BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

BDT 411 (INTRODUCTION TO FUNDATION ENGINEERING)
UNITS: 2

(Site Investigation, Selection of Foundation and Bearing Capacity Foundation Engineering)

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
The art of selecting, designing, and constructing the elements that transfer the weight (Weight
may also include horizontal loads in addition to vertical loads) of a structure to the underlying
soil or rock is termed as Foundation Engineering. A foundation is interfacing element between
the superstructure and the underlying soil or rock. The loads transmitted by the foundation to the
underling soil must not cause soil shear failure or damaging settlement of the superstructure.

DEFINITION OF STRUCTURES
Assemblage of Load Bearing Elements such as Beam, Column, etc

The term “foundation engineering” is used to include the design of foundations for buildings and
other structures and also for such non foundation problems as designs of retaining walls,
bulkheads, cofferdams, tunnels, and earth dams, as well as the design of natural slopes,
dewatering of soils, and stabilization of soils mechanically and chemically.
The geotechnical engineer is responsible for all geotechnical requirements of all types of
structures.
For any construction project, the geotechnical engineer‟s responsibilities include:

Developing a soil exploration plan;

Preparing the Preliminary Geotechnical Report (PGR) to assist in the selection of
foundation type and to perform a preliminary seismic analysis/evaluation;
Identifying the proposed boring locations and anticipated foundation type;
Assisting the Construction engineers by preparing pile driving criteria, reviewing pile
installation plans and determining acceptance of as-built piles.
Also assisting bridge designer in determining pile production lengths based on field load
tests.

PROPERTIES OF FOUNDATION
 Strength: Load bearing capacities: Crystalline rocks (very strong - 12,000 ), sedimentary
rocks (intermediate - 6,000 ) and other types of soils (relatively lower - 2,000 to 3,000 ).
 Stable under loads (creep, shrinkage and swelling).
 Drainage characteristics: Porosity and permeability.
 Soil property estimation: Subsurface exploration (test pits - less than 8 ft in depth;
borings - greater than 8 ft) - Estimate level of water table - Testing of soil sample in
laboratory for various properties: Particle size distribution, Liquid limit, Plastic limit,
Water content, Permeability, Shrinkage/ swelling, Shear/compressive strength,
Consolidation (creep and settlement)
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS
Some amount of excavation required for every building - Top soil consisting of organic matter
is removed - Below the region of soil erosion (by water and wind) & below the level of
permafrost - To the required depth at which the bearing capacity necessary for the building is
met - A variety of machines used for excavation - The sides of excavation too be protected from
caving in by benching, sheeting (soldier beams and lagging, sheet piles, slurry walls, etc.) or
bracing (cross-slot, rakers or tiebacks) - De-watering using well-points & sumps, and watertight
barriers - Mixing the soil by rotating paddles Bulldozers, Shovel dozers, Back hoes ,Bucket
loaders, Scrapers, Trenching machines Power shovels, Tractor-mounted rippers, Pneumatic
hammers, Drop balls, Hydraulic splitters and Blasting.
Purpose of Foundation: All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to
fulfill the following objectives and purposes;
i. To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensity
of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.
iii. To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
Factors Affecting the Depth of Foundation For economic consideration, the depth at which the
foundation is located (i.e. Df) is kept as small as possible. Typically it is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5
m below the ground surface for buildings that do not have a basement. For those building having
a basement, Df can be 3.5 m or more. In determining Df, the soil profile is carefully studied and
the influence of the following factors accounted for.
1. Presence of Loose Fill Often one encounters pockets of loose fill of recently dumped soil or
construction waste at or near the ground surface. Foundations should be placed below such loose
fills.
2. Depth of Water Table Wherein possible, shallow foundations are not placed below the
ground water level to avoid expensive de-watering costs during foundation construction.
3. Lateral Variability Usually all foundations are placed at the same D f . there are soil profiles
that calls for a different D f for different footings. For example, consider a profile in which rock
exist a shallow depth and is gently sloping in some direction. In an attempt to take advantage of
the high allowable soil pressure associated with placing the foundation on rock, we will have a
different D f for each footings so that each can be placed on the rock.
4. Zones of Volume Change In cold regions where temperature changes cause soil near the
ground surface to go through cycles of freezing and thawing with consequent changes in soil
volume, foundation are placed below the zone so affected. Similarly in swelling soils, there is a
zone that undergoes
volume change due to wetting and drying cycles. D f is selected such that it is more than the
thickness of this zone.
5. Scour When shallow foundations are designed to be placed below the river bed for river
crossing structures, one must recognize that the elevation of the river bed changes on account of
scour that occurs when the water flows at high velocity such as during floods. Soil Exploration
The knowledge of subsoil conditions at a site is a prerequisite for safe and economical design of
substructure elements. The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary
information about the surface and subsurface features of the proposed area including the position
of the ground water table, are termed as soil exploration or site investigation. The primary
objectives of soil exploration are
 Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.
 Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent in the
horizontal direction.
 The location of ground water table (GWT).
 Obtaining soil and rock samples from the various strata.
 The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure.
 Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.

Scope of Soil Investigation

The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type, size, and importance of the structure, the
client, the engineer's familiarity with the soils at the site, and local building codes. Structures that
are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings usually require a
thorough soils investigation compared to a foundation for a house. A client may wish to take a
greater risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site
investigation. If the geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very
simple soils investigation to confirm his/her experience. Some local building codes have
provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. It is mandatory that a visit be made to the
proposed site. In the early stages of a project, the available information is often inadequate to
allow a detailed plan to be made.
A site investigation must be developed in phases. Phases of a Soils Investigation: The soil
investigation is conducted in phases. Each
preceding phase affects the extent of the next phase. The various phases of a soil investigation
are given below:
Phase I. Collection of available information such as a site plan, type, size, and importance of the
structure, loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air photographs,
geologic maps, hydrological information and newspaper clippings.
Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the
topography and geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site visit all the
information gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site. Here visual
inspection is done to gather information on topography, soil stratification, vegetation, water
marks, ground water level, and type of construction nearby.
Phase III. Detailed soils exploration. Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in
the form trial pits or borings, their spacing and depth. Accordingly, the soil exploration is carried
out. The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted and the type of sampling
done, presence of water table if met with are recorded in the form of bore log. The
soil samples are properly labeled and sent to laboratory for evaluation of their physical and
engineering properties.
Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site,
methods of exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the
groundwater. This should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
waterbearing stratum, and soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during
construction.

Steps Involved in Sub Soil Investigation

Site Investigation.
Soil Exploration (Boring Holes).
Collection of Soil Samples.
Conducting the in-situ tests.
Study of Ground water conditions and Collection of water sample for chemical analysis.
Geophysical Exploration ( If required).
 Preparation of Drawings, Charts, etc.
Analysis of Data Collected.
Preparation of Report

Soil investigation is required for the following purposes –

1. To know the allowable bearing capacity of foundation for proposed building.
2. To know the depth and type of foundation for the proposed building.
3. To know the allowable passive resistance for the foundation of proposed building.
4. To know the type, grading and nature of soil.
5. To know the ground water level.

Methods of Soil Investigation

The common methods of soil investigation are:
1. Inspection.
2. Test pits.
3. Probing, and
4. Boring.
1. Inspection: In some places you don't have to investigate much. You'll get enough data to
design the foundation of the proposed building by just inspecting the plot. This method of
soil investigation includes knowing the geological condition of the plot, getting data
about adjacent buildings, their foundation type and depth, etc.
2. Test pits: This is done to collect soil samples for detail analysis. In this method several
pits are dug by hand or excavator. The depth of pit is below 5 feet so that one can have
visual inspection. Several samples are collected from the pit of both disturbed and
undisturbed soil.
3. Probing: In this method a 25 mm or 40 mm diameter steel bar is driven into the ground
till solid soil strata is found. It is normally driven by hammer. The penetration and
withdrawal of the steel rod is closely observed to know the nature of soil layer.
4. Boring: In this method several bore holes are made for the purpose of collecting soil
sample from below the ground. Then the collected sample is analyzed for preparing the
soil report.
Typical steps of soil investigation
Soil investigation involves following steps -
1. Details planning for the sequence of operations Collecting the samples of soil from the
plot. Determining the soil characteristics by conducting field tests. Study the condition
of ground water level. Collecting ground water sample for chemical analysis. Soil
exploration. Testing all collected samples in the laboratory. Analysis the test results.
Preparing report.
A recommended procedure is as follows:
 Collect data, categorize it and rough out a preliminary draft.
 Edit the draft and seek methods of visual presentation and tabulation.
 Polish re-draft and check for improvements in presentation check for typing
errors and appearance.
Factors affecting quality of report.
There are other factors which can affect the quality of the investigation, recommendations and
the engineering judgment. Among those which may affect some engineers are:
 Uncritical acceptance of well-presented opinion, results of sophisticated (but not
necessarily relevant) tests and over- and unqualified respect for some specialists.
 Allowing site difficulties to dictate the investigation in an attempt to keep the
investigation simple and cheap.
 Lack of recognition that piling and other foundation techniques can be used to economic
advantage even on good sites.
 Lack of recognition that some fills, possibly upgraded by ground improvement
techniques, can provide adequate and economic bearing strata.
 Lack of appreciation that advances in structural design can accommodate relatively high
settlements.
 Under-estimation of the importance of the designer, at least, visiting the site during the
investigation or dismissal of trial pits as unscientific or out-dated.

Objectives of Site Investigation

1. To access the general suitability of the site.
 2. To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.
3. To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock,
which may affect the design and mode of construction of proposed structure and
foundation?
4. To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to
ground and other local conditions.
5. To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for disposal of
water or surplus material.
6. To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and man made changes in
conditions and the results arising from such changes.
7. ign for the failed
structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be unsafe.
8. To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on
foundation material. Methods of site exploration.
The various types of site investigation are: Open excavation, Boring, Subsurface Sounding
and Geophysical Methods Geophysical exploration.

Geophysical exploration may be used with advantage to locate boundaries between different
elements of the subsoil as these procedures are based on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic,
electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements of the subsoil may be
different. Differences in the gravitational, magnetic and radioactive properties of deposits near
the surface of the earth are seldom large enough to permit the use of these properties in
exploration work for civil engineering projects. However, the resistivity method based on the
electrical properties and the seismic refraction methods based on the elastic properties of the
deposits have been used widely in large civil engineering projects. Different methods of
geophysical explorations. Electrical resistivity method Electrical resistivity method is based on
the difference in the electrical conductivity or the electrical resistivity of different soils.
Resistivity is defined as resistance in ohms between the opposite phases of a unit cube of a
material.