16 58 58 a2 485 or 1orai 29" 29 29 Equations involving complex conjugates Equations involving complex conjugates can be solved by writing z = @ + bi, and equating real and imaginary parts. Example 7 Solve 2242" =1-i Complex NumbersIfz=a+tib, then2a+2bi+a—bi Write z in the general form Equating real and imaginary parts: 3a = 1, and substitute in z and z* in ‘Therefore the equation given. Exercise 2 @ simplify each of these. a (844i) + (2-62) b (-7+3i)+(8-4i) © 2-41+3(-1+2i) © Evaluate each of these expressions. a GB+I2+3i) b (4-21(5+31) © i(2-ai(i+a) © Express each of these fractions in the form a + ib, where a, be R. 243 p At3t +i Bai @ Solve each of these equations in x and y. a xtiy=4—21 b xtiy+3~2 © xtys ttt 2 @ te=243; find the value of +, @ Findzwhen a 2e+2'=946i b 32-52" © 72-32" = 446i d 32-62" 2.3 Argand diagram ‘The Argand diagram is a graphical representation of complex numbers. Itis away to represent complex numbers on a graph that looks like a real, two-dimensional graph. In the Argand diagram, the complex number a+ ib i represented by the point (a, b). Real numbers are represented on the x-axis and imaginary numbers, on the y-axis, Therefore, the general complex number (x+ iy) is represented by the point (x, ), In an Argand diagram, the position of the complex conjugate z* can always be obtained by reflecting the point representing z inthe real axis. Example 8 Represent the complex number 2 + 3/on an Argand diagram. Show its complex conjugate. Complex Numbers2.4 3/is represented by the point P(2, 3). Im, 3 9702.3) 2.+ iis represented by the point P(2, 3). The complex conjugate is 2~3i, which is represented by the point P’(2, -3). 3 °F) Polar form of complex numbers Im, ‘The form of the complex number you have seen so far, 2=x+ iy, isknown as the PG) Cartesian form. This can be easily plotted on an Argand diagram to find its modulus and argument. a The position of point P(x, y) on the Argand diagram can be given in terms of OP, the distance of P from the origin (the modulus), and 6, the angle in the anticlockwise sense that OP makes with the positive real axis (the argument). ‘The length of the line OP is the modulus of z and is denoted by r= [dj itis always taken to be positive, ‘The angle 6 (normally in radians) is the argument of z, denoted by arg z. The \cipal value of @is taken to be between —and n. Connection between the Cartesian form and the polar form From the diagram, cos @andy=rsin@ So, zuxtiy=rcos@+irsind So, the Cartesian form can now be written using the polar form as2=r(cos6+isin®) Also, @ can be found using tan 0 = Z, Take care when either x or yis negative. (See part b in Example 9.) Complex NumbersExample 9 Find the modulus and argument of each of these complex numbers. rs Sketch a diagram to help, a 242.31 bo aim, 92 + (23)* " ap wn ty8=7 Remember that the angle is measured anticlockwise from the postive real axis ‘The modulus of -1-iis JP +1 = V2. ‘Ihe angle 6 is +. Therefore, the argument {the angle in Example 9 is measured anticlockwise from ‘the positive real axis, its value is =, but ths is not between rand —7. Thus, you take the clockwise angle, which is ©. The minus sign denotes thatthe angle is measured in Example 10 Hretclocearieeeoneal is-e+ Sa Express the complex number z given by modulus 4 and argument * in the form + tb, where a and b are real numbers. Using =r cos@,x=4 cos © Usingy=rsind, y= Asin =2 V5. o & 5 Hence z=2+2i V3. Exercise 3 @ Represent each of these on an Argand diagram. a 242i b -3437 © -2+2\ 31 d -l-i e4i f 5+12% g-4 h 6+ Vi3i @ Find the modulus and the argument of each of the complex numbers in question 1. Complex Numbersre © Given that z=3+4i, a. calculate iz ie b find la ii (24 al © evaluate i argz ii age iii arg? © Express the complex number zin its a + ib form when a [2|=2andargz—= 3 & 4 b [e|=4andargz +2i +4 © Given that z= 3p aj’ ind the modulus and argument of . 2.4 Loci in the complex plane ‘You know from your previous work on vector geometry that the vector ab connects the point with position vector b to the point with position vector a, im, Similarly, in the complex plane, z ~z, joins the point z, to the point z. From the diagram, OC ‘Therefore, CP =CO+0P mate Using this fact, you can identify a number of loci that you need to learn and recognise. lz-zl=r e~z\|is the modulus or length of z~z,, that is, the length of the line joining z, to avariable point z ‘Therefore, |2—z,|=ris the locus of a point z, moving so that the length of the line joining a fixed point z, to zis always r. Hence, the locus of zis a A , a citcle, with centre 2, and radius r Re oe ld=r In the special case in which z, origin, and its radius is r. ), the centre of the circle becomes the Example 11 State and sketch the locus of z~2 ~3i|=3. Complex Numbers3, which is a circle of centre (2, 3) and radius 3, ‘The locus is [z -(2+38)] Img Convert [z 2 ~3i| to le —(2+ 31] since the form above is always writen as 3) 02.3) Jz=z;|.When sketching this, locus, show clearly that the citele touches the x-axis and cuts the y-axis twice ‘The point z satisfies the equation of this locus when the line joining 2, to zhas argument6, So, the locus is the half-line, starting at 2, inclined at @ to the real axis. (Itis called a half-line because you only want the part of the line that starts at z,) Example 12 State and sketch the locus of arg (2-2) = * real axis. Im, ‘This locus is the half-line starting at (2, 0), inclined at an angle of tothe a Re Im, 20) Iz-z) =lz-z,] ‘The line joining zto z, is equal in length to the line joining zto z,, Therefore, the locus of zis the perpendicular bisector of the line joining z, to z,. Complex NumbersExample 13 State the locus of z~3+ =[e~2i e-(@-a]= [2-24 Im, (0,2) BA) ® ‘The locus is the perpendicular bisector ofthe line joining 3 ~ ito +2i. Example 14 ‘On the same diagram, show the locus of z when a |e-4[=4 b ange = ©. Find the point that satisfies both loci ab Usually it is possible to find ‘a.common point on two separate loci by using simple geometry and common sense. In this example, the point (4, 4) can readily be F seen to be on both loci. To calculate a common point may involve complicated The point that satisfies both loci is (4, 4) or (444i). algebra. Example 15. f Find the locus of The Cartesian form of a complex number, 2=x-+ iy, can be easily plotted on an Argand diagram (o find its modulus and argument, The modulus is [2] and the argument is 6, the angle in the anticlockwise sense from the positive real axis. When the modulus and argument are given, the complex number is said to be in polar form, > The Cartesian form of a complex number can also be written in terms ofthe polar form (thats, in terms of its modulus and argument) z=r(cos 0+ isin 6). The angle @can be found using tan @ =? > Generally, for complex numbers in polar form, to find the: + Product of two complex numbers, multiply their moduli and add their arguments + Quotient of two complex numbers, divide their moduli and subtract, their arguments, > Some loci in the complex plane that you need to recognise are: - i © |e-21 + argle—z)=0 © fe-2=[e— Review exercises @ simplify each of these. a (843) —(74+2i) b (4215431) © i(2-ai+a) © Express each of these fractions in the form a+ ib, where a, be B. ow + @ i2=3+;, find the value of ++, z @ Find the solution of each of these equations. a 2xt+6x+9=0 b x ~5x+25=0 © Find zwhen a |e+2+2i]= 20 b |z+3-V3i|=2V3 © 2%z-iJ=3 @ Sketch the locus of zwhen a agz=7 © arg(e+2) @ Sketch the locus of zwhen z-4i z44 © [el=4andarge = 5 b [e[=1andargz= 2-51 ae4i Q Given thacz , find the modulus and argument of z. Complex NumbersPractice examination questions @ Find the complex number z such that Siz + 32'+ 16 = 8 Give your answer in the form a+ bi, where aand bare real. (6 marks) AQA MEP] June 2014 @ a Solve the equation w* +61 +34 = 0, giving your answers in the form p+ qi, where p and q are integers. (3marks) b_ Itis given that z = i(1 + i)(2 +i) i. Express zin the form a + bi, where aand bare integers. (3 marks) ii. Find integers m and n such that 2+ mz" = ni (3marks) AQA MFP] January 2013 © tis given that z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers, a. Find, in terms of xand y, the real and imaginary parts of, i(2+7)+3(e -9. (3marks) b Hence find the complex number z such that, i(z+7) +302" -A)=0. (3 marks) AQA MFPI June 2012 Q itis given that z= + ty, where xand yare rel. a. Find, in terms of xand y, the real and imaginary parts of (@-ie - 9). (3 marks) b_ Given that (2~ i)(z'~i) =24 ~8i find the two possible values of z. (4marks) AQA MFP] June 2011 @ Wo loci, L, and L, in an Argand diagram are given by 1 :|2+6-5i] = 42 3a a. ‘The point P represents the complex number ~2+ i Fy sargle +2 a Verify that the point Pis a point of intersection of Land L, (2 marks) b> Sketch J, and L, on one Argand diagram. (6 marks) € The point Qis also a point of intersection of 1, and I, Find the complex number that is represented by Q. (2marks) AQA MEP? January 2013 @ @ Drawon an Argand diagram: i. the locus of points for which | ~2~3i)=2 (3 marks) ii the locus of points for which |z + 2-7] =|z-2) (3 marks) b Indicate on your diagram the points satisfying both |z ~ 2~ 3/|=2 and |z-+2~i| <|z—2h (mark) AQA MEP2 June 2012 Complex NumbersaN . a me ts of a Quadratic Equatio/ Introduction Objectives Quadratic equations are used to model events in the real world. For By the end of this chapter, example, ifyou assume that the number of items sold decreases linearly you should know: with the price of each item, then the total revenue is a quadratic function. > How to use the ‘The height ofa tennis ball thrown into the air can be modelled using a relationship between quadratic function of time. Indeed, quadratic equations are an important the roots and the part of mathematics. coefficients ofa quadratic equation. Howto create an equation that Recap has roots related You will need to remember. ferneren seca > How to solve quadratic equations using the formula or by factorisation. given equation; » Howto expand expressions such as (o.+)? and (a+) using for example, ifan algebraic identities. equation has roots Algebraic identities such as: aand B, you should Cube of a binomial (a+ b)’ = a’ + b+ 3a%b + 3ab* be able to find an Square of a binomial (a b)*=a*+2ab + b* caution oo Difference of squares (a—b)(a+ b)= a? —b* ce Sum of cubes (a+b)(a~ab+b?)= a+b’. 3.1 Roots of a quadratic equation ‘You know that the roots of a polynomial equation in x are the values of x that make that polynomial equation equal to zero. If @and Bare the roots of a quadratic equation {(x) = ax’ + bx+¢=0, then it follows that the equation must be of the form f(x) = k(x ~ «(x ~) for some constant k. Equating these two forms of a quadratic equation makes it possible to establish arelationship between the roots of a quadratic and the coefficients of that quadratic. Kx o)(x-B) — sax'+bx+c => ke [ot flx+ of) =axt+ bet Equating the coefficients of x gives k= a. Equating the coefficients of x gives (a+ f)=b. Equating the constants gives ko=c. ed Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation[{_™ £m Cem ec cm ‘Iherefore, and op =£ Given a quadratic equation ax’ + bx + c=0, the sum of the roots is — 2 a+ p= and the product of the roots is ©. From this, it follows that you can also write the quadratic equation as x8 ~(sum of roots)x+ (product of roots) = 0. ‘The relationship between the roots and the coefficients of a quadratic can be used to help you find the sum and product of the roots if given the equation, or to find the equation if given the sum and product of the roots. Example 1 For the equation 3¢°—7x+ 11 = athe sum of the roots b the product of the roots. a Since a+ B gr the sum of the roots is a + B b Since of the product of the roots is. op Example 2 Find a quadratic equation whose roots have a sum of ; anda product of 4 o Use x? — (sum of roots): + or2x*—x-5=0 (product of roots) = 0. Example 3 ‘The equation x* +9x+5=Ohas roots wand f. a Write the value of o + 8 and the value of a. b Show that 2(a +B) =-18. a a+p b (a+ B)=2x-9=-18 For some questions, you will first need to rearrange the equation into the standard form ax*+ bx +.¢=0. Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equationrs ar Example 4 For the equation x +5 5 and ~7 respectively. 2, show that the sum and the product of the roots are aes) x tasx-720 First write the equation inthe wees standard form by mutiplying Sum of roots= 0+ 6 = fe 5 by xcand rearranging, c Product of roots = af = Exercise 1 @ Find the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations. a 843x-7=0 b x-lix+5=0 © x845x—4=0 do 3y4r+2 © Write a quadratic equation whose roots have the sum and the product, given below. a Sum 7; product 15 b sum -3; product 5 © sum—2; produet—4 sum ~5; product —11. @ Write the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations. art b 2xt=7-4x Jk wie © x-7 dd 8=-3x'4 24-7 @ Show that the sum and product of the equation —x*+4x=7 are 4 and7 respectively. 3,2 Finding an equation with roots that are a function of existing roots Ifan equation has roots «and B, you can use the sum and product of the roots to find equations with roots that are functions of a and f. First you need. to express the new sum and product of the roots in terms of or+ Band off by manipulating algebraic identities. Then you substitute in the values of + Band afi to find the new sum and product, and hence the new equation. Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic EquationExample 5 ‘Substitute the values of ‘The equation 4x? + 7x —5 =0 has roots ctand f. c+ Band off in the right- Find the equation whose roots are a and fi. hand side, Because 4 —7s—-5=0, a+ B=—1 and af = First find the values of the ‘sum and product of the roots of the given equation, ‘Sum of the new roots: a + B*=(or+ B)'—2a8 zy 5 _ 89 24pr-(-1) -2 89 iia ee Lo Because (c+ 2ap + fe Product of the new roots: af? = (a)? oduct of the new roots: oe? = (of Note (8) 28 (oY =|-F) =F5 ‘Substitute in the value for orf. 47 16 a9 25 ‘Therefore, the new equationis x* - 2x +2 16 16 or 16x* 89x +25=0. Example 6 ‘The equation 3x + 8x~4=0has roots crand . Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients whose roots are a? and f. tr a+ B=-~ and of. 3 Use the identity (a+ 0 +B =(a+ f) ~3ceB-3af* a acca = (a+ B)—3 oflors B) 3 Sum of new roots is, fa Factorise so the expression is interms of o-+ Band of. Product of the new roots is a? =(a(B)'= Therefore, the new equation is a (-2)= att oS 2a se 200 6 a7 oF Alternatively, you could give 27x* + 800x~64=0. Example 7 The equation 3x + 8x—4=0 has roots cand B. Find the equation whose roots, 1 are 4 and 4. a Roots and Coeffi nts of a Quadratic EquationBx? + 8x) =Ohas roots rand , Substituting y=+, we find that Ht - has roots Land $ ar ‘Therefore 3 +8y—4y'=Ohas roots + and +. ‘Simplifying, 4y*—8x— Alternatively, 4x —8x-3=0. ‘Ohas the required roots. Example 8 ‘The equation 3x* + 8x—4=0 has roots aand B. Find the quadratic equation. with integer coefficients whose roots are a+ j and B+ =. res 8 a+ B=—5 and ap =—+ 2002 2,2 Sum ofthe new 20018: 1+ 4B (at Bs TF - Bro Har Dee Product of the new roots: (« +2 B ‘Therefore, the new equation is x*- 0. Alternatively, 3x? — 4x — Exercise 2 @ ihe equation 4x? +7x—5 = 0 has roots wand fi. Find an equation whose roots are a and f*, © The equation 5x* +7x -12 = 0 has roots a and f. a Write the value of c+ Band the value of of. 69 b Show that a? + p* =—. ow that Bao © The equation 3x? + 5x — 6 = 0 has roots «and f. Find an equation whose roots are + and 5. @ 18 cand B are the roots of the equation x* ~ 5x + 3 = 0, find the values of a a+B b a+ pe © +p Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic Equation@ The quadratic equation x? — 4x +9= 0 has roots wand B. a Write the value of a + and the value of of. b 1 ind a quadratic equation which has roots 7+" and § Bi. @ The quadratic equation 4x? - 9x +8 = 0 has roots cand B. a Write the value of a-+ and the value of of. b Find a quadratic equation, with integer coefficients, which has roots a+ Band B+ B*. Summary > Fora quadratic equation of the form ax’ + hx + ¢ = 0 with two roots (and B, the relationship between the roots and the coefficients of the equation is as follows + The sum of the roots is +8 a +The product of the roots is a =< > The relationship between the roots and the coefficients can be used to find the sum and product of the roots if given the equation, or to find the equation if given the sum and product ofthe roots > fan equation has roots cand , you can use the sum and product of the roots to find equations with roots that are functions of and Bby expressing the new sum and product ofthe roots in terms of «+ Band of. and substituting in their values. Review exercises @ Write the sum and the product of the roots of each of these equations, 1 a x+3 b 3x'=12-2r x © The equation 2x? + 7x +8=0 has roots wand B. a Write the value of or+ Band the value of af Ww 1b Showthat a + B* 4 © The equation 3x? + 12x—7=0 has roots o-and Find a quadratic equation ‘whose roots are a+ Z and B+ 2. @ he quadratic equation 6x* ~ 8x+3= 0 has roots cand f. a Write the value of «+ i and the value of af, b Showthat a? +f = + © Find a quadratic equation with integer coefficients which has roots a+ B and a+ Br. Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic EquationPractice examination questions @ the equation 2x? + 3x—6 = 0) has roots «and B. a Write down the value of a+ and the value of af (marks) 1b Hence show that a +f" = % (3 marks) Find a quadratic equation, with integer coefficients, whose roots are a+ Sand psf, (6 marks) AQA MFPI June 2013 © Ihe quadratic equation 5x? —7x +1=0 has roots a and B. a Write down the value of + Band the value of of. (2 marks) b Showthat ~ +8 a (S marks) ¢ Find a quadratic equation, with integer coefficients, which has roots a+ {and f +4. (6 marks) AQA MFP1 June 2012 © Me quadratic equation 2x? +7x+8=0 has roots wand B. a Write down the value of o-+ land the value of af. (2 marks) bb Showthat @? +f? = a (2marks) © Finda quadratic equation, with integer coefficients, which has roots. = and ¥F (5 marks) AQA MFP] January 2012 @ ihe equation 4x* +6x+ has roots aand f. Write down the value of or+ f and the value of of. (2marks) b Show that a + f* (2marks) © Find an equation, with integer coefficients, which has roots 30 ~ fi and 3p a. (Smarks) AQA MEP! June 2011 @ The quadratic equation x* ~ 6x +18~=0 has roots wand B. For part ¢, you will need to a Write down the value of o:+ f and the value of af. (@marks) | draw on your knowledge of complex numbers and complex conjugates; see Chapter 2 Complex Numbers for a reminder if you need to, b Finda quadratic equation, with integer coefficients, which has roots @ and f°. (4marks) © Hence find the values of and /. (mark) AQA MEPI January 2011 Roots and Coefficients of a Quadratic EquationIntroduction Objectives tis likely that you will recognise series from your earliest school days, By the end of this chapter, particularly triangular numbers: 1, 3,6, 10, 15.... The nth triangular number | | you should know how to: is the sum 14+2+3+4+...4.1.In this chapter, you will generalise the > Use formulae to concept of summing series, for example to find the sum of the first determine the sum squares or cubes. Summing squares is a useful tool when finding lines of of the squares and best fit, cubes of the natural numbers. Sum mixed sums such Recap as Er?(r+2). You will need to remember how to. : ‘Add finite sums > Read and use sigma notation, for example ))1=7 +1 using the method of differences > Use simple formulae for summation notation, such as: ‘Add various infinite + Sea =e}, a where cis any number series using i ae the method of + Y@en-> differences. cs me > Determine the impact of limits, for example, as 11 ++ =, you should be able to say what happens to +. 4.1 Summation formulae ‘You know from your A-level Mathematics studies that a series is the sum of the terms in a sequence. You will have used formulae to help you find the sum of arithmetic and geometric progressions. ‘There will be times, however, when you need to find the sum of a series thatis, not as familiar to you, In these cases, you will need to use a different set of summation formulae. Important summation formulae Gen 1 Dray nee The first three are given in the Formulae and Statistical Tables booklet,‘A.useful summation formula that you should already know is x ‘You can use these formulae to find the sums of many series. Split the given term into parts (by breaking up the summation across the sum or difference) and factor out any constants before applying the relevant summation formula, When the upper limicis given as n, you will find the sum as a polynomial expression. =141414--+1=n (total of n terms of I). Example 1 Find the sum of )’ (4r* +1), Split the term into its parts using yreya Ye@+n=-Ya+de / & mm Yar sy- ‘Therefore Di1=n since you are Sar eneaxt = Yer += 4x enn =1Qn= Den summing 7 copies of 1) =Fn(n+an+ien [2n(n+1)(2n-+1)+3n] > Sar sy= nfa(n + Qn +1) +3] ‘Therefore, Yur w= stan? 4+6n+5) Example 2 Find the sum of )' (2r? +37 +1) ard Split the term into its parts ‘Therefore and factor out the constants, Yer +37 +)=2x« ; (n+l) +3x EmOeDOn+)+n n Note = Finn +0! (n+ Gn +1) +2] bing ey Deer +r +1 = Fen ean! san +3)Example 3 Find the value of) (4r’ 3). y aw -3)= Sar -9-Sar -3) ea Lo ¥ ars) aN P35 1- . Split the given term into its Sara ae (: | Es =x Lenny -axan-[ txts! an] =4n(2n +1)? ~6n— (n+ 124 3n =4n'(4n? + 4n+ 1) —n*(nt+2n+1)-3n = m(15n* + 14n+3)-3n Each term must be split into ‘the sum from 1 to 2n; then ‘subtract the sum from 1 to n. ‘Therefore, D rs) =15n'+ Man’ + 3°30 When you are given the value of the end term, you will need to find the value of, the sum rather than a polynomial expression. Example 4 wind (+2) ro ‘herefore Y) (r* +2) 20. Exercise 1 Q Bnd Yer +20). Q wna Yer +. @ kina Yorvne-2). Orind Sear-ver+s) 0 ~-4.2 Method of differences For some series, it is possible to use the method of differences to find the sum ofa finite series because most of the terms cancel out. You will usually be given a relationship, which you may be asked to prove, and then each term of the series you are trying to sum is split into two terms which will cancel out. In Example 5 you will see how to use a given identity r= Z[r(r+1) -(r—Dr] to find the sum) r. ‘There is no expectation that you will ‘guess’ the initial identity. Rather, insert r= into the given identity, then insert r=2 into the given identity, then insert r=3and so on until you can see clearly which pairs of terms cancel with each other. ‘Then you have to ensure that you notice which terms at the end of the series do not cancel with the earlier terms, Example 5 Use the identity r=—[r(r+ 1) ~(rDr] to find the sum 2 Making the given substitution, we obtain x Lire (r-Dr) whine oxi) +3@x3— 12) +h axa 2x3)+ + F101= 1yn (= 2)'n=1)] +31) (=D) 1 1 1 1 1 1 302) FOX) 4-23) — (1 2) + 184) FS) Ho + Fem Dyn— F-23001) + Sn 1) Fn D)n re Therefore We notice that almost all the Yrebeoxtsntnen) terms cancel one another out. 1 = nnst Enin+1) Finding the sum of infinite series using differences An infinite series is a sum such as (+ ~-1_), which looks like the sum of ma infinitely many terms. Of course, you are not expected to add infinitely many terms. Instead, you are expected to find the limit as 7 —> © of the partial sums YE sh). provided that this limit exists. if the limit of partial sums exists, then we can say that the series converges and can give the value of the sum of the infinite series. Ifit does not, we say that the series does not converge. By definition, > {(r) = lim }' £(+), provided this limit exists. SeriesExample 6 Determine whether the sum ( 1 4) exists, Ifit does, give its value. Alor + El eee As before, do not simplify atl ‘each term so that you can tell ‘Therefore, the infinite series converges and 1 Lael - which terms will cancel Exercise 2 @ show that r(r+D(r+2)- (r= Drlr +1) = 3r(r +), Hence find the sum of the series }r(r +1). Show that rr +1N(r+2)(r+3)= (r= Dele + Dr +2) = arr + Y(F+2) Hence find the sum of the series }yr(r +1)(r-+2). + 2x? + 3x9 +--+ +nx* find S — x*S. Use this result to find the sum S72", Q Find the value of A for which (27 +1)? ~ (27-1)? = Ar. Hence find > . Summary > Split the given term into parts (by breaking up the summation across the sum or difference) and factor out any constants before applying the relevant summation formula. > These formulae can be adjusted to change the start and end points of the values of r, Series» You can also find the sum of a series using the method of differences. > Insome cases, itis possible to extend summations to infinite sums, because the partial sums converge. Review exercises QO kina Sorsay. @ kina Yer- 1N(r-5). Q stow nar (rer Practice examination questions @ Use the formulae for ye Pand ve 1 tofind the value of Sre- 6) (4marks) AQA MEP] June 2014 orb and Renee Boal >! Fert © @ Use the formulae for )) * and }) to show that DP Gr—3)= ke (n +1) 2n? =1) where kis a constant. (5 marks) b Hence evaluate )” r(4r—3). (2 marks) > AQA MFP] January 2012 @ @ Showthat > * yy can be expressed in the form. kn (n+1)(an’ +bn +c)where kis a rational number and a, b and c are integers. (4marks) b_ Show that there is exactly one positive integer n for which br yy -0yr (Smarks) ia AQA MFPI January 2010 @ @ Given that f(r) = r°(2r° 1), show that f(r) f(r—1) = @r-1)) (3 marks) b_ Use the method of differences to show that Y er-1)' =3n°(10n" 1) (4marks) " AQA MFP2 June 2013 @ @ Giventhat f(r) = | r'(r +1), showthat f(1)— flr =r". (3 marks) b_ Use the method of differences to show that P= Fat ISn+) (5 marks) = AQA MFP2 January 2009 Q @ Given that f(r) = (r- 17", show that f(r +1) f(r) =rGr+1), (marks) b_ Use the method of differences to find the value of Stare) (4marks) — AQA MEP2 June 2007 SeriesYe Trigonometry Introduction ‘Trigonometric functions such as sin x are periodic. The equation sinx hhas one solution in a calculator, but as sin is periodic it actually must have infinitely many solutions. In this chapter, you will learn how to find all the solutions of standard trigonometric equations. These methods can be applied to many situations in which an oscillation occurs. Recap You will need to remember how to. > Understand angles given in radians or degrees. > Use your calculator to solve equations such as sinx= > The general solution of cos 0 = xis given by: + 0=360n° + cos” x for any integer n, if @ and cos x are measured in degrees + 0=2nn+ cos” x for any integer n, if @and cos“! x are measured in radians > The general solution of sin 0 = xis given by: + 0=360n? + sin"! xand @=360n° + 180° sin“! x for any integer n, if 8 and sin xare measured in degrees + 0=2nn+ sin? xand 0=2nn+ m—sin" xfor any integer n, if and sin” x are measured in radians > The general solution of tan 0= xis given by: + 0=180n° + tan xfor any integer n, if @and tan x are measured in degrees + O=nn-+ tan” x for any integer n, if @ and tan” x are measured in radians. In general calculators are used to find the values of the trigonometric ratios; however in some cases you should be able to recall certain ratios. ‘These values are given in the table. ‘Angle(°) Radians —_Sin@ Cos @ Tan@ 0 o 0 1 | o 1 Be 1 % i, & ] 4 2 2 v3 : z 1 1 6 4 a x 3 1 6 E & L ESE: x 90 Cs 1 0 not defined oe Trigonometry Objectives By the end of this chapter, you should know how to: » Find general solutions to trigonometric equations such as sinx=a, where a isa given number between -1 and 1 Find the general solution of similar equations that are given in terms of cosine or tangent. B5.1 General solutions of trigonometric equations You already know that itis possible to solve the equation cos@ = } in a number of ways, including using a calculator to find the solution 60° and then using the graphs of y= cos @and y = | to obtain the other solutions. When you are asked to find solutions, itis normally within a given range. When there are several solutions to find, this method can be very time-consuming and as a result tends to lead to errors. ‘Trigonomettic functions are periodic (cosine and sine repeat every 360° and tangent repeats every 180°). Since there is at least one solution of cos there will in fact be infinitely many solutions of that equation. Away to find more than one solution of trigonometric equations, or indeed to find an infinite number, is to use the general solution for that trigonometric equation. The general solution of a given trigonometric equation is one that applies to all the values of @ that satisfy the equation. General solutions for cosine curves When cos@ = 3, youcan use the graph of y= cos 0 to see that the solutions for @are 300°, ~60°, 60%, 300°, 420°, 660%, 780", 1020°, 140°, which can be written as, --1 ~ 360° + 60°, -60°, 60°, 360° ~ 60°, 360° + 60°, 720° ~ 60°, 720° + 60°, 1080° 60°, 1080° + 60 Notice that for each of the solutions, @= 360n° + 60° for any integer n. T sis° 360°? ‘To summarise, ‘The general solution of cos @=cos ais given by 360n° orfor any integer n, where @and care measured in degrees 2nmt acfor any integer n, where @and care measured in radians. ‘You can use the general solution to solve any equation involving cos @= cos a ‘You start by removing the cos ccterm by finding one solution using your calculator, then substituting this value into the general solution in order to find all the other solutions. Trigonometry oeExample 1 Use your calculator to find the @=360n° +45° first solution (45°). Use different integer values. When =0, 0=45°. Substtute o.= 45" into the of muntl you have found all Wh on 31seor 40s" general slton, the solutions in the required jen SM OE S154 oF 405 = 360n" + c range. When. 2, 0= 675°. ‘There are four solutions: 0: 5°, 315%, 405° and 675°. Example 2 Find the values of @ in radians from 0 to 47 for which cos = 0. Use your calculator to find the first solution (a). Substitute c= # into the general solution Example 3 Res 2 Find the values of @ from 0° to 360° for which cos 50= oven So, with a= 30°, 50 =360n° + 30° => 0 =72n°+6° ‘Therefore, values on a graphing calculator, When n=0, 0=6° When n=3, 0=210° or 222° after having selected the correct range or view window. 0 Trigonometry (continued)(continued) When n=1, @=66° or 78° == Whenn 282° or 294° ‘When n=2, @= 138° or 150° When n 354° ‘There are 10 solutions: 6= 6°, 66°, 78°, 138°, 150°, 210°, 222°, 282°, 294° and 354°, for @are 1 -330°, -210%, 30%, 150°, 390°, 510°, 750°, ..., which can be written as 360° + 30°, 180° — 30°, 30°, 180° - 30°, 360° + 30*, 540° — 30%, 720° + 30°, . HO) y=sing ‘To summarise, ‘The general solution of sin @ =sin aris given by 180n°+(-1)" aefor any integer n, where @and gare measured in degrees > @=nn+(-1)" cfor any integer n, where @and care measured in radians. ‘You can apply this general solution in the same way you did for cos @= cos a Example 4 c= 4 Find the values of 6 between 0° and 720° for which sin 0 Gi onan (8 ) =60° CED @= 180n° +(-1)"60° ‘Therefore, When n=0, 0= 60° Use the general solution, When n=1, 0= 180° — 60° = 120° = 180n" + (A)ra. When n=2, 0= 360° + 60° = 420° When n=3, @= 540° — 60° = 480° When n= 4, 0=720° + 60° =780° @= 780" is out of the required range, Trigonometry 6 ‘Therefore, there are four solutions: @= 60°, 120°, 420° and 480°Example 5 Find the values of @between 0° and 360° for which sin 30= ¥ Question cs 1 asin (Jp) = With o=45°, The general solution is an Divide both sides by 3to equation in 30. make a general solution in 36 = 180° +(—1)"45° aie. => 0 =60n"+ (115 ‘Therefore, When n=0,@=15° Whenn=3, 0=165° When n=1,0=45° Whenn=4, 0=255° When n=2, 0= 135° When n=5, 0=285° ‘There are six solutions: 6= 15°, 45°, 135°, 165°, 255° and 285°. General solutions for tangent curves When tan 6= 1, you can find from the graph of y=tan @ that the solutions for @ are , “135°, 45°, 225°, 405°, . ‘You can see that @= 180n" + 45° for any integer n. yO) 180° 225° 270° 338360" ‘The general solution of tan @=tan ais given by > @=180n°+afor any integer n, where @and aare measured in degrees |= nx + axfor any integer n, where @and care measured in radians. ‘The general solution can be used as before. TrigonometryExample 6 Find the values between 0 and 27tfor which tan 4x=—J/3. (Tr tan (—V3) ‘The general solution has the form 0 = n+ a, which in this case gives © 3 4x= mm = 3 nom n-= a” 12 ‘Therefore, the solutions are > 6 17m 5a. 4230 (and 2’ 3 2 Exercise 1 For Questions I to4 a find the general solution in iradians ii degrees b find the solutions, in degrees, that lie within the interval 0° to 360°. © Find the general solution in radians of the equation tan = = 5.2 Solving equations involving more complicated terms Example 7 Find the general solution for x, in radians, of sin (2 + & aesint(= = Substitute the value of ot into 2 the general solution and create General solution of sinx an equation in as.) xenn+(-1a ® * 3x+ = =na+(-1" — 3 cy 2 Gm Co 7 cam Fup ay® You could then use this, Hence sxsnn— 3 +I general solution for diferent wen™ 2 g(ayh value ofr to find a range of 39 6 solutions as before. Trigonometry 6Trigonometric powers such as sin? x and trigonometr Given an equation involving sin* x you should first try to find the value of the underlying trigonometzical function. So, in the case of sin® x you would first find the value of sin x. It might be necessary to use trigonometrical identities such as sin? x + cos*x = 1 Example 8 Find the general solution for 6, in radians, of 4cos*20 +5sin20 = 5. 4c0s?20 + 5sin20 = 5 rer ‘Therefore 4(1 - sin?28) +5sin20=5 C a ) + Ssin: Factorise to get the equation 4-dsin? 2045 sin20-5 Aen 4sin?20— Ssin20+1=0 (sin 20—1)(4sin 20-1) =0 sin20=1or + 4 n 1 siv't= E andsin'( 1) 0258 2 4 General solution with equation in terms of 26: 20=nm-+(—1)" = or 20= nm (-1)"0.253 Equate each factor to zero. ‘Therefore, general solution with equation in terms of &: 0="* +(—1)" > or O= ™* + (-1)"0.126. Exercise 2 @ Find the general solution, in radians, of sin 2x +t) © Find the general solution, in degrees, of cos(x-+ 30°) 1 ve 1 © a Bind the general solution, in radians, of cos{ 3» « 5) 2 b_ Use your general solution to find the solutions in the range 0< x< 4m, © Find the general solution in degrees of cos? + sin 8+1=0. © Find the general solution ofeach equation in radians ii degrees. a tan Z-2x)=1 b cos (3x-1)=-0.2 ¢ awaont 4 sev30scoss0+ © cos 20=cos0—1 @ Find the general solution of sin 2x + e eo Trigonometry colsSummary > Y Trigonomettic functions are periodic, meaning that there are infinitely many solutions to many trigonometric equations; a general solution is one that applies to all the values of @ that satisfy the equation, The general solution of cos 0 = cos «is given by: + 0=360n° + cefor any integer n, where @ and care measured in degrees + @=2nm ecfor any integer n, where @ and care measured in radians So, if @ = x isa solution of cos. = y, then the other solutions are of the form 360n+0 or 2nn +0. The general solution of sin @=sin cris given by: + @=180n° + (-1)*crfor any integer n, where @ and crare measured in degrees + @=nm+(-1)"a.for any integer n, where @ and care measured in radians, So, if @ = xis a solution of sin.x= y, then the other solutions are of the form 360n + 0 or 360n + 180 ~ 0, 2nn+ @or 2nzt 6, ‘The general solution of tan @= tan eis given by: + @=180n° + crfor any integer n, where @ and care measured in degrees + G=nm+ cefor any integer n where 6 and care measured in radians. So, if@ = xis a solution of tan.x = y, then the other solutions are of the form 180n +8 or nz +6. To find a general solution for a given trigonometric equation, first you find one solution, and then you substitute this value into the appropriate general solution to find the rest of the solutions within the required range. ‘When the trigonometric equations are more complicated, first express the equation in terms of sin 8, cos 9 or tan6, as appropriate, then use the corresponding general solution and manipulate as required to get an equation in terms of 6. The general solution of cos 0= xis given by: + 0=360n° + cos"!x for any integer n, if @and cos“ xare measured in degrees + @=2nm+cos"xfor any integer n, if @and cos“x are measured in radians. ‘The general solution of sin @= xis given by: + @=360n° + sin“1x and 6 = 360n° + 180° sin"!x for any integer n, if @ and sin“!x are measured in degrees + 0=2nm-+sin“!xand = 2nm+ n— sin x for any integer n, if @ and sin" x are measured in radians. The general solution of tan = xis given by: + 6=180n° + tan"! xfor any integer n, if @and tan“!x are measured in degrees + @=nm+tan~xfor any integer n, if @and tan~‘x are measured in radians. FP1 ASG) Trigonometry 6Review exercises @ Find the general solution, in degrees, for the equation sin(3x + 20) @ Find the general solution of the equation sin{ 4x — 4} answer in terms of. + giving your © Find the general solution of the equation cos a(x answer in terms of x, @ Find, in radians, the general solution of the equation coy siving your answer in terms of x, © Find the general solution of the equation tan{ 3 in terms of x. giving your answer Practice examination questions @ @ Find the general solution of the equation si ~S giving your answer in terms of 7. (6marks) b_ Use your general solution to find the exact value of the greatest solution of this equation which is less than 61. (2 marks) AQA MEPI January 2013 © Find the general solution of the equation sir ax+4)=1, (4marks) AQA MFPI January 2010 © giving your (Smarks) b_ Use your general solution to find the sum of all the solutions of the ‘equation 0s(5. x—4)=~2 that le in the interval 0 < x $207. Give your answer in the form kr, stating the exact value of k. (4 marks) AQA MEPI June 2014 © a Find the general solution of the equation con(§ x answer for xin terms of 7. @ Find the general solution of the equation sin( ax = 2) —1 giving your answer in terms of x, (6 marks) AQA MEPI January 2011 © Find the general solution of each of the following equations: (4marks) (3marks) AQA MEPI January 2012 8 TrigonometryCalculus Introduction Objectives Calculus can help to explain rates of change such as speed. Ifyou are By the end of this chapter, driving at 140 km/h, you will not realistically be driving 140 km each ‘you should know how to: hour. The reading taken is not your average speed over an hour, nor > Calculate the gradient over a minute, and not even over one second. Instead, calculus helps to ofa tangent to a curve explain that your instantaneous speed is the limit of smaller and smaller ata point, using first measurements of your average speed. principles. Use a small change in xto estimate the corresponding Recap change in y. You will need to remember howto Connect rates of Find the derivative of a function, f(x), and understand that this is the change in order to gradient of the tangent to the graph of y= (x) at a point, and interpret find a desired rate of itas arate of change. change. Differentiate polynomials. Solve some integrals Differentiate functions in the form x", and related sums and with infinite domains. differences, where 7 is a rational number. Understand the gradient of a tangent as a limit. Apply differentiation to gradients, tangents and normal lines, maxima, minima and stationary points, and increasing and decreasing functions. Use the notation of, and calculations of, limits. Integrate polynomials and x”, where nis a rational number not equal to-1, and related sums and differences. Evaluate definite integrals and interpret them as the area under a curve. 6.1 Gradient of a tangent to a curve You should know from previous studies that the derivative of a function ata point Pis the gradient (or slope) of the tangent of the graph at that point. If Pisa point on the curve y = {(x), where f{x) is a simple polynomial, then itis possible to estimate the gradient of the tangent of the curve at point P using first principles, Choose a point on the curve, Q, near to point P. Ihe gradient of the line segment PQis an approximation of the gradient of the tangent to the curve at P. ‘To measure the gradient of the segment PQ, you divide the change in the y-coordinate by the change in the x-coordinate. In differentiation from first Calculus °principles in previous studies, you used dy to denote the small change in the y-coordinate, and &x to denote the small change in the x-coordinate, so the gradient of PQ = 2. ‘he difference in x-coordinate from P to Qis often represented by h. In the limit, as hk approaches 0, in other words, as Q slides closer and closer to P, the gradient of PQ approaches the gradient of the tangent at P. If Pisa point on the curve y=f(x), where f(x) is a simple polynomial, and Qisa point on the curve near to P, the gradient of the curve at Pis gradient PQ=lim &, where his the difference in the x-coordinates from Pto Q. Itis possible to use this fact to differentiate without using the standard formula E@=ne Example 1 concerns a specific point on a curve, and Example 2 shows how the method can be used for a general point on a curve. Example 1 Acurve Chas equation y = x’ a Find the equation of the gradient of the line PQ, where Pis the point (2, 8), and Qis the point on C with x-coordinate 2+. b Hence, find the gradient of the tangent to the curve Cat the point P. a Qisthe point (2+h,(2+h)"). ‘The gradient of PQis ‘represents a small increase inthe x-coordinate of P, =1246h+h* — | where Pis the point (2, 8. dy _(+h)-8 _(B+I2h+6h* +h4)-8 _ 1h +6h*+h* ox h h i b_ As Qapproaches P, h approaches 0, and so the gradient of the tangent at Pis lim ® = um(te+6h+)=12 Example 2 Find the gradient of y = x" ~3x at the point (x,, y,) using differentiation from first principles. Let Phe the point (x,, x ~ 3x,) and Qbe the point (x, +h, (x, +h)* -3(x, +h). The gradient of PQis dy _[G, +h) - 3x, +h) ]- (3 -3x,) ox h _ (3 +2x,h+ht 3x, ~3h)-(x3 -3x,) 2x, +h-3 I oy oO Be lim(2x, +h -3)=2x, — CalculusExercise 1 @ Acurve Chas equation y=x?-4x+7. ‘The points A and B on the curve have x-coordinates 2 and 2.+-h, respectively. a Interms of h, find the gradient of the line AB. b_ Hence find the gradient of the curve at A. @ Acurve Chas the equation f(x) = 2x" + 3x" -2x-4. Express f(x +h) — f(x) in terms of h, and hence find the gradient of the curve at the point x=3, © Acurve has equation y= x°+3 a. Find the gradient of the line passing through the point (4, 19) and the point on the curve for which x = 4+. Give your answer in terms of h b_ Show how your answer can be used to find the gradient of the curve at the point (4, 19). State the value of this gradient. @ Acurve has equation y = x* - 27x. ‘The point P on the curve has coordinates (3, ~54). ‘The point Qon the curve has x-coordinate 3~h. a. Show that the gradient of the line PQ is (h* + 9h). b_ Explain how the result of part a can be used to show that Pisa stationary point on the curve. 6.2 Rates of change ‘You know from previous studies that the gradient ofa line, or the derivative of a function, is a rate of change. For example, # is the rate of change of ywith respect tox How a small change in one variable affects another ‘You can use the value oft to estimate the change in y that occurs after a small change in x. To do this, you are assuming that the tangent line approximates the true value of y If Sx represents a small change in x, and dy represents the corresponding change in y, then = It follows, for example, that if you know the value of 6x, you can estimate the value of Sy using 6y = * dx. Calculus(Tr Example 3 Find an approximate value of (100002)°, Lety=x°. 1 4 n You know that 100000* = 10, y ox 1 cs 0you wil ook atthe value of x oy rear x= 100000. ox dx ‘theretore, by = $Y 6x 5 Now use that x = 100000 and 6x =2. 2= 0.00004. ‘0000 Hence (100 002)* = 10.0004. Add 6 to the value of y that ‘You can also use small changes in x to estimate possible errors in y caused by corresponds to x. small errors in the value of x, (You will see this in question 8 of Exercise 2.) Rates of change of connected variables Connecting rates of change is a method of calculating a rate of change by connecting it to two known rates of change using the chain rule. For instance, ifyou fil a cylindrical glass of water from a tap, then the rate at which the height of the water changes depends on how narrow the glass is. You can use calculus to calculate the rate of change of the height of the water (height per minute), provided you know the volume of water released by the tap each, minute (the rate of water released) and the radius of the cylindrical glass. You use the relationship between the volume of the cylinder and its height to create a third rate of change, which you can do because you know the radius of the glass. Using each connected rate of change and the chain rule allows you to find the rate of change of the height of the water in the glass - a ‘The variables y and x relate to the problem you are trying to solve. Ifyis a function of x, then you know from the chain rule that = # x x Connecting rates of change allows you to solve many problems that involve rates of change: » First, identify the connected variables that are changing. » Identify the relationship between the variables that are changing, and use this to create a third rate of change. > Substitute these into the chain rule to find the desired rate of change. Calculus 6Example 4 A perfectly spherical weather balloon is inflated at a rate of 0.1 m? per minute. How fast is the radius growing when the balloon has radius a 02m b Im (re Let V=volume of balloon in cubic metres, after minutes. Let r=radius of balloon in metres. First you should identify the connected variables that are changing. Identity the relationship between the changing variables. Here, the changing variables are the volume and radius of the spherical balloon, so use the relationship between the volume and the radius of a sphere, that is, the formula for calculating the volume of a sphere given its radius. ‘Your aim is to use the chain rule in the form g a ou want to. find ie {tof change of rads per minute), and you know #. vi (the rat of change a ‘the volume per minute), so you need to use the telationship between the volume ofthe balloon and its radius to find * (rate of change of volume given the change in radius) Differentiate the equation for volume of a sphere: “ = 4a, Vv ir * =0.1 (given) av_ av. ar a drat Substitute in the rates you a ; have. Now you have an ora aan a equation that can be used for a pe02 the given values ofr. ar o.=4n(o.04) 7(0.08) ars dr an . ‘Therefore, the radius is increasing at — m per minute. " Bagg MP Since the volume ofa sphere b re. is proportional to the cube of oan its radus, fora given increase ar in volume you would expect s — the radius of a sphere to (408 og | increase more siowly when the ‘he radius increasing at 1m perminute rats of the sphere i ger Calculus‘These ideas can be applied to more complicated examples involving trigonometry. Provided that there is an underlying relationship between two variables, you may be able to exploit it. Exercise 2 . @ By considering the derivative of the graph y = x? when x = 4, estimate the value of 4.017 © By considering the derivative of the graph y = yx when x =9, estimate the value of 8.94, @ 1q=(2r +3) find Shen r=1 given thar Q Find an approximate value of (81.1)*, @ Ihe area of a circle is increasing at 3 cm*/s. How quickly is the radius increasing when its radius is 8 cm? @ Ihe volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a rate of 2cm’/s, Find the rate at which the surface area of the spherical balloon is increasing when the radius is 2.em. @ Each side of a square is increasing at a rate of 0.4 cm/s, Find the rate at which the area of the square is increasing when each side is of length 3 em. ‘The radius of a sphere is measured to be 3 em and hence its volume is calculated as 367 cm’. The measurement of the radius is correct to the nearest 0.1 cm. Find the maximum error in the calculated volume. 6.3 Improper integrals ‘You already know that integration can be used to find the area under a curve using the general expression ["f(x) dx, where a and b are the real number boundaries of the interval, and f(x) is known as the integrand. In this case, both the function, f(x), and the interval have finite boundaries. However, there are cases where either the function or the interval do not have finite boundaries. In these cases, you have an improper integral. An improper integral is one that has either > Alimit of integration of te, or > An integrand (function) that is infinite at either of its limits of integration, or between these limits. Itis often possible to evaluate improper integrals, though sometimes you will discover that the integral cannot be found, When the I: Ind example of an improper integral, the integrand, (x), has no finite boundaries since there is a limit of integration of te, where » represents infinity. However, you can treat it as if there is an upper/lower boundary by replacing + with n, for example. This allows you to find the limit of the integral as 1 tes, When this limit is finite, the integral can be found, When this limit is not finite, the integral cannot be found. CalculusExample 5 1 Determine f dx, dr=tim f 2 ae ‘The upper limits =, s0 replace im| - 1] tm(-2+1) it with n and fin the limit of mh eh mek nT the integral as n —> =. This shows that the area Asn 94.0, which gives lim( La) 1 under the curve y = - is finite even though the “boundary i infinitely long. Example 6 Determine | x ‘dx. za no ro fx Sax=timf x*ax } wt The upper limit is , so replace it with n. noe (A + 4, ‘this is not finite since snl —4n* ) = ~ This shows that the area ‘Therefore, the integral does not exist. under y =-+is nt finite although the curve looks very When the integrand is ii In this example of an improper integral, the integrand is infinite at one ofits limits of integration, or between these limits, because there is a value for which the function becomes infinite Ifyou replace one of the limits of integration with p, for example, then you can find the limit of the integral as p tends to the value of the limit it has replaced. ‘You can see from Example 8 that the area under a curve can be finite (bounded), even if one of its boundaries is infinite, CalculusExample 7 (Te This isan improper integral since the integrand, is infinite when x =0. So, you need to replace the lower limit with p. 1 ‘therefore, | Lax = eretore, | x Exercise 3 Find the value, where it exists, of each of these Oj 2-a Of Summary » IfPisapointon the curve y = f(x), where f(x) isa simple polynomial, and Qisapoint on the curve near P, the gradient of the curve at P is gradient PQ= lim “», where his the difference in x-coordinate from P to Q. ‘You can use this to find the gradient of the tangent to a point on a curve using first principles. > IfSvrepresents a small change in x, and dy represents the corresponding change in y, then =. > Ifyisan integrand of then you know that = 2 x $, You can use this to connect rates of change in order to find a desired rate of change. > Animproper integral is one that has either ‘+ Alimit of integration of +, or ‘+ Anintegrand (function) that is infinite at one of its limits of integration, or between these limits. > When the limit of integration is +s, you can find the limit of the integral as 1n— toby replacing ~ with n; when this limits finite, the integral can be found, When this limit is not finite, the integral cannot be found. > Itis possible to solve some integrals with infinite domains; indeed, you can sometimes find the total area bounded by a curve, even though the length ofthat curve is infinite. Calculus