CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS

Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control

BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

● Accuracy is expressed as
percentage of full range
ELECTRONIC SENSORS output.
● acquires a physical quantity and 3. Sensitivity
● It is a relationship between
converts it into a signal suitable for input physical signal and
processing output electrical signal.
● provide a usable output in response ● It is the ratio of change in
output of the sensor to unit
to a specified quantity which is
change in input value that
measured (Instrument Society of causes change in output.
America) 4. Stability
● It is the ability of the sensor
to produce the same output
for constant input over a
period of time.
5. Repeatability
● detects changes and events in a ● It is the ability of the sensor
physical stimulus and provides a to produce the same output
for different applications with
corresponding output signal that is the same input value.
measurable and able to be recorded 6. Response Time
● converts a physical event into an ● It is the speed of change in
electrical signal output on a stepwise change
in input.
7. Linearity
● It is specified in terms of
percentage of nonlinearity.
● Nonlinearity is an indication
of deviation of the curve of
actual measurement from the
curve of ideal measurement.
8. Ruggedness
● It is a measure of the
durability when the sensor is
used under extreme
operating conditions.
9. Hysteresis
Basic Requirements of a Sensor ● Defined as the maximum
difference in output at any
1. Range
measurable value within the
● It indicates the limits of the sensor’s specified range
input in which it can vary. when approaching the point
● In case of temperature first with increasing and then
measurement, a with decreasing the input
thermocouple can have a parameter.
range of 25 – 250 °C. ● Hysteresis is a characteristic
2. Accuracy that a transducer has in
● It is the degree of exactness being unable to repeat its
between actual functionality faithfully when
measurement and true value. used in the opposite direction
of operation.

1
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

Classification 0f Electronic Sensors Classification Classification based on

based on the the conversion
1. Active Sensor means of detection phenomenon
● require an external excitation used in sensor
signal or a power signal
2. Passive Sensor ● Electrical ● Photoelectric
● do not require any external ● Chemical ● Thermoelectric
power signal and directly ● Biological ● Electrochemical
generates output response ● etc.

Active Remote Passive Remote

Sensing Sensing Analog Sensors Digital Sensors

create their own detects the produce continuously work with discrete
electromagnetic naturally emitted varying output data
energy that is microwave energy signals over a range
transmitted from the within its field of of values
sensor towards the view
terrain, interacts quantity being the data, which is
with the terrain measured is speed, used for conversion
producing a temperature, and transmission, is
backscatter of pressure, strain, etc. digital in nature
energy and is (continuous in
recorded by the nature)
remote sensor’s
receiver time and accuracy is output has only two
slow and less states, namely ON
and OFF
● ON = Logic 1
● OFF = Logic 0

accuracy is high

2
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

Types of Electronic Sensor *Important Notes*

● It has a fixed terminal and a wiper

1. Position Sensor terminal connected to a
● Provide motion control, counting and mechanical shaft.
encoding tasks by determining the ● The movement can be either
presence or absence of a target or linear (slide) or angular
by detecting its direction, speed, (rotational).
motion or distance and convert that ○ This movement causes the
physical parameter into an output
resistance between fixed
electrical signal to indicate the
position of the target. and wiper terminals to
change.
● The output electrical signal which
Contact Based Position Sensor is generally voltage varies in
A. Resistance Based or Potentiometric proportion to the position of the
● originally developed for wiper resistive track and hence the
applications in military use value of the resistance.
● used in radios and
televisions as panel mounted
adjustment knobs
● can work as linear or rotary
position sensors
● main disadvantage is its
physical size as it limits the
movement of the slide and
hence the output signal

3
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Linear Variable Differential

Transformation (LVDT)
● one of the best available,
reliable and accurate
methods for measuring linear
distance
● used in computerized
manufacturing, machine
tools, avionics and robotics

*Important Notes*

LVDT consists of three coils, one primary

and two secondary.
1. A movable magnetic core is
placed as shown in the figure.
a. This magnetic core which
is also called an armature
controls the transfer of
current between primary
and secondary coils in the
LVDT.
2. The output of the LVDT is
proportional to the position of the
core.

4
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

Non-Contact Based Position Sensor

*Important Notes*
A. Capacitive
● used for precision A capacitive sensor probe consists of
measurement of a target three components: sensing area, guard
position if the target is and body.
conductive in nature, or used 1. The potential is applied to the
for measurement of sensing area.
thickness and density of a a. There is a problem of
material if the target is spreading an electric field
non-conductive in nature to areas on the target other
● not suitable in conditions than the defined sensing
where the environment is dry area and the target.
or wet and the distance 2. To prevent this from happening, a
between the probe and the technique called guarding is used.
target is large a. In this technique, a guard
area is created by
surrounding the sides and
back of the sensing area
and is maintained at a
potential same as the
sensing area.
b. As the guard and the
sensing area are at the
same potential, there will
be no electric field between
them.
3. Any other conductors in the
proximity other than the sensing
area will form an electric field with
the guard.
4. The sensing area and the
corresponding target are
undisturbed.

5
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Inductive
*Important Notes*
● used for precision
measurement of a target Inductive sensors make use of an
position if the target is electromagnetic field that penetrates
conductive in nature through the target.
● inductive sensors are used to 1. An inductive sensor probe
recognize any conducting consists of an oscillator that
metal target generates a high frequency
● make use of electromagnetic electromagnetic field.
field that penetrates through a. This field radiates from the
the target sensing face of the probe.
● metal detectors, traffic lights, b. When this field contacts a
car washes conducting metal target, a
small current is induced
within the metal target.
c. These currents will
generate their own
electromagnetic field that
interferes with the field
originating from the probe.
2. This causes a change in the
amplitude of the oscillations of the
signals from the probe.
3. The output voltage can be
calibrated to this change.
4. When the probe is closer to the
target, the more current reacts
with the field originating from the
probe and the output is greater.

6
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

C. Hall Effect Based Magnetic

● Determine the position of
objects by detecting the
strength or direction or
presence of magnetic fields
generated from the Earth,
electric currents, magnets
and even brain wave activity

7
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

D. Eddy Current Based

*Important Notes*
● used to measure the
position, displacement, Eddy current sensors work on the
oscillation and vibration of a principle of magnetic induction. A simple
conductive target Eddy current sensor consists of a driver
● Eddy current sensors are and a sensing coil.
used in applications where 1. When an alternating current is
high precision is required and passed through the coil, it
the operating environment is generates an alternating magnetic
harsh field.
a. When a target comes in
contact with this field, a
small current is induced in
the target. These currents
are called Eddy Currents.
b. The Eddy current in the
target will create a field
which opposes the field of
the sensor and resists the
field.
2. The distance between the sensor
and the target is the factor in
interaction of the two magnetic
fields.
3. Hence, the output voltage is
calibrated to the change in field
interactions, which is dependent
on the distance.
4. The surface area of the target
must be at least three times the
diameter of the probe.

8
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

E. Rotary or Shaft Encoders

*Important Notes*
● converts angular motion to
analog value or digital code Incremental encoders provide output of
● provide value as the shaft or pulse string that is proportional to the
axle of the encoder rotates rotational displacement of the shaft i.e. it
● used in applications where provides output only when the shaft of the
mechanical motion must be encoder is rotated.
processed into digital ● To determine the amount of
information rotation, a counter is used that
counts the number of output
pulses.
● From a certain input shaft position,
for the encoder to detect the
amount of rotation, the count in
the counter is reset at a reference
position and from that position the
number of pulses is added by the
counter.
● The reference position can be
anywhere and the count can be
unlimited.

Absolute encoders produce a unique

binary code output for each distinct angle
of the shaft.
● The code can be gray code,
excess gray code or natural binary
code.
● The shaft position is always known
in case of absolute encoders even
after power failures.

9
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

2. Temperature Sensors
● used to measure amount of heat
*Important Notes*
energy that allows to detect a
physical change in temperature from ● The amount by which the
a particular source and converts the resistance decreases as the
data for a device or user temperature increases is not
● the changes in the temperature constant, it varies in a non linear
correspond to change in its physical way.
property like resistance or voltage ● A formula can be used to calculate
the resistance of the thermistor at
Types of Temperature Sensors any given temperature.
A. Thermistors ○ Normally these are
● a temperature sensitive calculated for you and the
resistor that changes its information can be found in
physical resistance with the the devices datasheet.
change in temperature.
● fire alarms, ovens,
refrigerators, digital
thermometers

10
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Resistor Temperature Detectors C. Thermocouple

(RTD) ● Voltage devices that indicate
● The resistance of the device temperature measuring with
is directly proportional to the a change in voltage. As
temperature, increasing in a temperature goes up, the
positive direction when the output voltage of the
temperature rises, resistance thermocouple rises.
going up. ● kilns, gas turbine exhaust,
● motors, generators diesel engines, flame
sensors in safety devices for
gas powered appliances

*Important Notes*

In operation, a small excitation current is

passed across the element, and the
voltage, which is proportional to
resistance, is then measured and
converted to units of temperature
calibration.

11
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

D. Silicon 3. Light Sensors

● resistance properties are ● a passive sensor that is used to
taken in bulk rather than just indicate the intensity of the light by
the junction of differently examining the radiant energy that
doped areas exists in a certain range of
● at low temperatures, silicon frequencies
sensors provide positive ● convert the light energy in the form
temperature coefficient of photons to electrical energy in the
form of electrons

Types of Light Sensors

A. Light Dependent Resistor
● a semiconductor device that
changes its electrical
resistance depending on the
presence of light
● changes its electrical
resistance from a high value
of several thousand Ohms in
the dark to only a few
hundreds of Ohms when light
is incident on it by creating
electron – hole pairs in the
material
● alarm clocks, street lights,
light intensity meters, burglar
alarm circuits

12
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Photodiode
● When a photodiode is irradiated
● In the class of photo junction
by a flash of light, voltage is
device which is basically a
produced.
PN junction light sensor
● The voltage produced will be in a
● made from semiconductor
very small dynamic range and it
PN junctions and are
has a non-linear characteristic.
sensitive to visible light and
● When a photodiode is configured
infrared light
with OP-AMP in this mode, there
● When light is incident on a
will be very little variation with
photodiode, the electrons
temperature.
and holes are separated and
will allow the junction to
conduct
● smoke detectors, compact
disc players, TV and remote
controls

*Important Notes*

Photoconductive Mode
In this mode, the photodiode will act in
reverse biased condition.
● Cathode will be positive and
anode will be negative.
● When the reverse voltage
increases, the width of the
depletion layer also increases.
● Due to this the response time and
junction capacitance will be
reduced.
● Comparatively this mode of
*Important Notes* operation is fast and produces
electronic noise.
Photovoltaic Mode
This is otherwise called Zero Bias mode.
● When a photodiode operates low
frequency applications and
ultra-level light applications, this
mode is preferred.

13
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

C. Phototransistor 4. Pressure Sensors

● basically NPN transistors ● a device that senses pressure and
with their large base terminal converts it into an electric signal
electrically isolated or ● deployment of these sensors is not
unconnected only very useful in manufacturing,
● to control the sensitivity, but also in the maintenance of whole
some photo transistors water systems and heating systems,
allows base connection as it is easy to detect any fluctuation
● if a base connection is used, or drops in pressure
a base current is generated
when the photons hit the Types of Pressure Sensors
surface, and causes a A. Absolute
collector to emitter current to ● used in measuring air
flow pressure, specifically for
● infrared receivers, CD applications such as
players, position sensing, barometric measurements for
coin counters weather or in altimeters
● vacuum packaging of
medical products in a clean
environment to ensure
sanitary and bacteria free
delivery to hospitals

14
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Gauge C. Differential
● measures the pressure at its ● typically packaged with two
port with respect to the local ports to which pipes can be
atmospheric pressure attached then connected to
● can be compared to using a the system where the
multimeter’s DC measurement is to be made
measurement range, where ● measurements made are
the display shows the voltage fully independent of
at the positive probe with atmospheric pressure, unlike
respect to the negative gauge sensors.
● has the back of the sensing
element vented to provide a
reference to atmospheric
pressure

15
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

5. Water Quality Sensors C. Turbidity

● used to detect the water quality and ● measure suspended solids in
Ion monitoring primarily in water water, typically it is used in
distribution systems river and stream gaging,
wastewater and effluent
Types of Water Quality Sensors measurement
A. Chlorine Residual
● measures chlorine residual
(i.e. free chlorine,
monochloramine & total
chlorine) in water and most
widely used as disinfectant
because of its efficiency
● drinking and pool water

D. Conductivity
● carried out in industrial
processes primarily to obtain
information on total ionic
concentrations (i.e. dissolved
compounds) in water
solutions

B. Total Organic Carbon

● used to measure organic
element in water
● TOC is the measure of the
level of organic molecules or
contaminants in purified
water
E. pH
● TOC is an analytic technique
● measure the pH level in the
that helps organizations
dissolved water, which
understand whether the
indicates how acidic or basic
water they are using is pure
(alkaline) it is
enough for their processes

16
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

F. Oxygen-Reduction Potential 6. Chemical Sensors

● provides insights into the ● goal is to indicate changes in liquid
level of oxidation/reduction or to find out air chemical changes
reactions occurring in the ● used in industrial environmental
solution monitoring and process control,
intentionally or accidentally released
harmful chemical detection,
explosive and radioactive detection,
recycling processes on Space
Station, pharma industries and
laboratory

Types of Chemical Sensors

A. Chemiresistor
● a material that changes its
electrical resistance in
response to changes in the
nearby chemical environment
● rely on the direct chemical
interaction between the
sensing material and the
analyte
● sensing material and the
analyte can interact by
covalent bonding, hydrogen
bonding, or molecular
recognition

17
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Fluorescent Chloride 7. Gas Sensors

● if a fluorescent indicator dye ● specifically used to monitor changes
molecule binds the of the air quality and detect the
to-be-measured ion, the presence of various gasses
binding of the ion induces a ● used in manufacturing, agriculture
structural change which and health and used for air quality
changes the dye's monitoring, detection of toxic or
fluorescent properties combustible gas, hazardous gas
thereby changing the monitoring in coal mines, oil & gas
fluorescence light intensity industries, chemical laboratory
● measure chloride transport research, manufacturing – paints,
across cell membranes to plastics, rubber, pharmaceutical &
regulate cell volume, resting petrochemical
potential, charge balance,
and membrane excitability Types of Gas Sensors
A. Carbon Dioxide
● measures gaseous carbon
dioxide levels by detecting
the quantity of IR radiation
absorbed by carbon dioxide
molecules
● sensor employs a hot metal
filament that acts as an IR
source to generate IR
radiation detects the
presence of the carbon
monoxide (CO) gas to
prevent carbon monoxide
poisoning

18
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

B. Breathalyzer D. Electrochemical
● a device for estimating blood ● used for detecting oxygen
alcohol content (BAC) from a and toxic gasses
breath sample ● measure the concentration of
a specific gas within an
external circuit and done by
method of oxidation or
reduction reactions
● these reactions generate the
positive or negative current
flow through said external
circuit
● detection and measurement
of very low concentrations of
gasses

C. Catalytic Bead Sensor

● have two basic elements: a
detector which contains a
catalytic material sensitive to
flammable gasses, and a
compensator element which
is inert
● combustible gasses will burn
in the presence of oxygen
only on the detector, causing
a rise in temperature and a
corresponding rise in
electrical resistance
● used for combustible gas
detection

19
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

8. Smoke Sensors B. Ionization

● a device that senses smoke ● used in most common type of
(airborne particulates & gasses), and smoke alarm and are quicker
it’s level at sensing flaming, fast
● extensively used by manufacturing moving fires
industry, HVAC, buildings and ● works on the principle of
accommodation infra to detect fire ionization, kind of chemistry
and gas incidences to detect molecules causing
● serves to protect people working in a trigger alarm
dangerous environments, as the
whole system is much more effective
in comparison to the older ones

Types of Smoke Sensors

A. Optical (Photoelectric)
● used the light scatter
principle trigger to occupants
● alarm contains a pulsed
infrared LED which pulses a
beam of light into the sensor
chamber every 10 seconds
to check for smoke particles

20
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

9. Infrared Sensors 10. Level Sensors

● used to sense certain characteristics ● used to determine the level or
of its surroundings by either emitting amount of fluids, liquids or other
or detecting infrared radiation substances that flow in an open or
● also capable of measuring the heat closed system
being emitted by the objects ● liquid levels in open or closed
● used in healthcare as they make containers, sea level monitoring &
monitoring of blood flow and blood Tsunami warning, water reservoirs,
pressure simple medical equipment, compressors,
● used in a wide array of regular smart hydraulic reservoirs, machine tools,
devices such as smartwatches and beverage and pharmaceutical
smartphones as well processing, high or low-level
● visualize heat leaks in electronics, detection
monitor blood flow, art historians to
see under layers of paint), wearable Type of Level Sensors
electronics, optical communication, A. Point
non-contact based temperature ● usually detect the particular
measurements, automotive specific level and respond to
blind-angle detection the user if the sensing object
is above or below that level
● integrated into single device
to get an alarm or trigger

B. Continuous
● measure liquid or dry
material levels within a
specified range and provide
outputs which continuously
indicate the level
● the best example of it is fuel
level display in the vehicle

21
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

11. Motion Detection Sensors

● used to detect the physical
movement (motion) in a given area
and it transforms motion into an
electric signal; motion of any object
or motion of human beings
● used for intrusion detection systems,
automatics door control, boom
barrier, smart camera, toll plaza,
automatic parking systems,
automated sinks/toilet flusher, hand
dryers, energy management
systems C. Microwave
● sends out radio wave pulses
Types of Motion Detection Sensors and measures the reflection
A. Passive Infrared (IR) of a moving object
● detects body heat (infrared ● they cover a larger area than
energy) and the most widely infrared & ultrasonic sensors,
used motion sensor in home but they are vulnerable to
security systems electrical interference and
more expensive
● used to detect the heartbeats
of human, elevator shaft way,
security issues and traffic law
enforcement

B. Ultrasonic
● sends out pulses of
ultrasonic waves and
measures the reflection off a
moving object by tracking the
speed of sound waves
● used in anti-collision
detection, presence
detection, box sorting, easy
control of trash collection
vehicles, bottle counting on
drink filling machines

22
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Fundamental of Instrumentation and Control
BS Electronics and Communication Engineering 2-1 | ECEN 50024

Factors in Choosing a Sensor

Environmental Economic Factors

Factors

Temperature Range Cost

Humidity Effects Availability

Corrosion Lifetime

Over Range
Protection

Susceptibility to EM
Interferences

Ruggedness

Power
Consumption

Self-Test Capability

Size

23