Institution of Technology

School of Mechanical and industrial

Engineering

Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

(MEng 5212)

Chapter 1
Vapor compression refrigeration system

1
 Introduction to Refrigeration
 Definition: Refrigeration may be defined as the process of
achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the
surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to
the required temperature.
 Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to
simultaneously control its temperature, moisture content,
cleanliness, odour and circulation, as required by occupants,
a process, or products in the space.
 One of the most important applications of refrigeration has
been the preservation of perishable food products by storing
them at low temperatures.
 Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for
providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air
2
conditioning.
 Introduction to Refrigeration
 The purpose of refrigerator is to transfer heat from a
cold chamber which is at a temperature lower than that
of its surroundings.
 The natural flow of heat from the surroundings back to
the cold chamber can be resisted by insulating the
chamber from the surroundings.
 Devices that produce refrigeration are called
refrigerators, and the cycles on which they operate are
called refrigeration cycles.
 The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle in which the
refrigerant is vaporized and condensed alternately and
3
is compressed in the vapor phase.
 Introduction to Refrigeration
 Another well-known refrigeration cycle is the gas
refrigeration cycle in which the refrigerant remains in the
gaseous phase throughout.
 Other refrigeration cycles are cascade refrigeration, where
more than one refrigeration cycle is used and absorption
refrigeration, where the refrigerant is dissolved in a liquid
before it is compressed.

4
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Kelvin‐Planck Statement  Clausius Statement
It is impossible for any It is impossible to construct a device
device that operates on a that operates in a cycle and produces
cycle to receive heat from a no effect other than the transfer of
single reservoir and produce heat from a lower temperature body to
a net amount of work. higher‐temperature body.
i.e. No heat engine can have a i.e. A refrigerator will not operate unless
thermal efficiency of 100%. its compressor is driven by an external
power source.

5
 Introduction to Refrigeration
Q: Which of the following can be called as a refrigeration
process?
a) Cooling of hot ingot from 1000oC to room temperature
b) Cooling of a pot of water by mixing it with a large
block of ice
c) Cooling of human beings using a ceiling fan
d) Cooling of a hot cup of coffee by leaving it on a table
e) Cooling of hot water by mixing it with tap water

6
 Refrigerators and Heat pumps
 Naturally heat flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature, that is, from high-temperature regions to
low-temperature ones. This heat-transfer process
occurs in nature without requiring any devices.
 The reverse process, however, cannot occur by itself.
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a
high-temperature one requires special devices called
refrigerators.
 Refrigerators are cyclic devices, and the working fluids
used in the refrigeration cycles are called refrigerants

7
 Refrigerators and Heat pumps
 A refrigerator is shown
schematically in Fig.a
 QL is the magnitude of the heat
removed from the refrigerated
space at temperature TL ,
 QH is the magnitude of the heat
rejected to the warm space at
temperature TH , and
 Wnet,in is the net work input to
the refrigerator.
 QL and QH represent magnitudes
and thus are positive quantities.

8
 Refrigerators and Heat pumps
 Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature
medium to a high-temperature one is the heat pump.
 Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the same
devices; they differ in their objectives only.
 The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the
refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat
from it.
 Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium is
merely a necessary part of the operation, not the purpose.
 The objective of a heat pump, however, is to maintain a
heated space at a high temperature. This is accomplished by
absorbing heat from a low-temperature source, such as well
water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat
to a warmer medium such as a house.
9
 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
• There is no difference in
operation between a
refrigerator and a heat
pump.
• With the refrigerator the
important quantity is the
energy removed from cold
chamber called the
refrigerating effect, and
• With the heat pump it is
the energy to be rejected
by the refrigerant for
heating purposes.
• The machine can be used
for both purposes
10
 Refrigerator and Heat Pump
 The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is
expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP), defined as

 Notice that both COPR and COPHP can be greater than 1.

 COPHP = COPR + 1 for fixed values of QL and QH. This
relation implies that COPHP > 1 since COPR is a positive
quantity.

11
 The Need for Thermal Insulation
 Heat will always migrate from a region of high temperature
to a region of lower temperature, there is always a
continuous flow of heat into the refrigerated region from the
warmer surrounding.
 To limit the flow of heat into the refrigerated region to some
practical minimum, it is usually necessary to isolate the
region from its surroundings with a good heat-insulating
material.
The Refrigeration Load
 The rate at which heat must be removed from the
refrigerated space or material in order to produce and
maintain the desired temperature conditions is called the
refrigeration load, the cooling load, or the heat load.
12
 Cooling load
Cooling Load: is the amount of heat energy that would need to
be removed from a space (cooling) to maintain the temperature
in an acceptable range (comfort condition).
Sources of Cooling Load:
a) The heat transmitted by conduction through the insulated
walls.
b) The heat that must be removed from the warm air that
enters the space through opening and closing doors.
c) The heat that must be removed from the refrigerated
product to reduce the temperature of the product to the
storage temperature;
d) The heat given off by people working in the space and by
motors, lights and other heat-producing equipment
operating in the space.
13
 The cooling capacity of a refrigeration system
 The cooling capacity of a refrigeration system—that is, the
rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space—is often
expressed in terms of tons of refrigeration.
 One ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat
removed to freeze one ton of water into ice at 0oC in 24
hours.
 One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to 211 kJ/min (3.5 KW)

14
 Applications of Refrigeration
 The first, and probably, still the most important is the
preservation of food.
o Most foods kept at room temperature spoil rapidly. This
is due to the rapid growth of bacteria.
o At common refrigeration temperatures of about 40oF
(4oC). Bacteria grow quite slowly. Food at this
temperature will keep much longer.
o Refrigeration preserves food by keeping it cold.
 Other important uses of refrigeration include air
conditioning, beverage cooling, and humidity control.
 Many manufacturing processes also use refrigeration
system.

15
 Applications of Refrigeration
➢ Ice making
➢ Preservation of food products (perishables) and medicines
➢ Air - conditioning
➢ Transportation of foodstuff, dairy products, flowers, etc.,
➢ Special industrial processes for chemicals, petroleum, medicals,
surgical aids, etc.,
➢ Cryogenics: the production and effects of very low temperature
applications
➢ Processing of food products, beverages, textiles, oil refining,
photographic materials, etc.,

16
 Refrigerant
 It is substance, which is used as a working fluid in
refrigerators.
 The refrigerant has low boiling point, which means that it
vaporizes at low temperature and takes away the heat from
a substance.
Properties of good refrigerant:
 Have low freezing and boiling point
 Have high COP
 Be non toxic and non corrosive to metal
 Be non explosive
 Easily be liquefied
17
 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
 Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle that consists of
two reversible isothermal and two isentropic processes.
 The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration
cycle operating between two specified temperature levels.
 It has the maximum thermal efficiency for given
temperature limits, and it serves as a standard against
which actual power cycles can be compared.
 A refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed
Carnot cycle is called a Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot
heat pump.
 Consider a reversed Carnot cycle executed within the
saturation dome of a refrigerant, as shown in Fig. below.
18
 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator and T-s

19 diagram of the reversed Carnot cycle.
 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

 The refrigerant absorbs heat isothermally from a low-

temperature source at TL in the amount of QL (process 1-2),

is compressed isentropically to state 3 (temperature rises to
TH), rejects heat isothermally to a high-temperature sink at
TH in the amount of QH (process 3-4), and expands
isentropically to state 1 (temperature drops to TL).

 The refrigerant changes from a saturated vapor state to a

saturated liquid state in the condenser during process 3-4.

20
 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

 The coefficients of performance of Carnot refrigerators and

heat pumps are expressed in terms of temperatures as

 Notice that both COPs increase as the difference between

the two temperatures decreases, that is, as TL rises or TH
falls.

21
 THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
 The reversed Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for
refrigeration cycles because:
i. Process 2-3 involves compression of a liquid–vapor
mixture - requires a compressor that will handle two
phases,
ii. Process 4-1 involves expansion of high-moisture-
content refrigerant in a turbine.

22
 Types of Refrigeration systems
 The most widely used types of refrigeration systems are
o Vapour compression Refrigeration system and

o Vapor absorption Refrigeration system

 The vapor compression refrigeration system is the mainstay

of the refrigeration and air conditioning industry.

 Vapour Absorption refrigeration provides an alternative to the

vapor compression approach, particularly in applications

where a heat source is economical and readily available.

23
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration system:
 This type of refrigeration system is the most commonly
used system in domestic refrigerators.
 In VCRS the vapor alternatively undergoes a change of
phase from vapor to liquid and vice versa during a cycle.
 Vapor compression refrigeration system has the following
components at its basic parts.
1. Compressor: The function of the compressor is to
compress the input refrigerant of low pressure and low
temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature
of the refrigerant increases. Generally reciprocating
compressors are used in a refrigeration system. An
external motor is used to drive the compressor.

24
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration system:
2. Condenser: The condenser is
a coil of tubes, which are made
of copper. This is used to
condense the refrigerant which
is in the form of vapor and
convert into liquid.
3. Expansion Valve: this is
otherwise called throttle valve.
This valve is used to control
the flow rate of refrigerant and
also to reduce the pressure of
the refrigerant.

25
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration system:

4. Evaporator: This
is the part in which
the cooling takes
place.
 This is kept in the
space where cooling
is required.
 It is a coil of tubes
made up of copper.

26
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration system:
Working Principle:
 The refrigerant, which is at low pressure and low temperature flows
into the compressor. In the compressor the refrigerant is compressed
and converted into a high pressure and high temperature refrigerant.
 This high pressure and high temperature refrigerant in vapor form
then passes through the condenser where it is condensed into high
pressure liquid refrigerant.
 The high pressure liquid refrigerant thus produced passes through the
expansion valve. In the expansion valve the pressure and temperature
of the refrigerant drops and it partly evaporates. It is the allowed to
flow into the evaporator at a controlled rate.
 In the evaporator, the partly liquid and vapor refrigerant is mostly
evaporated and converted into a low pressure vapor. During this
process, the refrigerant absorbs its latent

27
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration system:

28
 THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 Many of the impracticalities associated with the reversed
Carnot cycle can be eliminated by vaporizing the refrigerant
completely before it is compressed and by replacing the
turbine with a throttling device, such as an expansion valve
or capillary tube.
 The cycle that results is called the ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, and it is shown schematically and on a
T-s diagram in Fig. below.
 The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most
widely used cycle for refrigerators, air-conditioning systems,
and heat pumps.

29
 The ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle
 It consists of four processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor
2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion device
4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator
 In an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, the
refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1 as saturated vapor
and is compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure.
 The temperature of the refrigerant increases during this
isentropic compression process to well above the temperature
of the surrounding medium.

30
 The ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle

31
 The ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle
 The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapor
at state 2 and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of
heat rejection to the surroundings.
 The temperature of the refrigerant at this state is still above the
temperature of the surroundings.
 The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the
evaporator pressure by passing it through an expansion valve
or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops
below the temperature of the refrigerated space during this
process.
 The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality
saturated mixture, and it completely evaporates by absorbing
heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor and reenters the compressor,
32
completing the cycle.
 The ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle
 In a household
refrigerator, the tubes
in the freezer
compartment where
heat is absorbed by the
refrigerant serves as
the evaporator.
 The coils behind the
refrigerator, where
heat is dissipated to
the kitchen air, serve
as the condenser

33
 The ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration cycle
 The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle is not an
internally reversible cycle since it involves an irreversible
(throttling) process.
 This process is maintained in the cycle to make it a more
realistic model for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle.
 All four components associated with the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle are steady-flow devices, and thus all four
processes that make up the cycle can be analyzed as steady-
flow processes.
 The kinetic and potential energy changes of the refrigerant are
usually small relative to the work and heat transfer terms, and
therefore they can be neglected.
34
 Thermodynamics analysis of the ideal Vapor-
Compression Refrigeration cycle
 Then the steady flow energy equation on a unit–mass basis
reduces to

 The condenser and the evaporator do not involve any work,

and the compressor can be approximated as adiabatic.
 Then the COPs of refrigerators and heat pumps operating
on the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can be
expressed as

35
 Assumptions for Ideal VCRC
❖ Irreversibility's within the evaporator, condenser and
compressor are ignored
❖ No frictional pressure drops
❖ Refrigerant flows at constant pressure through the two
heat exchangers (evaporator and condenser)
❖ Stray heat losses to the surroundings are ignored
❖ Compression process is isentropic

36
 Ideal VC refrigeration cycle:

Ideal refrigeration cycle:

 1 – 2: Isentropic
compression
 2 – 3: Constant pressure heat
removal
 3 – 4:Constant enthalpy
(throttling)
 4 - 1: Constant pressure heat
addition

37
 Ideal VC refrigeration cycle:

38
 EXAMPLE 1. The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
 A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid
and operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle between 0.14 and 0.8 MPa. If the mass flow rate of
the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s, determine
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and
the power input to the compressor,
b) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
c) the COP of the refrigerator.

39
 EXAMPLE 1. The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
 Solution A refrigerator operates on an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle between two specified
pressure limits. The rate of refrigeration, the power input,
the rate of heat rejection, and the COP are to be determined.
 Assumptions 1. Steady operating conditions exist. 2.
Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
 Analysis. We note that this is an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle, and thus the compressor is isentropic
and the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid and enters the compressor as saturated vapor.
 From the refrigerant-134a tables, the enthalpies of the
refrigerant at all four states are determined as follows:

40
 EXAMPLE 1. The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle

Fig. T-s diagram of the

ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle
described in Example 1

41
42
43
 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
 An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from
the ideal one in several ways, owing mostly to the
irreversibilities that occur in various components.
 Two common sources of irreversibilities are fluid friction
(causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the
surroundings.
 In the ideal cycle, the refrigerant leaves the evaporator and
enters the compressor as saturated vapor. In practice, however,
it may not be possible to control the state of the refrigerant so
precisely.
 Instead, it is easier to design the system so that the refrigerant
is slightly superheated at the compressor inlet.
 This slight overdesign ensures that the refrigerant is completely
vaporized when it enters the compressor.
44
 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
 The line connecting the evaporator to the compressor is
usually very long; thus the pressure drop caused by fluid
friction and heat transfer from the surroundings to the
refrigerant can be very significant.

Differences
• Non-isentropic compression;
• Superheated vapor at evaporator exit;
• Sub-cooled liquid at condenser exit;
• Pressure drops in condenser and
evaporator.

45
 Fig. Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual vapor-compression refrigeration
46 cycle.
 Actual vapor-compression Refrigeration cycle

 Actual vapor-
compression cycle
include:
 State 1 in
superheated vapor
region and
 State 3 in the
compressed liquid
region

47
 Isentropic Compressor Efficiency
➢ The isentropic compressor efficiency is the ratio of
the minimum theoretical work input to the actual
work input, each per unit of mass flowing:
work required in an isentropic
compression from compressor inlet
state to the exit pressure

work required in an actual

compression from compressor
48 inlet state to exit pressure
 Example 2 : The Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle

 Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as

superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and -10°C at a rate of 0.05
kg/s and leaves at 0.8 MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is
cooled in the condenser to 26°C and 0.72 MPa and is
throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and
pressure drops in the connecting lines between the
components, determine
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and
the power input to the compressor,
b) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
c) the coefficient of performance of the refrigerator.

49
 Solution
 The T-s diagram of the refrigeration cycle is shown in Fig. below. We
note that the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a compressed
liquid and enters the compressor as superheated vapor.

50
  The enthalpies of the refrigerant at various states are determined
from the refrigerant tables to be

51
52
 Exercise 1
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and

operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The mass flow rate of the
refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with
respect to saturation lines. Determine:
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
d) the coefficient of performance.

Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06

53
 Exercise 2
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles

Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on

an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. The refrigerant enters
the compressor as saturated vapor at 140 kPa and is
compressed to 800 kPa.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation
lines, and determine the:
a) Quality of the refrigerant at evaporator inlet,
b) Coefficient of performance, and
c) Power input to the compressor.

54
 Exercise 3
Ideal and Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as
superheated vapor at 0.14 MPa and 10°C at a rate of 0.12
kg/s, and it leaves at 0.7 MPa and 50°C. The refrigerant is
cooled in the condenser to 24°C and 0.65 MPa, and it is
throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer and
pressure drops in the connecting lines between the
components, show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines, and determine:
a)the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b)the power input to the compressor,
c)the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
d)the COP of the refrigerator.

55
Answers: (a) 19.4 kW, 5.06 kW, (b) 82.5 percent, (c) 3.83
 Modifications of Vapor-compression Refrigeration
Systems
▪ The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most
widely used refrigeration cycle, and is adequate for most
refrigeration applications. The ordinary vapor-compression
refrigeration systems are simple, inexpensive, reliable, and
practically maintenance-free.
▪ However, for large industrial applications the simple vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle is inadequate and needs to be
modified.
▪ For moderately and very low temperature applications, some
innovative refrigeration systems are used. The following
cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems
56
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
• Some industrial applications require moderately low
temperatures, and the temperature range they involve may be
too large for a single vapour compression refrigeration cycle
to be practical.
• A large temperature range also means a large pressure range
in the cycle and a poor performance for a reciprocating
compressor.
• One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more
refrigeration cycles that operate in series.
• Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration
cycles.

57
 Cascade Refrigeration A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle
is shown. The two cycles are connected
Systems through the heat exchanger in the
middle, which serves as the evaporator
for the topping cycle and the condenser
for the bottoming cycle.

AAtwo-stage
two-stage cascade refrigeration
compression system with the
refrigeration
58
same refrigerant
system in both
with a flash stages.
chamber.
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
 In the intermediate heat
exchanger, the energy rejected
during condensation of the
refrigerant in the lower
temperature cycle B is used to
evaporate the refrigerant in the
higher-temperature cycle A.
 The desired refrigeration effect
occurs in the low-temperature
evaporator, and heat rejection
from the overall cycle occurs in
the high-temperature condenser.
 The coefficient of performance
is the ratio of the refrigeration
effect to the total work input
59
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
• Assuming the heat exchanger is well insulated and the kinetic
and potential energies are negligible, the heat transfer from
the fluid in the bottoming cycle should be equal to the heat
transfer to the fluid in the topping cycle.
• Thus, the ratio of mass flow rates through each cycle should
be

• The coefficient of performance of the cascade system is

60
 EXAMPLE 3 . A Two-Stage Cascade Refrigeration Cycle

 Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating

between the pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage
operates on an ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the
lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic
counter flow heat exchanger where both streams enter at about
0.32 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the
upper cycle is 0.05 kg/s, determine
a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space and the
power input to the compressor, and
c) the coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.

61
 EXAMPLE 3 . A Two-Stage Cascade Refrigeration Cycle

 Assumptions. 1. Steady operating conditions exist. 2. Kinetic

and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 The heat
exchanger is adiabatic.
 Properties. The enthalpies of the refrigerant at all eight states
are determined from the refrigerant tables and are indicated on
the T-s diagram.
 Analysis . The T-s diagram of the refrigeration cycle is shown
in Fig. below. The topping cycle is labeled cycle A and the
bottoming one, cycle B. For both cycles, the refrigerant leaves
the condenser as a saturated liquid and enters the compressor
as saturated vapor.

62
 EXAMPLE 3. A Two-Stage Cascade Refrigeration Cycle

63
64
 Discussion. This problem was worked out in Example 1 for a
single-stage refrigeration system. Notice that the COP of the
refrigeration system increases from 3.97 to 4.46 as a result of
cascading. The COP of the system can be increased even more by
increasing the number of cascade stages

65
 Exercise 4: Cascade Refrigeration Systems
1. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system
operating between pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa.
Each stage operates on the ideal vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper
cycle takes place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat
exchanger where both streams enter at about 0.4 MPa. If
the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper
cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine the:
a)mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b)rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
c)power input to the compressor, and
d)coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49
66
 Exercise 5: Cascade Refrigeration Systems
2. Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating
between pressure limits of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with
refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Heat rejection from the
lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic
counter-flow heat exchanger where the pressure in the upper
and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa, respectively. In both
cycles, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the condenser
exit and a saturated vapor at the compressor inlet, and the
isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80 percent. If the
mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle is
0.15 kg/s, determine the:
a)mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle,
b)rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c)coefficient of performance of the system.

67 Answers: (a) 0.212 kg/s, (b) 25.7 kW, (c) 2.68

 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
 When the fluid used throughout the cascade refrigeration
system is the same, the heat exchanger between the stages
can be replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash
chamber) since it has better heat transfer characteristics.
 Such systems are called multistage compression
refrigeration systems.
 A two stage compression refrigeration system is shown in
Fig. below.

68
69
A two-stage compression refrigeration system with a flash chamber.
 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems
 In this system, the liquid refrigerant expands in the first
expansion valve to the flash chamber pressure, which is the
same as the compressor inter-stage pressure. Part of the liquid
vaporizes during this process.
 This saturated vapor (state 3) is mixed with the superheated
vapor from the low-pressure compressor (state 2), and the
mixture enters the high-pressure compressor at state 9.
 The saturated liquid (state 7) expands through the second
expansion valve into the evaporator, where it picks up heat
from the refrigerated space.

70
 Example 4: A Two-Stage compression Refrigeration Cycle
with a Flash Chamber
 Consider a two-stage compression refrigeration system operating between the
pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. The working fluid is refrigerant-134a.
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled to a
flash chamber operating at 0.32 MPa. Part of the refrigerant evaporates during
this flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the
low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to the condenser
pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber is
throttled to the evaporator pressure and cools the refrigerated space as it
vaporizes in the evaporator. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as
a saturated vapor and both compressors are isentropic, determine
a) the fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates as it is throttled to the flash
chamber,
b) the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space and the
compressor work per unit mass of refrigerant flowing through the
condenser, and
c) the coefficient of performance.
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 Solution

72
73
74
 Discussion.
 This problem was worked out in Example 1 for a single-
stage refrigeration system (COP 3.97) and in Example 3
for a two-stage cascade refrigeration system (COP 4.46).
 Notice that the COP of the refrigeration system increased
considerably relative to the single-stage compression but
did not change much relative to the two-stage cascade
compression.

75
 Exercise 6 : Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Systems
A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates with
refrigerant-134a between the pressure limits of 1 and 0.14
MPa. The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid and is throttled to a flash chamber operating at 0.5
MPa. The refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor at
0.5 MPa is also routed to the flash chamber. The vapor in the
flash chamber is then compressed to the condenser pressure
by the high-pressure compressor, and the liquid is throttled to
the evaporator pressure. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the
evaporator as saturated vapor at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and that
both compressors are isentropic, determine the:
a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates in the flash
chamber,
b) rate of heat removed from the refrigerated space, and
76
c) coefficient of performance.
 Exercise 7: Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Systems
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between pressure
limits of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid. Saturated liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is throttled
to a flash chamber operating at 0.45 MPa. The vapor from the flash
chamber is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the low-pressure
compressor. The mixture is then compressed to the condenser
pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash
chamber is throttled to the evaporator pressure. The mass flow rate
of the refrigerant is 0.15 kg/s. Assuming saturated vapor refrigerant
leaves the evaporator and the isentropic efficiency is 80 percent for
both compressors, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure compressor,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
d) rate of heat removal and the COP if this refrigerator operated
on a single-stage cycle between the same pressure limits with
77 the same compressor efficiency and flow rate as in part (a).
 Refrigerant
❑ Any susbstance that acts as a cooling medium by
extracting heat from another body or substance is called
a refrigerant.
❑ In a closed cycle systems, refrigerant is any working
fluid that undergoes cyclic changes during system
operation.
❑ A refrigerant is a substance that picks up latent heat
when the substance evaporates from a liquid to a gas.
This is done at a low temperature and pressure.
❑ A refrigerant expels latent heat when it condenses from a
gas to a liquid at a high pressure and temperature. The
refrigerant cools by absorbing heat in one place and
discharging it in another area.
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 Refrigerant
❑ Properties of an ideal refrigerant
➢ A high latent heat of vaporization
➢ Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-corrosive
➢ Compatible with component materials
➢ Not mix with oil since compressors are lubricated.
➢ Operate at moderate pressures to reduce compressor
work and leakage.
➢ Be relatively cheap to produce and store.
➢ Ease of leak detection
➢ Environmental friendly

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 Classification of Refrigerants

 Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified

into primary and secondary refrigerants.
 Primary refrigerants are those fluids which are used
directly as working fluids, for example in vapor
compression and vapour absorption refrigeration systems.
 When used in compression or absorption systems, these
fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase change
process in the evaporator.
 Secondary refrigerants are those liquids which are used
for transporting thermal energy from one location to
another. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the
name brines or antifreezes.

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 Classification of Refrigerants
 If the operating temperatures are above 0oC, then pure
water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for
example in large air conditioning systems.
 Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is
required at sub-zero temperatures.
 Unlike primary refrigerants, the secondary refrigerants do
not undergo phase change as they transport energy from
one location to another.
 The commonly used secondary refrigerants are the
solutions of water and ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or
calcium chloride. These solutions are known under the
general name of brines.

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 Classification of Refrigerants
 The primary refrigerants are further classified into the
following four groups:
❖Halo-carbon Refrigerants
❖Azeotropic and Zeotropic Refrigerants
❖Inorganic Refrigerants and
❖Hydro-carbon Refrigerants
 Halo-carbon refrigerants: The American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) identifies 42 halo-carbon compounds as
refrigerants, but only a few of them are commonly used
e.g. R-12,R-22, R-114 etc.

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 Azeotropic Refrigerants
 Azeotropic Refrigerants: The term 'azeotrope' refers to a
stable mixture of refrigerants whose vapour and liquid phases
retain identical compositions over a wide range of
temperatures. However, these mixtures usually have
properties that differ from either of their components. The
example of Azeotrope Refrigerants are R-500 (73.8% R-12 &
26.2% R-152), R-502, R-152 etc.
 A stable mixture of two or several refrigerants whose vapour
and liquid phases retain identical compositions over a wide
range of temperatures.
 Examples : R-500 : 73.8% R12 and 26.2% R152
R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
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 Zeotropic Refrigerants
 A zeotropic mixture is one whose composition in liquid
phase differs to that in vapour phase.
 Zeotropic refrigerants therefore do not boil at constant
temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants.
 Examples: R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)

84
 Classification of Refrigerants
 Inorganic Refrigerants: The inorganic refrigerants were
exclusively used before the introduction of halocarbon
refrigerants. These refrigerants are still in use due to their
inherent thermodynamic and physical properties; for
example Ammonia R-717, Air R-729, CO2 R-744 etc.
 Hydro-carbon refrigerants: Most of the hydro-carbon
refrigerants are successfully used in industrial and
commercial installations. They possess satisfactory
thermodynamic properties but are highly flammable and
explosive e.g. Ethane R-170,Propane R-290,Propylene R-
1270 etc.

85
 CFC Refrigerants
 The first halogen-based refrigerants (fluorinated
hydrocarbons) were developed over sixty years ago
 These refrigerants are composed of chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon, and are called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 These refrigerants are low in toxicity, noncorrosive, and
compatible with other materials. They are not flammable or
explosive with, but sizable quantities must not be released
where there is a flame or electric heating element. They are
particularly harmful to the respiratory system.
 Common CFC refrigerants include R-11, R -12, R -113,R -
114,R -115, R-500, R-502, and R-503.
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 CFC Refrigerants
 R-500, R-502, and R-503 are azeotropic mixtures but are

classified as CFCS by the American Society of Heating,

Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE).

 CFCs are thought to be one of the major causes of ozone

depletion. By international agreement, they have not been

manufactured since 1995. However, they are still widely
used in existing residential units.

87
 HCFC Refrigerants
 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCS) are molecules
composed of methane or ethane in combination with a
halogen. This makes up a new molecule that is considered
to be partially halogenated.
 The HCFCs have shorter lives and cause less ozone
depletion than the fully halogenated CFCS. Therefore,
they have reduced potential for global warming.
 HCFCS such as R-22 and R-123 are considered to be
interim refrigerants. They will be used until suitable
replacements are available.
 The EPA (US Environmental Protection Agency)
requires the phase out of HCFCs by the year 2030.

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 HFC Refrigerants

 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) include such refrigerants

as R-134a and R-23.
 They are different from chlorofluorocarbons-they
contain one or more hydrogen atoms and no chlorine
atoms.
 HFCS are considered to have zero potential for ozone
depletion.
 They have only a slight effect on global warming.

89
 Refrigerant Blends(Azeotropic- Zeotropic)

 Another more recent category is that of refrigerant

blends, commonly referred to as "azeotopic" and
"zeotropic."
 The use of refrigerant blends is increasing. Azeotropic
blends do not change or separate in composition when
used in Refrigeration systems.
 Zeotropic refrigerants are also blends composed of
various refrigerants. when used in a refrigeration system,
their volumetric composition and saturation temperature
do not change.

90
 Refrigerant Selection Criteria

 In order to select the a correct refrigerant, it is

necessary that it should satisfy those properties which
make it ideal to be used for a particular application.
The considered properties are:
➢ Thermodynamic properties,
➢ Chemical properties,
➢ Physical properties
➢ Environmental and safety properties/concerns & Cost

91
 Refrigerant development
❑ Refrigerant development can be devided into three phases:
1. Early refrigerants (prior to CFCs)
2. Chloro-fluoro-carbon (CFC) based refrigerants
3. Refrigerants after Montreal protocol
1. Early Refrigerants
❑ Ethyl ether is the first refrigerant to be used by Jacob
Perkins in 1835.
• Ether is liquid at ambient conditions
• Ether boiling point is 34C0 at 1atm: for low
temperatue conditions, the evaporator should work at
vacuum.
• Possibility for leakage and explosive mix
• Ether is toxic
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 Early Refrigerants
❑ Alexander Twinning proposed the use of ammonia and
CO2 in 1850.
• Ammonia is important refrigerant in today’s applications
• It has good thermal properties, easily available,
inexpensive, easy to handle
❑ Charles Tellier used dimethyl ether as refrigerant in 1864.
• it is toxic
❑ Raoul Pictet used SO2 as refrigerant in 1874.
• It is not flammable: it is flame detergent.
• Acts as auto-lubricant!
• In the presence of water, it forms acid which is toxic and
corrosive to the system.

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 Refrigerant development - Early Refrigerants
❑ Linde builed a system based on NH3 as refrigerant in
1877.
✓ Imporant land mark in refrigerant development!
✓ Excellent thermodynmic and thermophysical property!
✓ But is toxic, strong smell and slightly flammable
❑ Windhausen used CO2 as refrigerant in 1885.
✓ Non toxic and non flamable thus safe!
✓ Imporant application in marine refrigeration and air
conditioning.
✓ It needs high operating pressure.

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 Refrigerant development
Problems with Early Refrigerants
✓ Toxicity (eg. Ethers, Ammonia)
✓ Flammability (eg. Hydrocarbons)
✓ Material compatibility (eg. Ammonia)
✓ Chemical stability (eg. SO2)
✓ Operating Pressure (eg. CO2)
✓ Limited temperature range (eg. All)

Developments of refrigerants which are non-toxic, non-flamable,

material compatible, chemically stable!!

Chloro-Flouro-Carbon (CFCs) refrigerants invented!!!

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 Refrigerant development
Chloro-fluoro-carbon (CFC) based refrigerants
❑ Thomas midgley and his associates take up the task of developing
refrigerants that are free from problems associated with early
refrigerants in 1928 in USA.
❑ CFC’s are synthesized by replacement hydrocarbons!!
Hydrocarbon

❑ A series of refrigerant family are formed!!!

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 Refrigerant development
Chloro-fluoro-carbon (CFC) based refrigerants
❑ CFC’s in the trade name of FREONS enter the market in
1930s!!
✓ Freon-12 (CCl2F2) is introduced in 1931 and widely used in
domestic refrigeration!!!
✓ Freon-11 (CCl3F) is introduced in 1932 and widely used in
air conditioning in large plants!!!
✓ Freon-22 (CHClF3) and other CFCs are developed!!!
✓ A numbering system is developed for identifying the
different drived refrigerants!

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 Refrigerant development
Early refrigerants vs. CFCs
❑ Compared to the early refrigeratnts, CFC’s have solved
the previous problems!!!
✓ non-toxic
✓ Non-flammable
✓ Chemically stable
✓ Compatable with common materials
✓ Avaialble for a wide refrigeration temperature

✓ Becuase of the favorable properties, CFC refrigeratnts

became popular and get extensive application!!

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 Refrigerant development

IMPACT OF CFCs
❑ All early refrigerants except ammonia are replaced by
various CFCs!
❑ Rapid growth in refrigeration due to the widespread use
of CFCs!
❑ Refrigeration enters Households in the form of domestic
refrigerators and air conditioners, thanks to CFCs!
❑ Production and consumption of CFCs increased
exponentially!!

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 Refrigerant development
OTHER SIDE OF CFCs:
❑ Ozone layer depletion

✓ In 1974, Rowland and Molina propose the theory of

Ozone Layer Depletion due to CFCs released into
atmosphere!
❑Stratosphere and Ozone layer:
 15-50Km

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 Refrigerant development
❑ Ozone layer depletion
 Ozone is imporant to protect life on earth from UV
radiation.
 UV is harmful to life on earth!

❑ Ozone layer depletion consequences

❖ For human beings, increased instances of :

❑ Skin cancer

❑ Weakened immune systems

❑ Damages DNA structure

❑ cataracts

❖ Adverse effect on crop yield

❖ Adverse effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem

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 Refrigerant development
❑ Ozone layer depletion
✓ In 1974, Rowland and Molina propose the theory of Ozone
Layer Depletion due to CFCs released into atmosphere!
✓ Subsequent studies show Ozone depleting potential (ODPs)
of CFCs and related substances!
o R-11 (CFCl3) as a reference! =1ODP
o Example: R-12 = 1 ODP
o R-114 = 0.8 ODP
o R-22 = 0.055 ODP

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 Refrigerant development
❑ CFCs and Global Warming
✓ CFCs act as greenhouse gases and hence contribute significantly to
Global warming!
✓ Atmoshperic blanket keeps the earth warm and this is essential for life
on earth!
✓ The atmoshperic blancket consists of several gases (greenhouse gases)
such as CO2 N2, H2O!!

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 Refrigerant development
❑ CFCs and Global Warming
✓ Solar radiation mainly consists of long and short wave radiation.

✓ Atmoshperic blanket with greenhouse gases allows short wave

radiation to pass and reach the earth, while absorbing the long
wave radiations.
✓ The earth surface absorbs these shortwave radiations and keep
warm!
✓ The earth also emmits long wave radiations and these are
absorbed at the atmoshpere (by the greenhouse gases)!!
✓ absorb longwave radiation and transmit short wave radiations!!

The earth is kept warm!! Without GHG: T = -18oC

104
 Refrigerant development
❑ CFCs and Global Warming
✓ The temperature condition in the atmoshpere with out any
additives is balanced for this situation!
✓ With the presence of large scale CFCs, the balance of global
warming is disturbed!
✓ CFCs are capable of absorbing much more long wave radiations
compared to the conventional greenhouse gases such as CO2!!

✓ Global temperature increase!!

105
 Refrigerant development
❑ CFCs and Global Warming
✓ Global warming potential (GWP) of CFCs is determined with respect
to CO2.
❑ CO2 as a reference! =1GWP
CFCs = several thousands of GWP
❑ R11 = 3800 GWP
❑ R12 = 8100 GWP
❑ R114 = 9300 GWP
❑ R22 =1700 GWP

Montreal Protocol!!
Ban CFCs with ODP and GWP!
R11, R12, R113, R114, R502 phase out by year 2000.
R22 phase out by year 2030!

106
 Refrigerant development
Refrigerants after Montreal protocol
(3rd generation of refrigerants)
Replacements for CFCs should be:
❑ Non-ozone depleting
❑ Have as low GWP as possible
❖ Several Synthetic and natural refrigerants are found to replace CFCs
❖ Some of the early refrigerants such as CO2 make a comeback!

CFCs and Replacements

Application CFCs
Domestic refrigerators CFC 12 HFC 134a, HCs

Air conditioning CFC 11, CFC 12, HFC 134a, HCs, CO2, and
HCFC 22 mixtures

Cold storages HCFC 22, R 502 Ammonia, HFC mixtures

107
 Designation of refrigerants
 Before the invention of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
refrigerants were called by their chemical names.
 Because of the complexity of these names, especially the
CFCs the fully halogenated CFCs, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), the not fully
halogenated HCFCs, a numbering system was developed for
hydrocarbons and halocarbons and is used widely in the
refrigeration industry.
 From the number one can get some useful information about
the type of refrigerant, its chemical composition, molecular
weight etc.
 The refrigerants are internationally designated as 'R'
followed by certain numbers such as R-11, R-12, R-114 etc.
108
 Designation of refrigerants
 A refrigerant followed by a two digit number indicates that
a refrigerant is derived from methane base while three digit
number represents ethane base.
 The numbers assigned to hydro-carbon and halo-carbon
refrigerants have a special meaning.
 The first digit on the right is the number of fluorine (F)
atoms in the refrigerant, the second digit from the right is
one more than the number of hydrogen (H) atoms present.
The third digit from the right is one less than the number of
carbon (C) atoms, but when this digit is zero, it is omitted.

109
 Designation of refrigerants
 The general chemical formula for the refrigerant, either for
methane or ethane base, is given as CmHnClpFq, in which
n+p+q = 2m+2
where
m = Number of carbon atoms,
n = Number of hydrogen atoms,
p = Number of chlorine atoms, and
q = Number of fluorine atoms.
 As discussed above the number of the refrigerant is given
by R (m - 1)(n +1) (q)
 e.g., R12 = CCI2F2

110
 Designation of refrigerants

Inorganic refrigerants
 These are designated by number 7 followed by the
molecular weight of the refrigerant (rounded-off).
Examples:
 Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, the designation is R717
 Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, the designation is
R744
 Water: Molecular weight is 18, the designation is R718

111
 Designation of refrigerants
Mixtures
 Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, whereas
zeotropic refrigerants (e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are
designated by 400 series.
Examples
 R500, R502, R503, R404A, R407A

Hydrocarbons
• Propane (C3H8) : R290
• n-butane (C4H10) : R600
• Iso-butane (C4H10) : R600a
• Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:· R1150 (C2H4)
• R1270 (C3H6)

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 End of Chapter 1

Next Lecture
Lecture 2: Vapor Absorption Refrigeration
Cycles

113