Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

BASIC AC CIRCUITS

AC Generation
The elementary AC generator shown in Fig. 1 consists of a conductor, or a loop of wire in a
magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected to
slip rings and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts the magnetic
lines if force, first in one direction and then the other.

Figure 1. Elementary AC Generator

Development of a Sine – Wave Output

At the instant the loop is in vertical position (Fig 2, at 0˚), the coil sides are moving parallel to
the field and do not cut magnetic lines of force. In this instant, there is no voltage induced in the
loop. As the coil rotates in a counterclockwise direction, the coil sides will cut the magnetic lines
of force in opposite directions. The direction of the induced voltages depends on the direction of
movement of the coil.
The induced voltages add in series, making slip ring making slip ring X positive (+) and slip ring
Y negative (-) as shown in Fig. 1. The potential across resistor R will cause a current to flow
from Y to X through the resistor. This current will increase until it reaches a maximum value
when the coil is horizontal to the magnetic lines of force (Fig. 2, at 90˚). The horizontal coil is
moving perpendicular to the field and is cutting the greatest number of magnetic lines of force.
As the coil continues to turn, the voltage and current induced decreases until they reach zero,
where the coil is again in the vertical position (Fig. 2, 180˚). In the other half revolution, an equal
voltage is produced except that the polarity is reversed (Fig. 2, 270˚, 360˚). The current flow
through R is now from X to Y (Fig. 1).
The periodic reversal of polarity results in the generation of voltage as shown in Fig. 2. The
rotation of the coil through 360˚ results in an AC sine-wave output.

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

Figure 2. Development of a Sine-Wave Voltage

AC Generation Summary
 A simple generator consists of a conduction loop rotating in a magnetic field, cutting
across the magnetic lines of force.
 The sine-wave output is the result of one side of the generator loop cutting lines of force.
In the first half turn of rotation this produces a positive current and in the second half
rotation produces a negative current which completes one cycle of AC generation.

Effective Values
The output voltage of an AC Generator can be expressed in two ways; (1) graphically by use of
sine wave as shown in Fig. 3 and (2) algebraically by the equation e=E max sin ωt .
Where the RMS value can be expressed as,

√
2 2
E ( sin ωt ) dωt
E RMS= max
2π

√ 2 Emax
E RMS=
2

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

Figure 3. Sine Wave of a Voltage

Phase Angle
Phase angle is the fraction of a cycle, in degrees, that has gone by since a voltage or current has
passed through a given value. The given value is normally zero. Referring back to Fig. 3, take
point 1 as the starting point or zero phase. The phase at Point 2 is 30°, Point 3 is 60°, Point 4 is
90°, and so on, until Point 13 where the phase is 360°, or zero. A term more commonly used is
phase difference. The phase difference can be used to describe two different voltages that have
the same frequency, which pass through zero values in the same direction at different times. In
Figure 4, the angles along the axis indicate the phases of voltages e1 and e2 at any point in time.
At 120°, e1 passes through the zero value, which is 60° ahead of e2 (e2 equals zero at 180°).
The voltage e1 is said to lead e2 by 60 electrical degrees, or it can be said that e2 lags e1 by 60
electrical degrees.

Figure 4. Phase Angle Relation

Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a current and a voltage. If the
phase difference between two currents, two voltages, or a voltage and a current is zero degrees,
they are said to be "in-phase" If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they are said
to be "out-of-phase".
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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

AC Frequency
The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the angular velocity
of a rotating coil. The units of angular velocity are radians per second, and 2π radians is a full
revolution. A radian is an angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of a circle. One cycle of
the sine wave is generated when the coil rotates 2π radians.

ω=2 πf
where:
ω – angular velocity (rad per sec)
f – frequency (Hz)

Basic AC Reactive Components

1. Inductive Reactance
In an inductive AC circuit, the current is continually changing and is continuously inducing an
EMF. Because this EMF opposes the continuous change in the flowing current, its effect is
measured in ohms. This opposition of the inductance to the flow of an alternating current is
called inductive reactance (XL). The mathematical representation of the current flowing in a
circuit that contains only inductive reactance.
X L =2 πfL
and the voltage can be expressed as:
di
e L =L
dt

The value of XL in any circuit is dependent on the inductance of the circuit and on the rate at
which the current is changing through the circuit. This rate of change depends on the frequency
of the applied voltage.
The magnitude of an induced EMF in a circuit depends on how fast the flux that links the circuit
is changing. In the case of self-induced EMF (such as in a coil), a counter EMF is induced in the
coil due to a change in current and flux in the coil. This CEMF opposes any change in current,
and its value at any time will depend on the rate at which the current and flux are changing at
that time. In a purely inductive circuit, the resistance is negligible in comparison to the inductive
reactance. The voltage applied to the circuit must always be equal and opposite to the EMF of
self-induction.

Figure 1. Current, Induced Voltage and Applied Voltage in an Inductive Circuit

Summary:
Inductive reactance is summarized below:

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

 Opposition to the flow of alternating current by inductance is called Inductive Reactance

(XL)
 The current passing through a purely inductive circuit lags the applied voltage by
90˚phase angle.
 The phasor diagram shows the applied voltage (E) vector leading (above) the current (I)
vector by the amount of the phase angle differential due to the relationship between
voltage and current in an inductive circuit.

2. Capacitive Reactance
The variation of an alternating voltage
applied to a capacitor, the charge on the
capacitor, and the current flowing
through the capacitor are represented by
Figure 3.

The current flow in a circuit containing

capacitance depends on the rate at which
the voltage changes. The current flow in
Figure 3 is greatest at points a, c, and e.
At these points, the voltage is changing
at its maximum rate (i.e., passing through
zero). Between points a and b, the
voltage and charge are increasing, and
the current flow is into the capacitor, but
decreasing in value. At point b, the
capacitor is fully charged, and the current
is zero. From points b to c, the voltage
and charge are decreasing as the
capacitor discharges, and its current
flows in a direction opposite to the Figure 5. Voltage and Current in a Capacitor
voltage. From points c to d, the capacitor
begins to charge in the opposite direction, and the voltage and current are again in the same
direction.
At point d, the capacitor is fully charged, and the current flow is again zero. From points d to
e, the capacitor discharges, and the flow of current is opposite to the voltage. Figure 4 shows
the current leading the applied voltage by 90°. In any purely capacitive circuit, current leads
applied voltage by 90°.
Capacitive reactance is the opposition by a capacitor or a capacitive circuit to the flow of current.
The current flowing in a capacitive circuit is directly proportional to the capacitance and to the
rate at which the applied voltage is changing. The rate at which the applied voltage is changing is
determined by the frequency of the supply; therefore, if the frequency of the capacitance of a
given circuit is increased, the current flow will increase. It can also be said that if the frequency
or capacitance is increased, the opposition to current flow decreases; therefore, capacitive
reactance, which is the opposition to current flow, is inversely proportional to frequency and
capacitance. Capacitive reactance XC, is measured in ohms, as is inductive reactance. The
mathematical representation for capacitive reactance is:

1
XC=
2 πfC
and the voltage can be expressed as:
1
C∫
e C= idt

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

Figure 6. Circuit and Phasor Diagram

Summary:
Capacitive reactance is summarized below:
 Opposition to the flow of alternating current caused by capacitance is called capacitive
reactance (XC).
 Current (I) leads applied voltage by 90o in a purely capacitive circuit.
 The phasor diagram shows the applied voltage (E) vector leading (below) the current (I)
vector by the amount of the phase angle differential due to the relationship between
voltage and current in a capacitive circuit.

IMPEDANCE
No circuit is without some resistance, whether desired or not. Resistive and reactive components
in an AC circuit oppose current flow. The total opposition to current flow in a circuit depends on
its resistance, its reactance, and the phase relationships between them. Impedance is defined as
the total opposition to current flow in a circuit. Impedance can be expressed as:

Z=√ R + X
2 2

where:
Z – Impedance
R – Resistance
X – Reactance

The relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance is shown in Figure 7.

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

Figure 7. Impedance Triangle

The current through a certain resistance is always in phase with the applied voltage. Resistance is
shown on the zero axis. The current through an inductor lags applied voltage by 90°; inductive
reactance is shown along the 90° axis. Current through a capacitor leads applied voltage by 90°;
capacitive reactance is shown along the -90° axis. Net reactance in an AC circuit is the difference
between inductive and capacitive reactance.
Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and net reactance (X) in a circuit, as shown in
Figure 7. The angle θ is the phase angle and gives the phase relationship between the applied
voltage and the current. Impedance in an AC circuit corresponds to the resistance of a DC circuit.
The voltage drop across an AC circuit element equals the current times the impedance.

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
While direct current has one form of power, alternating current has three different forms of
power that are related in a unique relationship. In this chapter, you will learn that power in AC
circuits cannot be calculated in the same manner as in DC circuits.

POWER TRIANGLE
In AC circuits, current and voltage are
normally out of phase and, as a result, not
all the power produced by the generator can
be used to accomplish work. By the same
token, power cannot be calculated in AC
circuits in the same manner as in DC
circuits. The power triangle, shown in
Figure 1, equates AC power to DC power
by showing the relationship between
generator output (apparent power - S) in
volt-amperes (VA), usable power (true
power - P) in watts, and wasted or stored
power (reactive power - Q) in volt-
amperes-reactive (VAR). The phase angle Figure 8. Power Triangle
(θ) represents the inefficiency of the AC
circuit and corresponds to the total reactive impedance (Z) to the current flow in the circuit.
The power triangle represents comparable values that can be used directly to find the efficiency
level of generated power to usable power, which is expressed as the power factor (discussed
later). Apparent power, reactive power, and true power can be calculated by using the DC
equivalent (RMS value) of the AC voltage and current components along with the power factor.
Apparent Power
Apparent power (S) is the power delivered to an electrical circuit. The measurement of apparent
power is in volt- amperes (VA).
E¿ × E
S= E¿ I =
Z
where:
S - Apparent Power, VA
I - RMS Current, A
E - RMS Voltage, V
Z - Impedance, Ω

True Power
True power (P) is the power consumed by the resistive loads in an electrical circuit. The
measurement of true power is in watts.

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

2
P=EI cos θ=I R
where
P - True Power, W
I - RMS Current, A
E - RMS Voltage, V
R - Resistance, Ω
θ - angle between E and I in sine waves

Reactive Power
Reactive power (Q) is the power consumed in an AC circuit because of the expansion and
collapse of magnetic (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) fields.

Q=EI sinθ=I 2 X

where
Q - Reactive Power, VAR
I - RMS Current, A
E - RMS Voltage, V
X - Reactance (Inductive or Capacitive), Ω
θ - angle between E and I in sine waves

Unlike true power, reactive power is not useful power because it is stored in the circuit itself.
This power is stored by inductors, because they expand and collapse their magnetic fields in an
attempt to keep current constant, and by capacitors, because they charge and discharge in an
attempt to keep voltage constant. Circuit inductance and capacitance consume and give back
reactive power. Reactive power is a function of a system’s amperage. The power delivered to the
inductance is stored in the magnetic field when the field is expanding and returned to the source
when the field collapses. The power delivered to the capacitance is stored in the electrostatic
field when the capacitor is charging and returned to the source when the capacitor discharges.
None of the power delivered to the circuit by the source is consumed. It is all returned to the
source. The true power, which is the power consumed, is thus zero. We know that alternating
current constantly changes; thus, the cycle of expansion and collapse of the magnetic and
electrostatic fields constantly occurs.

Total Power
The total power delivered by the source is the apparent power. Part of this apparent power, called
true power, is dissipated by the circuit resistance in the form of heat. The rest of the apparent
power is returned to the source by the circuit inductance and capacitance.

Power Factor
Power factor (pf) is the ratio between true power and apparent power. True power is the power
consumed by an AC circuit, and reactive power is the power that is stored in an AC circuit. Cosθ
is called the power factor (pf) of an AC circuit. It is the ratio of true power to apparent power,
where θ is the phase angle between the applied voltage and current sine waves and between P
and S on a power triangle.
P
pf =cos θ=
S

where
cos θ - power factor
P - True Power, W
S - Apparent Power, VA

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

Power factor also determines what part of the

apparent power is real power. It can vary from
1, when the phase angle is 0°, to 0, when the
phase angle is 90°. In an inductive circuit, the
current lags the voltage and is said to have a
lagging power factor, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 9.
Lagging
In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the
voltage and is said to have a leading power
factor, as shown in Figure 10.
A mnemonic memory device, "ELI the ICE
man," can be used to remember the
voltage/current relationship in AC circuits.
ELI refers to an inductive circuit (L) where
current (I) lags voltage (E). ICE refers to a
capacitive circuit (C) where current (I) leads
voltage (E). Figure 10.
Leading

THREE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
A three-phase (3Ø) system is a combination of three single-phase systems. In a 3Ø balanced
system, power comes from a 3Ø AC generator that produces three separate and equal voltages,
each of which is 120° out of phase with the other voltages (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Three-Phase AC

Three-phase equipment (motors, transformers, etc.) weighs less than single-phase equipment of
the same power rating. They have a wide range of voltages and can be used for single-phase
loads. Three-phase equipment is smaller in size, weighs less, and is more efficient than single-
phase equipment.
Three-phase systems can be connected in two different ways. If the three common ends of each
phase are connected at a common point and the other three ends are connected to a 3Ø line, it

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

is called a wye, or Y-connection (Figure 11). If the three phases are connected in series to form a
closed loop, it is called a delta, or Δ-connection.

Figure 12. Three Phase Power Connection

Power in Balanced 3Ø Loads

Balanced loads, in a 3Ø system, have identical impedance in each secondary winding (Figure
13). The impedance of each winding in a delta load is shown as Z Δ (Figure 13a), and the
impedence in a wye load is shown as ZY (Figure 13b). For either the delta or wye connection,
the lines A, B, and C supply a 3Ø system of voltages.

Figure 13. Balance Three Phase Load

In a balanced delta load, the line voltage (V L) is equal to the phase voltage (V Ø), and the line
current (IL) is equal to the square root of three times the phase current ( √ 3IØ ).
V L=V Ø
and
I L =√ 3 I Ø
In a balanced wye load, the line voltage (V L) is equal to the square root of three times phase
voltage (VØ), and line current (IL) is equal to the phase current (IØ).
V L= √ 3 V Ø
and
I L =I Ø
Because the impedance of each phase of a balanced delta or wye load has equal current, phase
power is one third of the total power.

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 Republic of the Philippines
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
BatStateU Alangilan
Alangilan, Batangas City
College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts
https://batstate-u.edu.ph/, Tel. No. (043) 425-0139 loc. 118/2121

Mechanical and Petroleum Engineering Department

P Ø =V Ø I Ø cos θ

Total power (PT) is equal to three times the single-phase power.

PT =3 V Ø I Ø cos θ

In a delta-connected load, V L=V Ø and I Ø =

√ 3I L
, so:
3

PT =√ 3V L I L cos θ

In a wye-connected load, I L =I Ø and V Ø =

√ 3V L
, so:
3

PT =√ 3V L I L cos θ

Total apparent power (ST) in volt-amperes and total

reactive power (QT) in volt-amperes-reactive are
related to total real power (PT) in watts (Figure 14).
A balanced three-phase load has the real, apparent,
and reactive powers given by:
PT =√ 3V L I L cos θ

QT =√ 3V L I L sin θ

ST =√ 3V ¿L I L =PT ∓ jQ T
Figure 14. Three Phase Power Triangle
where:
− jQ T - Inductive Reactive Power (lagging power factor)
+ j Q T - Capacitive Reactive Power (leading power factor)

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