Study Guide for

EEP3701


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 CONTENTS

 Page
INTRODUCTIONv

Study unit 1: High-voltage DC transmission1

1.1 Learning outcomes 1
1.2 Introduction1
1.3 History3
1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of HVDC 5
1.5 Types of HVDC links 6
1.6 Cahora-Bassa Gauteng HVDC 6
1.7 Features of an HVDC system 7
1.7.1 Converter station 7
1.7.2 Analysis of a 12-pulse rectifier 8
1.7.2.1 Phase notation 8
1.7.2.2 Diode currents 9
1.7.2.3 Leg feed currents 11
1.7.2.4 The transformer secondary winding currents 12
1.7.2.5 The transformer primary winding currents 12
1.7.2.6 The line current feeding the 12-pulse rectifier 14
1.7.2.7 The harmonic profile of the phase current 14
1.8 Conclusion15

Study unit 2: Protection of switching devices by using snubbers16

2.1 Learning outcomes 16
2.2 Introduction16
2.3 Snubbers17
2.3.1 Classification of snubbers 17
2.3.2 Wave shaping by using snubbers 17
2.3.3 Approach to derivations 18
2.3.4 Chopper control of average DC voltage to an inductive load 18
2.3.5 Switching action in load current between free-wheeling diode and
transistor19
2.3.6 The principle of duality 19
2.4 Conclusion20

Study unit 3: High-frequency fluorescent lighting21

3.1 Learning outcomes 21
3.2 Introduction21
3.3 Electronic ballast 22
3.4 Lamp operation 23
3.5 Passive power factor correction 26
3.6 Conclusion28

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CO N T EN T S

Study unit 4: Resonant converters29

4.1 Learning outcomes 29
4.2 Introduction29
4.3 Switch configurations 29
4.4 Zero-voltage switching converters 30
4.5 Zero-current switching converters 31
4.6 Duality of ZVS and ZCS converters 32
4.7 Conclusion32

Study unit 5: DC motor drives33

5.1 Learning outcomes 33
5.2 Introduction33
5.3 DC motor basics 34
5.3.1 A single-phase DC motor drive 34
5.3.2 Equivalent circuits 36
5.3.3 Half-controlled operation modes 37
5.3.4 Mathematical modelling of the motor current 39
5.3.5 Determining the average motor current 40
5.3.6 Algorithm for solving half-controlled single-phase DC drive problems 41
5.4 Fully controlled single-phase DC motor drive 43
5.4.1 Newton-Raphson method 43
5.5 Three-phase DC motor drive 45
5.6 Conclusion51

Study unit 6: Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)52

6.1 Learning outcomes 52
6.2 Introduction52
6.3 Thyristor-controlled reactor 56
6.4 Fixed-capacitor thyristor-controlled reactor compensation 57
6.5 Conclusion58

Study unit 7: AC Motor Variable Speed Drives (VSD)59

7.1 Learning outcomes 59
7.2 Introduction59
7.3 Scalar control 60
7.4 Direct torque control 61
7.5 Vector control 64
7.5.1 Rotating voltage space vector 65
7.5.2 Reference frames 69
7.5.3 Clarke Transform 71
7.5.4 Park Transform and Inverse Park Transform 74
7.5.5 Space vector modulation (SVM) 77
7.6 Conclusion87

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 INTRODUCTION

1. Getting started
Welcome to Power Electronics IV (PCE4701), a module offered by Unisa’s
Department of Electrical Engineering. I would like to wish you success with
your academic year.

Your study material for this module includes:

•• This study guide
•• Your prescribed book
•• Tutorial Letter 101
•• Any other tutorial letters you may receive through the year

Details of your prescribed book are given in Tutorial Letter 101.

Tutorial Letter 101 will be part of your study pack or will be posted to you,
but you can also access it on myUnisa. You can do this by clicking on Official
Study Material in the menu on the left of the module’s myUnisa site.

Tutorial Letter 101 is just one of the tutorial letters you will be receiving during
the year. It is extremely important that you should read this Tutorial Letter
carefully.

In this introduction, I will give you an overview of and some general information
about this module. I will also tell you more about how you can study in this
module and about the assessment in the module.

The study guide, prescribed book and tutorial letters contain everything you
need to complete this module. However, you may benefit from also using the
module website on myUnisa, which allows you to do the following:
•• Submit assignments
•• Access your official study material
•• Access the Unisa Library functions
•• “Chat” to your lecturer (or e-tutor if you have one) and to fellow students
in online discussion Forums
•• Access a variety of learning resources
Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional
resources uploaded throughout the semester.

2. Contact details and student support services

My contact details as well as those of the academic department are provided in
Tutorial Letter 101. Should you need to contact the university about matters not
related to the content of this module, consult the publication Study @ Unisa,
which you can access on the myUnisa homepage. This brochure contains
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INTRODUCTION

information on how to contact the university (e.g. to whom you can write
for different queries, important telephone and fax numbers, addresses and
details of the opening and closing times of particular facilities). It also contains
information about the various student support systems and services available
at Unisa (e.g. student counselling, tutorial classes, language support).

You can use the following contact details:

Unisa website http://www.unisa.ac.za or

http://mobi.unisa.ac.za

E-mail (general enquiries) info@unisa.ac.za

Queries related to application and study-info@unisa.ac.za

registration

Assignment enquiries assign@unisa.ac.za

Examination enquiries exams@unisa.ac.za

Study material enquiries despatch@unisa.ac.za

Student account enquiries finan@unisa.ac.za

Assistance with myUnisa myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za

Assistance with myLife e-mail myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za

accounts

SMS (South Africa only) 32695 (You will receive an auto

response SMS with the various
options)

General fax number 012 429 4150

ƒƒ Fellow students
It is always a good idea to have contact with fellow students. You can do
this via the Discussion Forum on myUnisa. You can also use the Discussion
Forum to find out whether there are students in your area who would like to
form study groups.

ƒƒ Library
Study @ Unisa lists all the services offered by the Unisa library.

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To log into the Library website and access the library’s online resources and
services, you will be required to provide your login details, (i.e. your student
number and myUnisa password). This will enable you to:
•• request library material
•• view and renew your library material
•• use the library’s e-resources

ƒƒ Unisa Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)

DCCD supports prospective and registered students before, during and after
their Unisa studies. There are resources on their website (http://www.unisa.
ac.za/sites/corporate/default/About/Service-departments/Counselling-and-
Career-Development) and printed booklets available to assist you with the
following:
•• Career advice and how to develop your employability skills
•• Study skills
•• Academic literacy (reading, writing and quantitative skills)
•• Assignment submission
•• Exam preparation

Note that the DCCD can also assist you with improving your personal
wellness: see their website at http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/
default/About/Service-departments/Counselling-and-Career-Development/
Personal-development.

ƒƒ Student Health and Wellness

Your physical health is an important factor in your learning success. Obtaining
an educational qualification is challenging and may at times involve stress; it
is therefore vital that you try to maintain a healthy lifestyle to ensure that you
will cope physically with the demands of your studies.

If you suspect that you may suffer from a chronic condition or you know that
you suffer from such a condition but are unsure about medical options and
treatment, you could approach Unisa for further information and support. See
Unisa’s Student Health and Wellness website, which you can access from Unisa’s
main website (click on “About”, “Service Departments”, “Student Affairs” and
then on “Student Health and Wellness”). Here you will find details of Unisa’s
health and wellness clinics and some health and wellness resources.

Note that if you have a health-related condition such as HIV/Aids or have a

close family member with this or another health condition, then you need to
take cognisance of this in planning your studies. It will be unwise to cram tasks
as this creates enormous stress that negatively impacts on your performance
as a student and on your health. Planning your studies is essential so that you
work consistently and make progress.

It would be wise to know your health status (HIV/Aids, blood pressure, diabetes,
cholesterol, and so forth). If you are informed by medical tests, with the

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necessary medical and supportive interventions, you can prolong and improve
the quality of your life and your success in your studies.

If you would like to obtain basic information about the prevention of, testing
for and treatment of HIV/Aids, you could also consult the following web links:
•• http://www.aids.org/topics/aids-factsheets/
•• https://www.westerncape.gov.za/documents/public_info/L (click on ‘Living
with HIV/Aids’)

You could also approach the DCCD about counselling in this regard.
•• The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities (ARCSWiD)

You will find more information about this Centre on their webpage at
http://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/corporate/default/About/Service-departments/
Student-Affairs/ARCSWiD; you can also contact the Centre at 012 441 5470/1.

3. Purpose and outcomes of this module

The purpose of the module is to identify, analyse and solve problems relating
to the various applications, topologies and techniques of power electronics as
found in AC and DC motor drives, electrical power transmission, illumination
and resonant DC to DC conversion.

More specifically, the outcomes of this module are that you, after completing
the module, should be able to do the following:

•• Determine the harmonic content of waveforms

•• Analyse and solve problems involving:
–– AC variable speed drives
–– DC variable speed drives
–– flexible AC transmission systems
–– high-voltage DC transmission
–– high-frequency fluorescent lighting
–– turn-on and turn-off transient suppression

The next section will give you a better idea about how the content of the
module is structured and how the various ideas expressed in the learning
outcomes are related.

4. How the content of this module is organised

Every time energy has to be converted from one form to another, some of
that energy is converted to heat and is lost. Power electronics is a field that
specialises in making this conversion process as efficiently as possible. Various
topologies are utilised and each has its relative advantages and disadvantages.
Power electronics has found application in AC transmission, high-voltage DC
transmission, electrical motor drives and illumination as the quest to eliminate
losses is intensified. Competition in the world means that there is only space
for those companies and countries that produce products and services that are

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delivered at a competitive price and quality. Since energy is used in all these
manufacturing processes and other services, it is imperative to keep the cost
down. This module is about those power electronics topologies and systems
that are used in industry today in the areas mentioned above.

In study unit 1, three types of HVDC transmission systems are presented. The
bipolar system, which is used in the Cahorra-Bassa HVDC link between South
Africa and Mozambique, is used as a backdrop to investigate the converter
station topology as well as the typical waveforms that will be encountered
and the implications this has on the power factor due to the harmonics that
will be generated.

Study unit 2 shows how the design of a transient suppressor for a static switch
in power electronics can be implemented to not only protect the device against
the negative aspects of transients but also to minimise the energy lost during
the switching process.

In study unit 3, the use of power electronics to create an energy-efficient

electronic ballast for fluorescent lamps is expounded. This electronic ballast
not only makes the lamp more efficient, it also corrects the power factor that
leads to a more efficient use of the utilities infrastructure.

Study unit 4 introduces the use of resonance in DC to DC conversion to

minimise the losses experienced so that the static switch is switched ON or
OFF while either the voltage or the current is zero. Two types are considered:
zero-voltage switching (ZVS) and zero-current switching (ZCS).

DC motor drives are analysed in study unit 5. A single phase half-controlled and
fully-controlled bridge rectifier is used to introduce you to the basic concepts
and techniques needed to analyse such drives. The study unit ends with an
example where these concepts and techniques are applied to a half-controlled
three-phase rectifier controlling the speed of a DC motor.

Static switches have found application in solving some of the problems en-
countered on AC transmission lines. Study unit 6 introduces the topologies
and provides the opportunity to analyse one of these topologies to provide
mathematical proof that these systems do indeed influence the power flow
and power factor of a line.

Study unit 7 focusses on the all-important AC motor variable speed drive.

Three types of control techniques are introduced and the basic functioning
of direct torque as well as vector control is studied. The study unit ends with
an explanation of how to determine the timing sequence of the inverter to
produce the desired space vector in the motor.

Consult the Table of Contents to see the names and subsections of each of
the learning units.

Now that you have a better idea of how the module is structured, let us look
at what your studies will involve.

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5. Learning resources
Your main learning resources for this module will be your prescribed book
and this study guide. These resources will be supported by tutorial letters.

The prescribed book to be used in conjunction with the study guide is:
Janse van Rensburg, JF. 2012. Industrial Power Electronics. 2nd edition.
Vanderbijlpark: Lerato Publishers. ISBN: 9780981448305

The prescribed book is a comprehensive guide to the subject matter. You will
not be required to study the whole prescribed book, as I will guide you to
what is needed while working through the study units. You will need to study
the chapters that are mentioned at the beginning of each study unit and any
recommended reading sections. If you find a topic particularly interesting,
then feel free to do further reading on that topic.

The study guide may contain links to some websites and online video clips.
If you would like to find further information or explanations about a certain
topic, you can do your own internet search to find additional sites or videos. To
do this, go to www.google.com or a similar search site and type in keywords
related to the topic. To search for video clips, you can go to www.youtube.com.

6. Module-specific study plan

Distance learning is not easy and you should not underestimate the time and
effort involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan
how you will approach and complete this module. Consult Study @ Unisa for
suggestions about general time management and planning skills.

This is a year module offered over 30 weeks and it requires at least 120 hours
of study time. This means that you will have to study at least four hours per
week for this module.

Here is a suggested schedule that you could use as a guideline for studying
this module.

ACTIVITY HOURS

Reading and rereading Tutorial Letter 101 and the Introduction 3

to the study guide

Skimming study units to form a thorough general impression 5

of the whole

First reading of study units 1–7 (3 hours per learning unit) 21

In-depth study of study units 1– 4, making summaries and doing 24

learning activities (6 hours per learning unit)

Completing Assignment 01 3

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Completing Assignment 02 8

In-depth study of study units 5–7, making summaries and doing 18

learning activities (6 hours per learning unit)

Completing Assignment 03 8

Examination revision 27

Final exam 3

Total 120

Here is an example of how you could structure your study plan.

Time Activities

Mid- to end-February •• Read and reread Tutorial Letter 101 and

(2 weeks, 8 study hours) the Introduction to the study guide;
amend this study programme to suit your
own circumstances
•• Skim all the study units to form a
thorough general impression of the
whole

March and the first week First reading of study units 1–7 (3 hours per
of April (5 weeks, 20 study study unit)
hours)

Second and third week of •• In-depth study of unit 1, making

April (2 weeks, 8 hours) summaries and completing learning
activities, and participating in
discussions/activities on the e-tutor
site if applicable (6 hours)
•• Start in-depth study of unit 2 (2 hours)

Last week of April Complete Assignment 01 (depending on

(4 hours) how you will submit the completed
assignment, allow sufficient time for the
assignment to reach Unisa on or before
the due date)

First to third week of May In-depth study of units 2 and 3, making

(3 weeks, 12 hours) summaries and completing learning
activities (6 hours per study unit)

Last week of May to third In-depth study of units 4 and 5, making

week of June (4 weeks, summaries and completing learning
16 hours) activities (8 hours per study unit)

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Time Activities

Last week of June and first Complete Assignment 02 (depending

week of July (2 weeks, on how you will submit the completed
8 hours) assignment, allow sufficient time for the
assignment to reach Unisa on or before the
due date)

July and first week of In-depth study of units 6 and 7, making

August (4 weeks, 16 hours) summaries and completing learning
activities, and participating in discussions/
activities on the e-tutor site if applicable
(8 hours per study unit)

Second and third week of Complete and submit Assignment 03

August (2 weeks, 8 hours) (depending on how you will submit
the completed assignment, allow sufficient
time for the assignment to reach Unisa on
or before the due date)

Last week of August and Revision and preparation for the exam
September (4 weeks+,
18 hours)

7. How you should go about studying this module

Distance learning is not easy and you should not underestimate the time and
effort involved. Once you have received your study material, please plan how
you will approach and complete this module. You can use the study plan in the
previous section as a guideline to draw up a reasonable study schedule that can
guide you through the whole module. Remember to take into consideration
the due dates of the assignments as given in Tutorial Letter 101 for this module.

The assignments in this module will take the form of written work and they
should give you an idea of how well you are making progress in achieving
the learning outcomes.

Your work on each study unit should involve the following:

•• Skim through each study unit and make your own summary of the concepts
and principles in it.
•• Do all the activities in every unit, as well as any additional activities that
you may be given on myUnisa. Should you have any queries, you may
raise these with your lecturer, fellow students or (if applicable) your e-tutor.
•• Do a reflection exercise at the end of every study unit. The study units
contain some reflective questions that you should answer.

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As you work, build up your own study and exam preparation file. This file will
not be assessed, but it will be an extremely valuable tool for you in completing
your assignments and revising for the examination.

A study file is a physical or electronic folder or file in which you gather

and compile additional and/or summarised information during the year as you
work through the learning material.

Your study file should comprise the following:

•• Answers to each activity in each study unit
•• A mind map/summary of each study unit
•• Your marked assignments (or a copy you made prior to submitting your
assignment)
•• Your reflections on each study unit
•• Where relevant, any extra reading material taken from the internet, additional
books, medical and/or scientific journals
•• A glossary explaining any terms that were new to you, in your own words

Compile and revise the contents of your study file to ensure that you achieve
the learning outcomes of this module.

8. Assessment in this module

Your work in this module will be assessed by the following:
•• Three written assignments, which will be used to calculate a year mark that
will count 30% towards your final mark.
•• One written examination of 3 hours, which will count 70% towards your
final mark.

Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about the assessment in this
module. Make sure you read the following information in the tutorial letter:
•• How your assignment and exam marks will be calculated
•• The due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
•• How you should submit your assignments
•• Examination periods, admission and marks

Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions.

Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also access
an electronic version on myUnisa, by clicking on Official Study Material.

Good luck and enjoy the course!

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1 STUDY UNIT 1

1 High-voltage DC transmission

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be knowledgeable about the WESTCOR
project, the HVDC transmission lines in Africa, the advantages and disadvantages
of HVDC transmission as compared with HVAC transmission and the three
different types of HVDC links. More specifically, you should be able to do
the following:
•• Sketch simplified diagrams and explain the functional operation of the three
types of HVDC links
•• Sketch the basic topology of a converter terminal
•• Graphically derive the voltages and currents present in a converter terminal
•• Determine the RMS value of the currents present in the various components
of a converter terminal
•• Determine the frequency components present in the phase and line currents
on the AC side of a converter terminal
•• Sketch the harmonic profile
•• Determine the total harmonic distortion (THD)
•• Determine the input distortion factor (DF)
•• Calculate the input power factor (pf)

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this study unit, read the chapter on high-voltage
DC transmission in your prescribed book.

Have you ever wondered why the conventional way of transporting electrical
energy is AC and not DC? Edison used DC transmission in New York between
1860 and 1890. The high currents causing losses in the conductors necessitated
that generator sets had to be installed in every city block to keep the voltage
drop in the conductors to an acceptable limit. In those days, there was no
means of stepping the DC voltage up to a high value to reduce the current
(and thus the losses) and then to step the DC voltage down at the end user.

Then Tesla introduced his three-phase system with step-up and step-down
transformers. This meant that electrical energy could be generated where
there was an abundance of natural energy resources (such as the Niagara
Falls), stepped up to a high voltage (low current), transported over hundreds of
kilometres and then stepped down to a low voltage with a high current as the
load demanded. DC distribution of electrical energy did not make economic
sense anymore and was abandoned.

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However, technology is always evolving and what may not be economically

viable today may become economically viable tomorrow. In the 1920s it was
recognised that there were applications in which HVDC transmission had
advantages over HVAC transmission. However, there were no high-voltage
devices available for the conversion of AC to DC and vice versa.

The first commercially viable long-distance DC transmission was done in 1954

in Sweden by using high-voltage mercury arc valves (Gotland project: 100 kV,
20 MW, 98 km submarine cable). In the 1970s, the thyristor valve was used in
HVDC applications and since the 1990s the IGBT valve has found application
in HVDC applications. (A valve is a term used in HVDC applications to indicate
that many devices are connected in series and parallel configurations to achieve
the desired voltage and current ratings.)

In this study unit, we will explore the types of HVDC systems, history, advantages
and disadvantages, African HVDC links, converter station topology and analysis
involving currents encountered in a converter station and the power lines
feeding it.

HVDC is not the most widely used method of transmission of electrical power,
but it has its own peculiar application scenarios where it is more cost effective
than HVAC transmission. It is slowly gaining more and more application as
the transmission voltages and the distances between converter stations are
increased and the relative cost of converter stations becomes less in real terms.

In the African scenario, HVDC offers advantages over HVAC transmission due
to the following:
•• There are often large distances between generating facilities and large
consumers
•• In many cases, there is cross-border transmission (sometimes multiple
cross-borders)
•• Language barriers (Africa is divided in the French-, Portuguese- and English-
speaking countries)

A complete chapter in the prescribed book is dedicated to HVDC, but due to

the changing nature of technology, international politics as well as economics,
the information presented in any book may quickly become outdated. However,
having said that, certain basics will stay relevant, such as
•• the three basic types of HVDC transmission
•• the basic topology used in the converter stations
•• the typical wave shapes encountered for voltage and current
•• the fact that harmonics are being generated by the converter stations and
thus the need for line traps (series resonant filters) on the DC side and filters
on the AC side of each converter

The technology that is continuously being improved is that of the electronic

semiconductor devices used in the converters. The voltage-withstanding
capability and current handling ability of newer devices are improved over
time, leading to periodical refurbishment of the converter stations. New HVDC
lines also utilise the latest available technology.

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

The voltage-withstand capability of devices have improved tremendously over

time. This has led to fewer devices to be connected in series in the valves. The
current handling ability has also improved. This means less series strings are
required in the valves for a given maximum valve current.

The original Cahora-Bassa-Gauteng HVDC scheme built in the 1970s had 46 000
thyristors. A thyristor is the family name given to devices that were known as
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR). The latest refurbishment of the Apollo station
(2006–2009) has replaced the 25 728 thyristors with 1 728 thyristors. The old
thyristors were 900 A devices and the new ones are 3 300 A devices with an
8,5-kV rating. Previously, 280 devices were required in series to achieve the
133-kV rating. The valve rating is currently 3 300 A 133 kV. Fewer components
leads to improved reliability as well as lower costs.

To keep abreast of newer developments, you should periodically do your own

research on certain related topics. You may find the following links helpful:
•• www.siemens.com
•• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahora_Bassa_(HVDC)
•• https://library.e.abb.com/public/4b6d19b5e4afa385c12576640046ed66/
Upgrade%20of%20the%20Apollo%20HVDC%20converter%20station.pdf

1.3 HISTORY
For interest, here is a selection of the HVDC links in the world:

1954 HVDC transmission between the Swedish island Gotland to

the mainland via submarine cable
1961 Cross channel between UK and France
1962 Volgograd-Donbass (USSR)
1965 Benmore-Haywards (New Zealand)
Konti-Skan (Denmark – Sweden)
Sakuma (Japan)
1967 Sardinia (Italy)
1968 Vancouver, Pole 1 (Canada)
1970 Pacific Intertie (United States)
1972 Nelson River Bipole 1 (Canada)
Eel River (Canada)
1975 Kingsnorth (UK)
Cahora-Bassa (Mozambique – South Africa)
2010 Zambezi-Gerus (Zambia – Namibia)
Xiangjiaba – Shanghai (China)
2012 Jinping – Sunan (China)
2013 Rio-Madeira (Brazil)

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The HVDC link in Southern Africa between Cahora-Bassa in Mozambique

and South Africa has a converter station at Cahora-Bassa called Songo. It is
situated 1 420 km from Olifantsfontein in Gauteng, South-Africa and Apollo.
The HVDC link was built in the 1970s and was one of the largest in the world
at that time, with 1930 MW that could be transported over this line. The system
was out of service for most of the 1980s due to destruction caused by the civil
war in Mozambique. In the 1990s the link was restored and Songo as well
as Apollo refurbished with modern water-cooled thyristor valves and control
systems. It is possible to transmit power in both directions, but the power
usually flows from Songo to Apollo, since Mozambique is the country with
the excess generating capability. The latest upgrade to the Apollo station uses
36 8,5-kV 3 300 A thyristors connected in series.
The latest application of HVDC in Africa is the link between Zambia and
Namibia via the Caprivi region. The AC voltage of the network systems are
Zambezi 330 kV and Gerus 400 kV. The DC voltage of the link is 350 kV per
pole. The power rating of the HVDC link of Phase 1 is 300 MW and that of
Phase 2 is 600 MW. It was commissioned in 2010. The main reason for using
HVDC for the link was that it was considered unrealistic to use AC transmission
from coal-fired and hydro-electric generating stations over two international
borders. The length of the HVDC link is 970 km between converter stations.
One converter station is located near Katimo Mulilo and the other is located
between Otjiwarongo and Outjo. The type of HVDC transmission line that was
built for Phase 1 was a monopolar with a metallic return. It will be upgraded
in Phase 2 to a bipolar type. IGBT switching technology was utilised in the
converter stations built by ABB.
The proposed western power corridor (WESTCOR) (as discussed below), has
been aborted after 2010 due to differences arising between stakeholders. It
remains to be seen if a similar project can be launched in future. The information
about this aborted project is included here to illustrate the need for HVDC in
the African scenario since in this case, the power would have been transported
over large distances, across multiple borders and the languages in the countries
concerned are either French, Portuguese or English. Two HVDC links were
proposed for linking the DRC, Angola, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa.
Other HVDC and HVAC links are proposed to link Nigeria and regions further
north and west right up to Spain via Algeria and Morocco. Inga I and Inga II are
hydroelectric schemes built in the Congo River basin. Inga III is in the planning
stages (2016). The length of the transmission lines to South Africa would have
been about 3 000 km. Link 1 would have tapped off at Auas (Windhoek) in
Namibia and ended at Omega (Cape Town). Link 2 would have tapped off at
Gaborone (Botswana) and ended at Pegasus (Dundee) in KwaZulu-Natal.
It is envisaged that HVDC has many future applications in Africa as well as in
other regions of the world with the following scenarios:
•• Large distances between existing and future power transmission networks
•• Cross-border linking of power transmission lines and utilities
•• Increased proportion of renewable power generation
•• Flexibility requirements from power market
•• Environmental impact demands
•• Precise control of power flow required without inadvertent loop flow
(unavoidable in AC systems)
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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

FIGURE 1.1
HVDC and the SADC countries

Some other milestones in HVDC are the following:

•• The Xiangjiaba-Shanghai HVDC system is a bipolar 800 kV, 6400 MW
HVDC transmission system in China.
•• The Jinping-Sunan is a bipolar 800 kV 7200 MW HVDC scheme in China,
which was put into operation in December 2012.
•• The world’s first 800 kV HVDC line was that of the Yunnan-Guangdong
project in China (June 2012).
•• The 600 kV Rio-Madeira bipolar HVDC link is the longest in the world
(2375 km).

1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC

HVDC transmission has many advantages in certain scenarios when compared
to HVAC transmission and only one major disadvantage. These are discussed
in the prescribed book.

1 Ac tivit y 1.1
List the advantages and disadvantages of HVDC transmission when
compared to HVDC transmission.

You can check your answer against the information in the prescribed book.

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1.5 TYPES OF HVDC LINKS

There are three types of HVDC links, namely:
•• Monopolar
•• Bipolar
•• Homopolar

The prescribed book contains the block diagrams of the three types and a
brief introduction to each.

2 Ac tivit y 1. 2
Sketch labelled block diagrams of the three types of HVDC transmission
systems. Then briefly explain the difference between the three types in
your own words.

You can check your sketches against those given in the prescribed book. To
distinguish between the three types, you should have mentioned the number
of lines as well as the polarity of the lines.

Here follows a discussion of the Cahora-Bassa Gauteng HVDC as an example

of the bipolar type.

1.6 CAHORA-BASSA GAUTENG HVDC

The HVDC transmission between the hydro-electric power station at Cahora-
Bassa in Mozambique and Gauteng in South Africa is a bipolar type. Due to
the harmonics that are generated during the conversion process, filters have
to be installed on the AC and DC sides of the converter stations. The filters
are referred to as “line traps” since they are series resonant filters designed to
eliminate the specific harmonics that are generated. Series reactors provide a
high impedance to the harmonics and the line traps provide a low impedance
between the line and the earth.

The DC voltage of the line is referred to as the pole voltage. In the Cahora-
Bassa Gauteng link, the original pole voltage was 531 kV. The system was
upgraded to 600 kV between 2000 and 2010. However, it has been plagued
by insulation flashovers on the South African side and can only be operated
at 531 kV. The breakdowns on the South African side may be due to lightning
strikes, pollution or atmospheric conditions or a combination thereof.

The converter stations are made up of two 12-pulse converters. One 12-pulse
converter is connected to the positive pole and the other to the negative pole.
Each 12-pulse converter consists of two 6-pulse converters. One 6-pulse
converter is fed from a delta/star transformer and the other from a delta/delta
transformer. The delta/star transformer provides a 30º phase shift with respect
to the delta/delta configuration. Thus, there is a 30º phase shift between the
voltages fed to the two 6-pulse converters. The addition of the outputs of the
two 6-pulse converter outputs result in a 12-pulse output. The pulse number of

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

a converter refers to the number of pulses counted on the DC output (ripple)

for one cycle of the supply voltage. It is therefore also the ratio between the
ripple frequency and the supply frequency.

A simplified block diagram of the Cahora-Bassa Gauteng HVDC system is to

be found in the prescribed book.

3 Ac tivit y 1. 3
1. Sketch a labelled block diagram of the Cahora-Bassa HVDC system.
2. What type of HVDC is used in the Cahora-Bassa-Gauteng system?

1.7 FEATURES OF AN HVDC SYSTEM

The main features of an HVDC system are discussed in the next section.

1.7.1 Converter station

A simplified schematic of the converter stations on both sides of a bipolar
HVDC scheme is shown in figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.2
Diagrammatic presentation of the converter stations in a bipolar HVDC scheme

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Each thyristor represents a valve (consisting of a combination of thyristors in

series and/or in parallel to obtain the required reverse voltage and forward
current rating). A converter is the terminology used to indicate that the topology
can be used to rectify as well as to invert. The station on the sending side
will be rectifying (AC to DC), while the station on the receiving side will be
inverting (DC to AC). The 6-pulse converters and delta/star as well as delta/
delta transformers are identifiable in figure 1.2. Cahora-Bassa hydro-electric
generation station would be system A in this diagram and the Gauteng power
grid would be system B.

4 Ac tivit y 1.4
Determine the current flowing in each of the two DC transmission lines
between Cahora-Bassa and Gauteng if the power transmitted is 1800 MW.
Answer: 1695 A

1.7.2 Analysis of a 12-pulse rectifier

The analysis of a 12-pulse converter can be simplified by considering that a
thyristor triggered at the instant that it becomes forward biased is acting as a
diode would. Replacing the thyristors in a 12-pulse group (as shown in figure 1.2)
will result in a 12-pulse rectifier that can then be used to analyse the currents
and voltages encountered in such a topology as shown in figure 1.4. This is
another concept that is useful in such an analysis is phase notation.

1.7.2.1 Phase notation

Phase notation is used to indicate the phase relation between the windings of
transformers. This entails marking the starting end of a winding with a symbol
(a dot, double-dot, triple-dot, *, triangle, and so forth). All windings on the
same leg of a transformer share the same symbol and all are marked on the
side that the winding was started.

Imagine that you have to make the winding. You will grab hold of the starting
point of the wire and then wind the wire around a hollow object. When you
have wound the required number of turns on the winding, you will cut the
wire and secure it so it does not unwind. You now have a winding with two
ends. If you always wind in the same direction and then construct a transformer
with the windings, there will be a phase relationship between the starting
ends of the windings on the same leg of a transformer. Thus, phase notation
of windings only has a purpose if the notation is on the side of the winding
symbol. Placing the phase notation symbol in the middle of the winding
reduces the usefulness of this convention.

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

FIGURE 1.3
Correct manner of using phase notation

1.7.2.2 Diode currents

The diode currents in each half-bridge leg have exactly the same shape, but are
phase shifted by 120º from one leg to another. The numbering of the diodes
is in the order that the diodes will conduct in each cycle of the supply. Since
the interest at the moment is to determine the shape of the diode currents in
a leg, it is only necessary to determine that of diodes D1 and D4 and since the
one 6-pulse rectifier is fed from a star secondary and the other from a delta
secondary, the diodes are denoted with a subscript s for star and subscript d
for delta. Refer to figure 1.4.

FIGURE 1.4
12-pulse rectifier with a constant DC line current

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9 P CE4701/1


The magnitude of the voltage fed to each 6-pulse rectifier must be the same.
Thus, if the star winding supplies then the delta winding supplies .
The diodes denoted D1 in the 6-pulse rectifiers will conduct during the time
that the phase connected to their anodes is the most positive. The diodes
denoted D4 in the 6-pulse rectifiers will conduct during the time that the phase
connected to their cathodes is the most negative. Furthermore, the phase shift
between a star-connected transformer and a delta-connected transformer is
30º. Thus, the diode currents of the D1D4 legs of a 12-pulse rectifier supplying
a constant load current can be determined as shown in figure 1.5.

FIGURE 1.5
Diode currents of the D1D4 legs of star and delta secondary rectifier feeds

5 Ac tivit y 1. 5
Determine the diode RMS current as given in Figure 1.9 if IDC = 1695 A.
Answer: 979 A

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

1.7.2.3 Leg feed currents

The currents is and id are the leg feed currents from the star- and delta-connected
secondaries of the transformer feeding the two 6-pulse rectifiers. Only one
diode can conduct at a time in a specific leg. The current in a diode can only
flow in one direction (i.e. from anode to cathode). The current in a leg is taken
as positive when the current flows from the transformer in the direction of the
rectifier as shown by the arrow. If it flows in the opposite direction, it is taken
as negative. Thus, diodes in the D1 position in a leg will produce a positive
leg current and diodes in the D4 position in a leg will produce a negative leg
current. This is illustrated in figure 1.6 for the star-leg current is and in figure
1.7 for delta-leg current id.

FIGURE 1.6
Star-leg feed current is.

FIGURE 1.7
Delta-leg feed current id

6 Ac tivit y 1.6
Determine the RMS value of the star-leg current if IDC = 1695 A.
Answer: 1384 A

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1.7.2.4 The transformer secondary winding currents

The star-connection winding current is the same as the leg current is is. However,
the delta-connection winding current is different from the leg current id . It

. .
is the addition of two delta-winding currents as is shown in figure 1.8. Thus
id = i – i* where i is the current flowing in the winding with the • phase
notation and i* is the current in the * phase notated winding.

FIGURE 1.8
The delta-winding currents

In figure 1.8 subtraction of the two-stepped wave forms must result in zero in
the quasi-square wave during the first 60º and fourth 60º section. Thus the
magnitude during those two sections must be the same. Between those two
sections, the subtraction should result in IDC or – IDC. This is only possible if
the amplitudes are and – as indicated in figure 1.8.

7 Ac tivit y 1.7

.
Determine the RMS value of the transformers delta secondary winding
current i if IDC = 1695 A.
Answer: 799 A

1.7.2.5 The transformer primary winding currents

The wave shapes of the current in the primary windings can be derived from
the secondary windings’ wave shapes and applying the transformer equation.
The secondary winding voltages are Vs for the star secondaries and for
the delta-connected secondaries as has been previously stated. The primary
current induced by the secondary current will have the same shape as the
inducing secondary current but the magnitudes will be modified by the turns
ratio between the primary and secondary windings given by . This is
.
illustrated in figure 1.9 for the • delta windings with i being the secondary
winding current and being the primary winding current.

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

FIGURE 1.9
The delta/delta winding currents on the • leg

The delta/star transformer primary current is determined in the same manner

as in figure 1.9 and the result is shown in figure 1.10.

FIGURE 1.10
The delta/star winding currents on the • leg

8 Ac tivit y 1.9

Determine the RMS value of the delta/star transformer’s primary winding

current if IDC = 1695 A, secondary voltage is 67 kV and the primary
voltage is 132 kV.
Answer: 702 A

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1.7.2.6 The line current feeding the 12-pulse rectifier

The line current i primary is determined by two delta-connected primaries in
parallel. Treating these two delta primaries as one reduces the complexity in
determining the line current. The rest of the graphical determination of the
primary line current is left as an exercise for you to do in activity 1.10.

9 Ac tivit y 1.10
Verify the levels of the primary line current as provided in the prescribed
book. (To verify means that you must painstakingly confirm for yourself
that the levels indicated in the prescribed book are indeed correct.)

1.7.2.7 The harmonic profile of the phase current

The harmonic profile of a waveform provides a graphical presentation of the
frequency components that added together form the waveform of interest.
It consists of vertical bars representing the peak value of the pure sinusoid
and does not give any indication of phase shift as done in figure 1.11. It only
consists of the mod value and therefore the graph will only have a positive
vertical axis. The horizontal axis starting at zero will be numbered either as
multiples of the fundamental frequency present (i.e. 1, 3, 6, 9, and so forth)
or as 50 Hz, 150 Hz, 300 Hz, 450 Hz, and so forth, respectively. Zero on the
horizontal axis will display the DC component present.

Fourier analysis of any waveform results in the coefficients of the frequency

components of the waveform. These are then used to sketch the harmonic
profile. Since the harmonic profile provides peak values of the harmonic
components, these have to be divided by to determine the RMS values of
the specific harmonic. The prescribed book shows how the harmonic profile
of the primary phase current of a 12-pulse rectifier can be determined. The
application of Fourier analysis to the waveform leads to a formula that is then
used to determine the harmonic components.

10 Ac tivit y 1.11
1. The harmonic profile of a 12-pulse converter phase current is given
in figure 1.11.
1.1 Calculate the RMS value of the phase current if IL = 1000 A. Only
use the information given in figure 1.11.
1.2 Calculate the RMS value of the fundamental current.
1.3 Calculate the THD of the current.
1.4 Calculate the input distortion factor of the current.
1.5 Calculate the power factor if the voltage can be assumed to
be sinusoidal and the firing delay angle is zero.

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 S T U DY U N I T 1:  H i g h - vo l t a g e D C t r a nsm issi o n

FIGURE 1.11
Harmonic profile of phase current

2. Did you gain any new insights about HVDC systems while working
on this unit? If so, what were they?
3. Are your current mathematics knowledge and skills of such a
nature that you could follow the information in this unit and do the
calculations fairly easily? If not, what could you do to revise or improve
your skills? You may want to ask your lecturer for advice if necessary.

1.8 CONCLUSION
That concludes the study of the HVDC unit in this module. This does not mean
that everything related to this topic has been covered, but the study unit will
have given you a sound basic grasp of the topic and enough knowledge to
further educate yourself about the topic if the need arises in future.

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2 STUDY UNIT 2

Protection of switching devices by using

2

snubbers

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to explain the need for turn-ON
and turn-OFF snubbers and explain how the snubbers protect power switching
devices. More specifically, you should be able to do the following:
•• Explain what a snubber is and distinguish between various types of snubbers
•• Sketch the circuit of a turn- off snubber
•• Sketch the circuit of a turn- on snubber
•• Sketch the relevant waveforms of a turn- off snubber
•• Sketch the relevant waveforms of a turn- on snubber
•• Derive the formula for a turn- off snubber that minimises the power dissipated
in the device
•• Derive the formula for a turn- on snubber that minimises the power dissipated
in the device
•• Determine the energy dissipated in the device with and without a snubber
•• Do the design calculations for snubbers to ensure minimum switching loss

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the section on snubbers in
the chapter on device protection found in your prescribed book.

Power switching devices are not ideal devices as they suffer from limitations.
One of these limitations is the maximum rate of change of voltage ( dv / dt )
that the device can safely be subjected to. Another is the maximum rate of
change in current ( di / dt ) that the device can safely endure. Another aspect
is the maximum power that a device can handle, which is subject to a derating
curve based on the temperature of the device. Manufacturers publish these
ratings in the specific devices’ data sheet. The temperature of the device
depends on the ambient temperature over which there is little control; it also
depends on the average power dissipated in the device. As the frequency of
switching increases, so does the switching and losses become a larger and
larger component of the total losses in the device. The losses are directly related
to the temperature of the device, since all losses are manifested as heat. If the
temperature reaches a critical level, the device is usually destroyed. Cyclic
variations of temperature in the operating temperature range also place stress
on the internal structure of a device that can also lead to device failure. Thus,
heat dissipation should be minimised.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:  Pr o te c t i o n o f s w i tc h i n g d ev i ce s by u si n g snu b b e r s

2.3 SNUBBERS
The circuits that are used to limit these transients ( dv / dt and di / dt ) are called
snubbers, since they delay the rise of device current or voltage. To limit the
voltage rise rate, a capacitor is placed parallel to the device. An inductor in
series with the device limits the rate of rise of the current in the device.

In the next section, I discuss various aspects of snubbers.

2.3.1 Classification of snubbers

Snubbers may be dissipative or non-dissipative. The energy used to effect the
action of snubbing is lost in dissipative snubbers. Non-dissipative snubbers
return the energy to the circuit when the snubbing action has been performed.

Dissipative snubbers limit the rise of voltage and are classified as being
polarised, reverse polarised or unpolarised. Unpolarised snubbers are used
with bidirectional devices.

2.3.2 Wave shaping by using snubbers

If snubbers are not used, the voltage over a device will rise very rapidly during
turn-off, and during turn-on the current will rise very rapidly as shown in
figure 2.1. The same components that limit the rate of rise of current or voltage
can be used to shape one of the two components that determine the power
dissipated during the switching process. This allows for a reduction in the power
lost during the switching action. For instance, if the current can be kept low
until the voltage has fallen to a low value, then the product of V and I will be a
fraction of which it would have been. The same can be said that if the voltage
can be kept low until the current has fallen to a low value, the VI product will
be a fraction of what it would have been if left unaltered. Compare the wave
shapes in figure 2.1 with those in figure 2.2. What do you notice?

FIGURE 2.1
Switching wave shapes of device with no wave shaping

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17 P CE4701/1


If the device is only switched at a frequency of say 10 Hz, then the losses due
to switching will be negligible. However, if it is switched at say 5 kHz, the
switching losses will be the major part of the losses in the device.

The section of the prescribed book dealing with snubbers shows how the
switching losses in a device can be reduced by designing the snubber in such
a way that the switching losses are minimised.

11 Ac tivit y 2.1
1. Briefly explain what a snubber is, in your own words.
2. What is meant by wave shaping?
3. Consider figure 2.1 and determine the power dissipated in the device
due to switching only if V = 100 V and I = 60 A and the switching
frequency is 10 kHz. Note that no snubbing has been performed.
Note: P = (Won + Woff ) fs where is energy (J) and fs is the switching
frequency.
(181,46 W)

2.3.3 Approach to derivations

A derivation in electrical engineering always starts with a circuit diagram followed
by relevant graphs of voltage and current applicable to the formula being
derived. As a person studying to become an electrical engineering professional,
you should never write down the mathematical steps without reference to the
circuit and wave forms and timeously and relevant other comments. In this
module you will only receive marks for derivations if you include, apart from
the mathematical procedure, the following in this order: circuit diagram, relevant
labelled waveforms and commentary throughout the derivation to clarify the
mathematical procedure to help the reader understand the what, how and
why of the mathematical action taking place. Take note that according to the
Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA), “Engineering is the application of
science for the betterment of mankind.” You need to show that you are busy
with the application of science of which mathematics is a corner stone.

2.3.4 Chopper control of average DC voltage to an inductive load

The circuit in the prescribed book (repeated in figure 2.2) is that of a chopper.
A chopper applies a DC voltage to a load for a short period and interrupts
the supply for a short period. It therefore operates at a high frequency, and by
using duty cycle control, the average output voltage can be varied, i.e. Vout =
kVs where k = ton /T, Vs is the supply voltage and T is the switching frequency
period.

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 S T U DY U N I T 2:  Pr o te c t i o n o f s w i tc h i n g d ev i ce s by u si n g snu b b e r s

2.3.5 Switching action in load current between free-wheeling diode and

transistor
The load in the chopper circuit shown in the prescribed book is inductive
(repeated in figure 2.2). A free-wheeling diode in parallel to the load allows for
current flow in the load when the switching device (in this case a transistor) is
switched OFF. This means that the load current can be seen as being constant
over a switching cycle flowing either through the transistor or through the
diode. Since both the diode and the transistor are not ideal devices, they
do not switch ON and OFF in an instant. Switching ON and switching OFF
takes time. Thus, the switching ON time of the transistor will overlap with the
switching OFF time of the diode and vice versa.

Inspecting the graphs in figure 2.1 that are associated with turn-ON and turn-
OFF, it can be seen that both are labelled with t1 and t2. The time t2 is the time
it takes the device current to fall from ON-state value to zero during switching
OFF. During switching ON, t2 is the fall time of the device voltage from OFF-
state value to ON-state value. The time t1 is the instant at which the diode turns
OFF completely during the turn-ON process. During the turn-OFF process t1
is the instant at which the diode turns ON completely.

FIGURE 2.1
Turn-ON, Turn-OFF snubbers and applicable waveforms

The two derivations in the prescribed book show step by step how the derivation
should be done. The duality between the two equations derived can be used to
simplify the process if one equation is known and the other is to be determined.

2.3.6 The principle of duality

The principle of duality applied in electrical engineering means that if a
situation viewed on a voltage basis is analogous to another situation viewed
on a current basis, or vice versa, then the equations relating to one situation
can be derived from those of the other merely by a routine interchange of the
quantities or concepts. The formulae derived in the case of the turn-ON and

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19 P CE4701/1


turn-OFF snubbers provide an excellent opportunity where the principle of

duality can be applied successfully. The equations and are
called duals. Voltage and current are interchanged as well as the inductance
(L) and capacitance (C). Quantities interchanged in this way are said to be dual
elements and the two equations are dual equations.

12 Ac tivit y 2. 2
1. Sketch a circuit of a turn-OFF snubber.
2. Sketch a circuit of a turn-ON snubber.
3. Sketch the relevant waveforms of a turn-OFF snubber.
4. Sketch the relevant waveforms of a turn-ON snubber.
5. Show that the equations for determining the snubber components
for turn-on and turn-off, i.e. and , are dual equations.
6. A transistor switches 50 A with a supply voltage of 100 V. The snubber
capacitor is fully charged in 1 μs. The turn-off time (fall time) of the
transistor is 3 μs. Calculate the value of the capacitor.
(83,33 nF)
7. Calculate the energy dissipated in the transistor of activity 2.2_6 each
time it switches OFF.
(4,58 mJ)
8. Calculate the capacitor size that will minimise the energy dissipated
in the transistor of activity 2.2_6 each time it switches OFF.
(333,33 nF)
9. Calculate the total energy that will be lost with the newly calculated
capacitor per cycle (activity 2.2_8). Include the charge stored in the
capacitor. If you apply critical thinking, which conclusion can you draw
when comparing this energy loss with that in activity 1.3?
(4,17 mJ)
10. Did you understand the principle of duality before starting this unit?
How does it apply to the specific content of this unit, dealing with
snubbers?
11. Derive all the equations that were used in the design of an optimum
capacitive snubber.
12. Derive the equations that are used to design an optimum inductive
snubber.

2.4 CONCLUSION
Protection of devices by snubbing circuits is normally only associated with
limiting the rapid rate of rise of voltage and current. However, in this unit it
has been shown that by also using the characteristics of the switching device
and snubbing component wave shaping can be used to minimise the switching
losses. Having said that, any design is usually a compromise between conflicting
demands.

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20
3 STUDY UNIT 3

3 High-frequency fluorescent lighting

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to do the following:
•• Sketch the typical functional block diagram of an electronic ballast for
a compact fluorescent lamp
•• Explain the functioning of an electronic ballast
•• Sketch and explain the functioning of a simplified circuit diagram of an
electronic ballast
•• Sketch and explain the operation of an active power factor corrector stage
in an electronic ballast
•• Sketch and explain the operation of a passive power factor corrector stage
in an electronic ballast
•• Determine the harmonic components of the input current to a passive
power factor corrector by using a graphical approach to determine the
Fourier components of the current
•• Determine the total harmonic distortion of the supply current to an electronic
ballast with a passive power factor corrector stage
•• Determine the power factor of an electronic ballast with a passive power
factor stage
•• Do the design calculations for the reactive components of an electronic
ballast
•• Derive some of the equations used in designing an electronic ballast

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the chapter on high-frequency
fluorescent lighting in your prescribed book.

Energy efficiency has become a driving force in the development of technologies

and topologies in power electronics. Since illumination consumes a significant
portion of the electrical energy generated worldwide, there has been a drive
to replace the cheap incandescent lamps that have been used during the
1900s. At the turn of the century, illumination was using about 17% of the
total electrical power in the world. More efficient (although more expensive)
lamps have been forced onto the public by means of regulations to postpone
the building of costly power generation plants.

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21 P CE4701/1


One of these types of lamps is the compact fluorescent lamp (CFL). It has a
poor power factor that underutilises the electrical infrastructure; thus, the need
for power factor correction (PFC).

Another type of lamp is made by using high bright light emitting diodes (LED)
packed into familiar housings. They suffer from high-frequency emission that
can interfere with communication equipment in their immediate surroundings.
Their price is also still a bit restrictive for the average South African consumer.

MIT announced in 2016 that it has invented an incandescent lamp that recycles
the heat generated in an incandescent lamp so that the heat is not allowed to
escape as infrared light (heat) but as visible light. This is done by coating the
tungsten filament with material that forms a photonic crystal that directs the
heat back to the tungsten filament. This development has the potential to bring
incandescent lamps on par with CFLs and LEDs with respect to their energy-
to-light conversion ratio. Read more about this at http://news.mit.edu/2016/
nanophotonic-incandescent-light-bulbs-0111.

You have been taught that power factor (PF) is equal to the cosine of the angle
between the voltage and the current. However, this only applies to a situation
where both the voltage and current wave forms are sinusoidal. This is not the
case in practice and one has to go back to the fundamental definition of PF
whenever PF is encountered in a world where more than 70% of all power
generated worldwide flows through a silicon substrate (power electronic de-
vice) before it is consumed. The result of this is that the voltage and currents
are distorted away from the ideal waveforms.

You should study the following topics attentively in this unit:

•• Conventional ballasts
•• Electronic ballast’s functional block diagram
•• Electronic ballast’s circuit diagram
•• Derivation of formulae
•• Determination of the power factor of a passive power factor corrector circuit

13 Ac tivit y 3.1
Write down the definition of power factor. Note: The answer is not pf = cosφ.

3.3 ELECTRONIC BALLAST

An electronic ballast replaces the conventional ballast circuit (figure 3.1) that
used an iron core inductor in series with a capacitor and an ignitor to create
the high voltage needed to trigger a fluorescent lamp into its illumination
mode. Once the lamp ignited the iron core, ballast limited the current flow
through the lamp. The bulky and heavy ballast prohibited making fluorescent
lamps compact.

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22
 S T U DY U N I T 3:  H i g h - f r e q u e n c y f lu o r e s ce nt li g ht i n g

FIGURE 3.1
Conventional ballast circuit

The functional block diagram of an electronic ballast is provided in the prescribed

book. The first block is a filter to prevent the high-frequency components
generated in the electronic ballast to enter the utility supply lines. The next
block is a bridge rectifier converting the AC to a pulsating DC. This is followed
by a power factor corrector stage that not only steps up the DC voltage to a
value higher than the peak value of the AC supply, but also shapes the supply
current to be in phase with the supply voltage. The next block is a half-bridge
circuit that acts as a chopper converting the DC voltage to a high-frequency
square wave. A resonant output stage applies a sinewave to the fluorescent
lamp. A control IC varies the output frequency of the half-bridge to provide
the starting, ignition and running frequencies to the lamp. It also provides the
switching signal to the active power factor correction stage.

14 Ac tivit y 3. 2
1. Sketch a functional block diagram of an electronic ballast.
2. Sketch a circuit diagram of an electronic ballast with an active power
factor corrector stage.

You can check your answers in the prescribed book.

3.4 LAMP OPERATION

To complete this section, read the section with the same heading in your
prescribed book.

15 Ac tivit y 3. 3
Sketch a simplified circuit diagram of the output stage of an electronic
ballast.

You can check your answer in the prescribed book.

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23 P CE4701/1


Figure 3.2 shows the frequency response of a series resonant circuit. The high
Q response is that of an underdamped circuit. Before the fluorescent lamp
ignites, it has a very high resistance that means it does not load the circuit. This
means that it is underdamped and will experience very high voltages over the
inductor and capacitor that form the series resonant circuit. The voltage over
these components will be Q times that of the supply voltage at the resonant
frequency. The low Q response is that of a loaded or damped circuit. Once
the lamp is ignited, it is represented by a resistor since it draws energy from
the circuit. The transfer function of the lamp output stage (i.e. output voltage
divided by input voltage) follows the frequency response shown in figure 3.2.

16 Ac tivit y 3.4
Sketch the transfer function versus frequency of a lamp output stage.

To determine the instantaneous value of the lamp voltage up to the moment of

ignition, it is necessary to know the peak value of the fundamental component
of the square wave being applied to the resonant output stage. (The resonant
stage will reject the frequencies far away from the resonant frequency and
will only amplify the frequency components that are close to the resonant
frequency.)

FIGURE 3.2
Series resonant circuit frequency response

The output of the half-bridge stage, the wave shape after the DC blocking
capacitor and the fundamental component are all shown in figure 3.3. The
determination of the fundamental components peak value is done by applying
Fourier analysis and is done in the prescribed book.

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24
 S T U DY U N I T 3:  H i g h - f r e q u e n c y f lu o r e s ce nt li g ht i n g

17 Ac tivit y 3. 5

Show that the peak value of the fundamental component of the square
wave applied to the resonant output stage is given by .

The design of the components of a resonant output stage can be done

as shown in the prescribed book. The formula requires an efficiency to be
supplied. If the efficiency is not specified, select an efficiency of around
95%. The resonant frequency should be about 10 kHz above the running
frequency. Since TV remotes operate at about 35 kHz, electronic ballasts
should operate at a running frequency that would not interfere with the
TV remotes. For this reason, electronic ballasts are designed to operate
at a running frequency of at least 40 kHz.

FIGURE 3.3
Wave shapes of the half-bridge and resonant output stages

18 Ac tivit y 3.6
A power factor corrector supplies 400 V to a half-bridge consisting of two
MOSFETs. The half-bridge feeds a DC blocking capacitor connected in
series with a resonant section containing a fluorescent lamp.

Consider a 38W/T8 linear type fluorescent lamp: Iph = 0,85 A; Vph = 300 V;
Vign = 560 V; Vrun = 130 V.

Design an electronic ballast according to the following directives:

1. Calculate the value of the inductor for a running power of 32 W at
42 kHz with a ballast efficiency of 95%.
(2,03 mH)
2. Select an appropriate resonant frequency for the high-Q circuit.
(52 kHz)
3. Calculate the value of the resonant output stage capacitor.
(4,62 nF)

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25 P CE4701/1


3.5 PASSIVE POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

To complete this section, read the section on passive power factor correction
in your prescribed book.

The prescribed book shows the typical instantaneous voltage supplied to the
half-bridge stage by the passive PFC stage. The graph includes the supply
current to the electronic ballast.

Figure 3.5 shows the output voltage and the supply current on different axes
for clarity. Where-as the active PFC supplied a steady DC voltage of higher
than the instantaneous peak voltage of the supply, the passive PFC stage
supplies a voltage that varies between the PFC capacitor voltage level and the
instantaneous peak voltage of the supply with the shape as shown. Follow the
prescribed book’s description of the action of the passive PFC stage. Note that
the supply current is zero when the passive PFC stage capacitors are sustaining
the voltage to the half-bridge, that it follows a sinusoid during the time that the
voltage is increasing from the capacitor voltage level up to twice the capacitor
voltage level and then increases beyond the sinusoid because the capacitors
are charged when the bridge output voltage is higher than twice the capacitor
voltage level.

FIGURE 3.4
Electronic ballast close-up showing passive power factor corrector stage

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26
 S T U DY U N I T 3:  H i g h - f r e q u e n c y f lu o r e s ce nt li g ht i n g

FIGURE 3.5
Passive PFC output voltage and ballast supply current

19 Ac tivit y 3.7
Explain the operation of a passive PFC stage.

The wave shape of the supply current consists of distinct periods in which
the current is either zero, a sinusoid or a sinusoid plus a time varying
offset. To determine the harmonic content of the supply current would
be a complex task, since the mathematical description of this waveform
is complex. However, a graphical analysis is possible if the current wave
shape is available. The steps required to do a graphical analysis are:

•• The graph is divided into several ordinates. The number of ordinates

must be greater than the highest harmonic number that is to be
determined. Since the supply current is symmetrical along the x-axis,
only the positive half of the current can be used. This reduces the
amount of work to be done.
•• The value of the current at each ordinate is tabulated with the ordinate
position (degrees).
•• The sine and cosine of the ordinates is then multiplied with the current
value at that specific ordinate and noted. This is repeated for every
harmonic of interest. Since there is symmetry there are no even
harmonics.
•• The sum of the products of each harmonic is then determined and noted.
•• The sum of each harmonic is then multiplied by two and divided by
the number of ordinates.
•• The value obtained for each harmonic by using the sine function is
then the peak value of the specific harmonic. A negative means a
180-degree phase shift.
•• The value obtained by using the cosine function is then the angle offset
of the specific harmonic.

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27 P CE4701/1


From these steps, the RMS value of the wave can be determined, the RMS
value of the fundamental can be determined, the total harmonic distortion
(THD) can be determined as well as the power factor (pf). Follow the example
in the prescribed book to see how all of these are done.

20 Ac tivit y 3. 8
1. The supply current to a high-frequency electronic ballast was graphically
obtained. The current graph was then sampled and the instantaneous
current noted as tabulated in table 3.1. Complete the table to determine
the RMS value of the fundamental frequency (i.e. 50 Hz).
(666 mA)
2. Use the same table to determine all the harmonic amplitudes up to
450 Hz. Plot these harmonics in a harmonic profile with the following
axes: Vertical in Amps, horizontal in Hz.
3. Think about what you have learnt in this unit. Make a list of the most
important new insights you gained. What do you know now that you
did not know before?

TABLE 3.1

3.6 CONCLUSION
Some of the material dealt with in this unit are also applicable to other areas
of electrical engineering. You must be able to apply the analysis skills that you
have been presented with in this unit to other unfamiliar scenarios. Therefore,
you must make sure that you really understand the following:
•• Resonance
•• Determining the RMS value of complex waves
•• Determining the total harmonic distortion (THD) of a wave form
•• Determining the power factor when the voltage and/or current is a complex
wave
•• Determining the harmonic components of wave forms

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28
4 STUDY UNIT 4

4 Resonant converters

4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to do the following:
•• Sketch the circuit of a zero-voltage switching converter (ZVS) and a zero-
current switching converter (ZCS)
•• Explain the operation of a ZVS converter and a ZCS converter
•• Sketch the voltage and current waveforms of a ZVS converter and a ZCS
converter
•• Sketch the equivalent circuits in each mode of operation of a ZVS converter
and a ZCS converter
•• Design the resonant circuits of a ZVS converter and a ZCS converter
•• Analyse the voltages and currents in resonant converters

4.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the sections of your prescribed
book that deal with resonant converters.

Study unit 2 showed how the switching losses can be minimised by careful
selection of the snubbing components. The principle of duality was also
introduced in an earlier unit. In this study unit, we will explore how the
switching losses can be virtually eliminated by keeping either the voltage
over the switching device at zero during switching or by keeping the current
through the device at zero during switching.

4.3 SWITCH CONFIGURATIONS

FIGURE 4.1
ZCS switch configurations

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29 P CE4701/1


There are two types of switch configurations that can be used for ZCS converters,
namely the L-type and the M-type. The L-type is preferred since devices do
not turn off at zero current due to recovery times and can cause voltage
transients over the switch in the M-type. The inductor in series with the switch
makes sure that the current will start off at zero when the switch is closed.
The inductor and capacitor form a series resonant circuit causing the current
to go through zero after half a cycle, allowing for the switch to be switched
off at zero current. Output voltage is varied by frequency control since ZCS
provides a constant on-time of the switch.

FIGURE 4.2
ZVS switch configuration

The ZVS converters have only one type of switch configuration (see figure 4.2).
The capacitor voltage will be zero while the switch is closed and therefore the
switch voltage will start off at zero when the switch is opened. The capacitor
and inductor form a series resonant circuit causing the voltage to return to
zero after half a cycle when the switch can be closed again at zero voltage.
Output voltage is varied by frequency control since ZVS provides a constant
off-time of the switch.

4.4 ZERO-VOLTAGE SWITCHING CONVERTERS

To complete this section, read the section about ZVS converters in your
prescribed book.

You should commit the circuit of a zero-voltage converter to memory. Take note
that the switch configuration has a diode added to the one shown in figure 4.2.
This diode prevents the voltage over the switch to become negative and allows
the energy in the inductor magnetic field to be safely returned to the source
while the switch is still off. Also notice that the filter section is similar to that
of a BUCK regulator that was studied in Power Electronics III.

21 Ac tivit y 4.1
1. Sketch the circuit diagram of a ZVS converter.
2. Sketch labelled voltage and current waveforms as encountered in a
ZVS converter.
3. Sketch the equivalent circuits in all five modes of a ZVS converter.
4. Explain the operation of a ZVS converter.

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30
 S T U DY U N I T 4:  R e s o n a nt co nve r te r s

5. A ZVS converter supplies 5 A at 10 V from a 20 V source and the

frequency of operation is 800 kHz. Assume lossless components and
determine the resonant circuit components.
(L = 1,6 μH C = 0,25 pF)

You can check your answers to these questions in the prescribed book.

The wave shapes for the ZVS converter in all five modes as well as the equivalent
circuits for each of the five modes are in the prescribed book. Take note of
when each active component (the two diodes and switch) are on and off.
The operation of the ZVS converter is also explained in the prescribed book.

There are examples about ZVS converters in the prescribed book. Familiarise
yourself with the problems that are solved and the way they are approached.

4.5 ZERO-CURRENT SWITCHING CONVERTERS

To complete this section, read the section about ZCS converters in your
prescribed book.

You should commit the circuit of a zero-current converter to memory and

take note that the switch configuration is the L-type. Also notice that the filter
section is similar to that of a BUCK regulator that you have studied in Power
Electronics III.

22 Ac tivit y 4. 2
1. Sketch the circuit diagram of a ZCS converter.
2. Sketch labelled voltage and current waveforms as encountered in a
ZCS converter.
3. Sketch the equivalent circuits in all four modes of a ZCS converter.
4. Explain the operation of a ZCS converter.
5. A ZCS converter supplies 5 A at 10 V from a 20 V source and the
frequency of operation is 800 kHz. Assume lossless components and
determine the resonant circuit components.
(L = 0,4 μH C = 100 nF)

You can check your answers to these questions in the prescribed book.

The wave shapes for the ZCS converter in all four modes and the equivalent
circuits for each of the four modes are in the prescribed book. Note when
each active component (the diode and switch) are on and off.

There are examples of ZCS converters in the prescribed book. Familiarise

yourself with the problems that are solved and the way they are approached.

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31 P CE4701/1


4.6 DUALITY OF ZVS AND ZCS CONVERTERS

Comparison of the shape of the switch voltage waveform for the ZVS converter
with the shape of the switch current waveform for the ZCS converter show that
they are similar. The same can be said for the filter diode current in the ZVS
converter and the resonant capacitor voltage in the ZCS converter.

23 Ac tivit y 4.11
1. Which other dualities can you find when comparing the ZVS and ZCS
converters?
2. Refer to the study schedule you drew up at the beginning of the
semester. Are you still on track with your studies for this module? If
not, you should adapt your schedule accordingly, leaving enough
time for examination revision.

4.7 CONCLUSION
Two topologies for reducing switching losses were presented. Both ZVS and
ZCS use the phenomena of series resonance to achieve this, but with different
switch configurations.

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32
5 STUDY UNIT 5

5 DC motor drives

5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to analyse and solve problems
involving rectifiers, and indicate how the speed, acceleration and deceleration
of DC motors can be controlled. A DC motor drive contains at least one
controlled rectifier as you will see in this study unit. More specifically, you
should be able to do the following:
•• Sketch a block diagram of a DC motor drive
•• Explain the functional operation of a DC motor drive
•• Sketch the circuit topology of an uncontrolled, half-controlled and fully
controlled rectifier bridge
•• Sketch the wave forms of voltage and current for an uncontrolled, half-
controlled and fully controlled rectifier bridge
•• Determine the shape of the motor voltage and the mean motor voltage
being supplied by a DC motor drive
•• Determine the average armature current of the motor (mean motor current)
•• Determine the mean torque of the motor
•• Determine the gross mechanical power of the motor
•• Determine the back-emf E of the motor given its rotational speed and
armature constant
•• Determine the rpm of the motor given its rotational speed and back-emf
•• Determine equations for the device currents in a controlled rectifier

5.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the chapter about DC Motor
drives in your prescribed book.

DC motor drives have lost a large share of the motor market because DSP-
controlled AC motor drives has made very precise control of AC induction
motors possible. (DSP is an acronym for Digital Signal Processor.) Induction
motors are cheaper than DC motors and do not contain brushes as the DC
motor does. DC motors require more maintenance than AC induction motors.
This however, has not made the study of DC motor drives obsolete since a lot
of the principles involved in DC motor drives also find application in other
areas (such as AC motor drives) and will lead to an understanding of circuit
principles involving rotational machines.

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33 P CE4701/1


In this study unit, we will explore single-phase and three-phase DC motor drives.
Single-phase loads are limited to 15 kW and most loads in industry are three-
phase. It is therefore important to understand three-phase systems for electrical
technical staff who want to make a difference in their working environment.
However, it is easier to understand circuits that have a few components such
as single-phase DC drives. Therefore, it is important to master the single-phase
drives in this study unit before the three-phase DC drives are attempted.

5.3 DC MOTOR BASICS

To complete this section, read the introduction to DC motor drives in the
prescribed book.

The prescribed book indicates that the rotational speed of a DC motor is

directly proportional to the supply voltage and inversely proportional to the
field current. Thus, if you want to control the speed of a DC motor there are
three options:
•• Keep the field current constant and vary the supply voltage
•• Keep the supply voltage constant and vary the field current
•• Vary both the field current and the supply voltage to keep the torque constant

In this study unit, we are going to look at DC motor drives that have a fixed-
field current that supplies optimum flux to the motor via the field windings.
This means that to control the rotational speed of the motor, the only variable
will be the voltage supplied to the DC motor. We will also ignore the series
connected DC motor and fix our attention on the separately excited DC
motor. An alternative that behaves similarly is the universal motor that can be
supplied with AC or DC.

All the basic equations for solving DC motor problems are also presented in
this section and should be memorised.

24 Ac tivit y 5.1
Write down the basic equations that provide the relationships between
the parameters of a DC motor.

Consult the prescribed book to check your answers.

5.3.1 A single-phase DC motor drive

A separately excited DC motor drive will consist of the functional blocks as
shown in figure 5.1. The functional blocks for the control have been omitted
to only focus on the power electronics involved.

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34
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

FIGURE 5.1
Functional block diagram of a DC motor drive

The rectifier supplies a pulsating DC to the field winding that produces an

average field current and then establishes the magnetic flux in the motor at
right angles to that produced by the armature winding. The interaction between
these two fluxes produces the rotational movement of the armature of the DC
motor. The controlled rectifier receives control signals from the control (not
shown) to produce the voltage required to run the DC motor at the desired
rotational speed.

The rectifier block is an uncontrolled single-phase bridge rectifier. The controlled

rectifier can be either a half-controlled single-phase bridge rectifier or a fully
controlled single-phase bridge rectifier. If it can invert (return power to the
source from the load), a fully controlled bridge rectifier is referred to as a
converter.

The circuit diagram of a DC motor drive that uses a half-controlled single-

phase bridge rectifier is shown in figure 5.2. Notice the diode in parallel to
the motor; it is called a commutating diode and it prevents the load voltage
from becoming negative.

FIGURE 5.2
Circuit diagram of a DC motor drive (half-controlled rectifier)

The circuit diagram of a DC motor drive that uses a fully controlled single-phase
bridge rectifier is shown in figure 5.3. Notice the absence of a diode in parallel
to the motor. Thus, the load voltage is not prevented from becoming negative.

FIGURE 5.3
Circuit diagram of a DC motor drive (fully controlled rectifier)

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35 P CE4701/1


A typical control action will be to set the firing delay angle such that at start
up the armature voltage is just sufficient to overcome the armature resistance
volt drop. Then, as the motor accelerates, the delay angle is reduced until the
motor is running at its set speed (i.e. the speed required from the operator).

5.3.2 Equivalent circuits

For analysis purposes, the motor armature can be replaced in a circuit diagram
by its equivalent circuit as shown in figure 5.4.

FIGURE 5.4
Motor armature equivalent circuit

Since the field current is constant, its circuit can be left out of the equivalent
circuit completely.

The half-controlled bridge circuit consists of two half bridges. Each half bridge
is made up of a thyristor in series with a diode. Both devices cannot be on
simultaneously under normal operation, since this will constitute a short. Thus,
when the thyristor is forward biased the diode is reversed biased (off) and
when the thyristor is reversed biased (off) the diode is forward biased. If one
half-bridge has a thyristor forward biased, the thyristor in the other half-bridge
will be reverse biased. This action alternates every half-cycle, meaning that
in every half-cycle one thyristor will be forward biased and the other half-
bridge’s diode will be forward biased. Current can therefore flow from the
supply through one thyristor, the load and back to the supply via the opposite
diode. This is illustrated in figure 5.5.

FIGURE 5.5
Single-phase bridge action

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36
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

Noticing the similarity in the two half cycle actions, the forward biased
diode and thyristor can be replaced with one switch in an equivalent circuit.
The commutating diode can also be replaced with a switch since it can either
be on or it is off, applying these results in an equivalent circuit as shown in
figure 5.6.

FIGURE 5.6
Equivalent circuit of a half-controlled single-phase bridge DC motor drive

Since the fully controlled single-phase bridge circuit does not have a commutating
diode, the equivalent circuit is similar but without switch S2 as shown in figure 5.7.

FIGURE 5.7
Equivalent circuit of fully controlled single-phase bridge DC motor drive

5.3.3 Half-controlled operation modes

Examination of the half-controlled equivalent circuit reveals that there are four
possible modes of operation for the switches:
•• both the switches (S1 and S2) are open
•• switch S1 is closed and switch S2 is open
•• switch S1 is open and switch S2 is closed
•• both the switches (S1 and S2) are closed

The fourth possibility is illegal since it will result in a short over the supply
(i.e. theoretically lead to division by zero when mathematically determining
the current and your calculator will show “ERROR”). In practice either a fuse
will blow or a trip switch will trip or the devices will be destroyed and you
will say they “burned”.

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37 P CE4701/1


In Mode 1 the motor voltage Vmotor is equal to the back-emf E as can be deduced
from figure 5.8.

FIGURE 5.8
Mode 1 with both switches open

In Mode 2 the motor voltage Vmotor is equal to the supply voltage Vs as can be
deduced from figure 5.9.

FIGURE 5.9
Mode 2 with switch S1 closed and switch S2 open

In Mode 3 the motor voltage Vmotor is equal to zero as can be deduced from
figure 5.10.

FIGURE 5.10
Mode 3 with switch S2 closed and switch S1 open

You should determine from the circuit conditions when is a switch closed and
when is it open during every half-cycle.

To do this, you have to know how the switches behave, i.e. when do they
switch on and when do they switch off.

S1 and S2 may not be closed simultaneously. Therefore, closing an open switch

while the other is closed will result in the closed switch opening immediately.

Since S1 represents a thyristor, it will switch ON when it receives a positive

pulse on its gate w.r.t., its cathode if it is forward biased at that moment. It will
switch OFF when its anode current becomes zero.

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38
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

Since S2 is a diode, it will switch ON when it becomes forward biased and

switch OFF when it becomes reverse biased OR when its anode current drops
to zero.

25 Ac tivit y 5. 2
A 220 V fed single-phase half-controlled DC motor drive receives a firing
delay angle at 90º. The thyristor conducts until the end of the half-cycle.
The commutating diode then conducts for 30º. The back-emf is 100 V.
Sketch a freehand graph of the wave shape of the motor voltage during
a half-cycle.

Your answer should look as follows: 0–30º voltage is zero, 30–90º voltage
is equal to 100 V and from 90–180º you should have a sinewave section
starting at 311 V and ending at zero volts.

5.3.4 Mathematical modelling of the motor current

During Mode 2 the motor voltage is that of the supply and the motor current
rises and falls at a rate to satisfy the parameters of the equivalent circuit in
figure 5.9:

 (1)

The instantaneous current i1 will rise until the supply voltage falls to about the
level of the back-emf E after which it will decay. If the current i1 is positive
at the end of the cycle, the commutating diode will take over the armature
current initiating Mode 3 (figure 5.10). The diode will now conduct until its
current (i2) reaches zero OR until the thyristor receives a trigger pulse if i2 has
not yet reached zero by then.

Now the voltage applied to the motor initially is a sinewave triggered after a
delay angle alpha, thus

 (2)

Using superposition and setting Vs = 0 and realising that for DC the term
, IDC is given by:

 (3)

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39 P CE4701/1


Setting the back-emf E = 0 and solving for the steady state AC current (IAC):

 (4)

However, to satisfy the initial condition, namely that the current before the
thyristor was triggered must be the current immediately after the thyristor was
triggered, an impulse current equal but opposite to that of the said current must
be injected into the circuit. However, once injected it must obey the laws of
a decaying DC current in an RL circuit:

(5)

The motor current during Mode 2, and therefore switch S1 current, is now
given by the sum of equations (3), (4) and (5):

(6)

Once all the values have been entered and the known currents evaluated, A
can be determined by applying the initial conditions. Remember: If a trigono-
metric function contains a π, the calculator must be on RAD.

The current i2 can be modelled by recognising that in Mode 3 the current will
be that of a decaying current in an RL circuit being opposed by the current
caused by the back-emf E. Thus

(7)

To solve for B the initial conditions have to be applied, being that at t = 0 the
initial current will be the current that was received from switch S1. Follow the
sequence in the prescribed book where this was done step by step.

5.3.5 Determining the average motor current

The average motor current can be determined by means of calculus. However,
it can also be determined by using calculus to determine the average motor
voltage and then dividing the average motor voltage minus the back-emf E
by the resistance R of the armature. This second method is used in this study
unit due to its simplicity.

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40
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

For the half-controlled fed DC motor, the following scenarios are possible in
a half-cycle:
•• Mode 3 followed by Mode 2
•• Mode 3 followed by Mode 1 followed by Mode 2
•• Mode 1 followed by Mode 2 followed by Mode 1

The prescribed book shows the possible wave shapes as well as the mathematical
derivations for the average motor voltage (also referred to as Vmean or VDC).

26 Ac tivit y 5. 3
1. Sketch a freehand wave form of the motor voltage in which each
half-cycle Mode 3 is followed by Mode 2. Derive the formula for the
average voltage if the delay angle is α.
2. Sketch a freehand wave form of the motor voltage in which each
half-cycle Mode 3 is followed by Mode 1 which is followed by
Mode 2. Derive the formula for the average voltage if the delay angle
is α and Mode 1 ends after θ radians.
3. Sketch a freehand wave form of the motor voltage in which each
half-cycle Mode 1 is followed by Mode 2 which is followed by
Mode 1. Derive the formula for the average voltage if the delay angle
is α and Mode 2 lasts θ radians.

You can check your answers by referring to the prescribed book.

Once the average motor current has been determined, the average torque as
well as the gross mechanical power of the motor can be determined.

5.3.6 Algorithm for solving half-controlled single-phase DC drive problems

An algorithm is a finite number of steps that have to be followed to solve a given
problem. These steps can be expressed in a flowchart to provide a graphical
view of the process. It will be to your advantage to memorise the flowchart
so that you have a map in your mind as to where you are and what the next
step is in the solving of a problem in the examination at the end of the course.

The sequence of events is as follows:

(1) Sketch the circuit.
(2) Sketch the equivalent circuit.
(3) Determine an equation for S1 current.
(4) Determine the time left in a half-cycle after triggering S1.
(5) Determine the instantaneous current in S1 at the half-cycle end.
(6) If the value of the current is zero, proceed to step 11; if the value of the
current is positive, proceed to step 7; if the value of the current is negative,
proceed to step 10.
(7) Determine an equation for i2.
(8) Determine when i2 = 0.
(9) Convert to radians/degrees. Go to step 12.

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41 P CE4701/1


(10) Determine when i1 = 0 by using iterative process.

(11) Convert to radians/degrees.
(12) Sketch the voltage and current wave forms labelling with the limits obtained
in the previous steps.
(13) Determine Vmean.
(14) Determine Imean.
(15) Determine Tmean.

This sequence is shown in figure 5.11.

FIGURE 5.11
Flowchart to solve single-phase half-controlled DC drive problems

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42
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

27 Ac tivit y 5.4
Examples 1 to 3 in the prescribed book show all three possibilities like
in the flowchart. Study the methodology of each and then answer the
questions posed in the examples without referring to the prescribed book.

You can check your answers by referring to the prescribed book when you
are done.

5.4 FULLY CONTROLLED SINGLE-PHASE DC MOTOR DRIVE

The example in the prescribed book concerning a fully controlled single-phase
bridge DC motor drive shows that you do not need to determine the motor
current at the voltage zero, since there is no commutating diode to transfer
the current to. You need to determine how long the current via switch S1 will
flow to determine the length of Mode 2. If Mode 2 is less than 10 ms (180º
or π rad) then the balance of the half-cycle will be Mode 1.

28 Ac tivit y 5. 5
You will notice that the load voltage will be able to become negative. What
is the reason for this?
HINT: Diode

5.4.1 Newton-Raphson method

One of the mathematical tools that you were taught in mathematics is the
Newton-Raphson method. You can now apply this method in this study unit.

Consider the equation for the current via the switch S1 in the fully controlled
example:

To determine the time t at which the current i1 will become zero, one would
be tempted to solve this by setting i1 = 0 and then solving for t. However, it
cannot be done in this manner because t is present in a sine function and it
is also part of the power term of e.

Numerical methods must be used where a guess is made of which value of t

you think will result in i1 = 0. Then depending on how near your answer is to
zero, you make an adjustment to the value of t, redo the calculation, examine the
closeness to zero of the current, make an adjustment to the value of t, redo the
calculation, and so forth, until you reach the zero-current result. This numerical
method is called “iterations” and is very tedious and time consuming.

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43 P CE4701/1


A more elegant solution was proposed by Newton and his assistant Raphson
and is illustrated in figure 5.12. Take an educated guess as to where the current
will be zero. This is t1 in figure 5.12. Determine the value of the current by
using the equation. You now have ia . The gradient of the dashed line making a
tangent to the graph at t1 is given by the first derivative of the current equation.
The next value to use in the repeat of the process (t2) is obtained by dividing
the current value at t1 by the gradient at t1 and adding the result to t1.

FIGURE 5.12
Newton-Raphson t2

The values of t3 and t4 are obtained by repeating the same process as illustrated
in figures 5.13 and 5.14.

FIGURE 5.12
Newton-Raphson t3

The derivative of

is given by

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44
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

FIGURE 5.12
Newton-Raphson t4

29 Ac tivit y 5.6
Use Newton-Raphson to verify the answer of 4,15 ms of the prescribed
book’s example. Start with t1 = 6 ms.

5.5 THREE-PHASE DC MOTOR DRIVE

To complete this section, study the example concerning a three-phase DC drive
in your prescribed book.

The half-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier (figure 5.13) applies line voltage
sections to the load. The first step is therefore to determine the shape of the
wave form produced by the bridge for a given delay angle.

FIGURE 5.13
Three-phase half-controlled DC drive

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45 P CE4701/1


The voltage envelope over the load is shown in figure 5.14 for a delay angle
of 30º.

FIGURE 5.14
Voltage envelope overload fed from three-phase half-controlled bridge

Subtracting the lower part of the envelope from the upper part of the envelope
produces the load voltage instantaneous shape shown in figure 5.15.

FIGURE 5.15
Voltage overload fed from three-phase half-controlled bridge

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46
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

The wave shape of the load consists of two sine wave sections from line
voltages which are 60º displaced. See figure 5.16.

FIGURE 5.15
Limits of the first sine wave section

The second sine wave section has limits as shown in figure 5.16.

FIGURE 5.15
Limits of the second sine wave section

Use the given parameters to determine an equation for the thyristor current
during the application of the first sine wave section. This is done as you did it
for the single-phase half-controlled drive. Once you have done that, determine
what the current value is going to be at the end of the first sine wave section,
since this is the value of the current with which the next thyristor to conduct
will start off. Figure 5.16 illustrates the current you have just determined.

Now use the limits of the second sine wave section to determine an equation
for the current that will flow during its application. Remember that when you
apply initial conditions to determine A, the current is not zero but the value
you determined above.

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47 P CE4701/1


Once you have the equation, determine whether the current at the end of
the second section is positive, negative or zero. In the example it is negative,
indicating that the thyristor has already switched off (see figure 5.16). By using
Newton-Raphson, the moment that the thyristor switches off can be determined.
From this moment until the next thyristor is triggered, the load voltage will be
equal to the back-emf E.

You can now sketch the load voltage wave shape as shown in figure 5.17
with all the appropriate limits for you to determine the average voltage and
use it to calculate the mean current. Once you have the mean current, you
can determine the mean torque as well as the gross mechanical power of the
machine.

FIGURE 5.16
Current produced by first sine wave section

FIGURE 5.16
Current produced by second sine wave section added to previous

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48
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

FIGURE 5.17
The load voltage consisting of two sine wave sections and a back-emf E

30 Ac tivit y 5.7
Determine the gross mechanical power of the DC machine in the example
in the prescribed book dedicated to the three-phase half-controlled
DC motor drive.
(827,4 W)

31 Ac tivit y 5. 8
1. A DC motor drive consists of the following components: single-phase
supply 220 V 50 Hz; fully controlled bridge rectifier; back-emf 90 V;
delay angle 90º; motor armature inductance 50 mH; motor armature
resistance 5 Ω; motor armature constant 0.9 V/rad/s (N.m/A). Calculate
how many radians the thyristors will conduct per half cycle.
(2,155 rad)
2. A small universal motor is fed from a 200 V, 50 Hz supply via a single-
phase half-controlled bridge rectifier with a commutating diode in
parallel with the motor. Armature parameters are: inductance 20 mH,
resistance 4 Ω, torque (voltage) constant 0,9 N.m/A (V/rad/s). The back-
emf is 63 V. The thyristors are triggered after a delay of 90º. Neglect
active device volt drops and supply inductance. The equivalent circuit
and the currents in the switches (obtained by simulation) are shown
in figure 5.18. Use the information given above and in figure 5.18 to
sketch a freehand waveform of the load voltage. The x-axis is to be in
radians. Label it with the limits needed to determine the average load
voltage, then determine the mean load voltage. Do not determine
the current equation to determine the limits on the graph.
(101,4 V)

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49 P CE4701/1


FIGURE 5.18
Equivalent circuit and current waveforms

3. The equivalent circuit of a single phase VSD for a universal motor is

shown in figure 5.19. The single-phase supply is 220 V 50 Hz; back-
emf 90 V; delay angle 90º; motor armature inductance 50 mH; motor
armature resistance 5 Ω; motor armature constant 0.9 V/rad/s (N.m/A).

FIGURE 5.19
VSD Equivalent circuit

The current via the switch S1 flows for 6,86 ms after the switch was closed.
The delay angle expressed in time is 5 ms. This is illustrated in figure 5.20.
Sketch a freehand graph of the expected motor voltage (Vmotor) labelled with
the appropriate limits (in radians) and voltage levels (Vm and E). Determine the
mean motor voltage, mean torque and gross mechanical power.
(110,83 V; 3,75 N.m; 375,3 W)

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50
 S T U DY U N I T 5:  D C m o to r d r i ve s

FIGURE 5.20
Motor current

4. You are now around halfway through this module. Are you still on
track in terms of the study schedule you drew up at the beginning
of the year? If not, you should go back and revise your schedule to
ensure that you will complete the module before the examination,
with enough time left for revision.

5.6 CONCLUSION
In this study unit, you learnt how to analyse half-controlled as well as fully
controlled single-phase rectifiers used to vary the rotational speed of a separately
excited DC motor. The half-controlled three-phase DC motor drive was also
done.

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6 STUDY UNIT 6

6 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to do the following:
•• Sketch the basic topologies and block diagrams of thyristorised compensators
and self-commutated compensators.
•• Do the design calculations for a FC-TCR.
•• Derive an equation for the reactor current of a TCR.
•• Determine the required delay angle for a TCR to compensate for a specific
reactive current.

6.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the chapter on FACTS in
your prescribed book.

In this study unit, we will explore reactive power compensation technologies

and focus on a few applications to improve our insight into the way reactive
power (var) can be utilised to improve power factor, control power flow,
improve voltage regulation, and so forth.

The compensators are roughly divided into the following two groups:
•• Compensators that utilise thyristors and thus rely on the current flow to drop
to zero for the thyristor to switch off. These are referred to as thyristorised
var compensators.
•• Compensators that utilise IGBTs and IGCTs. These devices have a gate
terminal that allows for turn-on and turn-off via a control voltage. These are
referred to as self-commutated var compensators. IGBT is the abbreviation for
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor and IGCT is the abbreviation for Integrated
Gate-Commutated Thyristor.

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52
 S T U DY U N I T 6:  Fl e x i b l e AC Tr a nsm issi o n Sy s te ms (FAC T S)

The basic thyristorised var compensators are the thyristor-controlled reactor

(TCR) and the thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC). The basic topologies are
shown in figure 6.1.

FIGURE 6.1
TSC and TCR topologies

Sometimes a fixed capacitor (FC) is used in conjunction with a TCR as illustrated

in figure 6.2.

FIGURE 6.2
FC-TCR topology

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53 P CE4701/1


Another thyristorised compensator is the thyristor-controlled series capacitor

(TCSC) shown in figure 6.3.

FIGURE 6.3
TCSC topology

The self-commutated var compensators include the voltage sourced

converters (VSC) and current sourced converters (CSC) as well as static
synchronous compensators (STATCOM), united power flow controllers (UPFC)
and dynamic voltage restorers (DVR).

FIGURE 6.4
VSC topology

FIGURE 6.5
CSC topology
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 S T U DY U N I T 6:  Fl e x i b l e AC Tr a nsm issi o n Sy s te ms (FAC T S)

The six switches in the VSC and CSC topologies are realised by an IGBT with
an inverse parallel diode as shown in figure 6.6.

FIGURE 6.6
Converter topology realised with IGBTs and inverse parallel diodes

A STATCOM is a name given to either a VSC or a CSC with its advanced control
included. The STATCOM is connected in parallel to the power system through
a coupling reactor. It generates a balanced set of three sinusoidal voltages at the
fundamental frequency with a controllable amplitude and phase-shift angle.

FIGURE 6.7
UPFC block diagram

FIGURE 6.8
DVR block diagram

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55 P CE4701/1


There is a worked example on power flow control in the prescribed book.

This example is used to illustrate how power flow via parallel transmission
lines A, B and C can be analysed. It also illustrates how the introduction of
a capacitor bank in one line can redirect the power flow to keep the power
flow within the safe limits of all three transmission lines.

32 Ac tivit y 6.1
1. Sketch the basic setup of a static var compensator (SVC).
2. Sketch a block diagram of a DVR.
3. Sketch a block diagram of a UPFC.
4. Sketch the topology of a CSC realised with IGBTs and diodes.
5. Sketch the topology of a VSC realised with IGBTs and diodes.
6. Sketch the topology of a TCSC.
7. Sketch the topology of a FC-TCR.
8. Sketch the topology of a TCR.
9. Sketch the topology of a TSC.

There is an analysis in the prescribed book that shows that the reactive power
in a transmission line is equal to the real power if the phase angle between
the sending and receiving end voltage is equal to 90º and double if the phase
angle is 180º. By inspecting the equations derived, an observation is made
that the power flow between the sending and receiving ends can be controlled
by one of the following:
•• Varying the reactance X
•• Applying a variable voltage in series in the line
•• Applying a shunt voltage at the midpoint of the line

A shunt compensator is then introduced and the analysis repeated showing

that the reactive power and real power due to the shunt is now double at a
phase angle of 180º compared to the previous situation.

In the next section of the prescribed book, a TCR is presented and the derivation
of the reactor current equation done.

6.3 THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED REACTOR

To complete this section, study the TCR section in your prescribed book.

You are reminded that a derivation in this subject requires a circuit and
relevant comments to introduce the mathematical process that is being followed.

The purpose of the shunt reactor is to vary the reactive current component
in the transmission line. This is done by means of phase angle control of the
AC switch forming part of the TCR. Varying the reactive current is done by
varying the reactance of the TCR. Since an AC wave has a positive half that
reflects the negative half of the wave, the mathematical work to be done can
be reduced by only considering one half. The derivation done in the prescribed

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56
 S T U DY U N I T 6:  Fl e x i b l e AC Tr a nsm issi o n Sy s te ms (FAC T S)

book uses a cosine function for the transmission line voltage. (The last worked
example in the chapter repeats the derivation but with a sinusoidal function
for the transmission line voltage.)

Starting from the v-i relationship of an inductor, an equation for the current
is determined with a control variable α. Note that if α = 0, then a sine wave
with a peak of will flow. This confirms what has been taught from the
level 1 modules of this qualification, namely that the current lags the voltage
in an inductive circuit and if the inductance is pure, then the angle between
the current and the voltage is 90º (the same as between a cosine and a sine
wave). Since a thyristor can only carry forward current, delaying the onset of
current flow by means of α will cause current to flow from α to π – α.

The current component at the frequency of the supply is the focus of our
interest. This is the fundamental (n = 1) and can be determined by using Fourier
analysis of the reactor current. Due to half wave symmetry, there are no even
harmonics and no DC term.

33 Ac tivit y 6. 2
1. Derive an equation for the reactor current of a TCR assuming the
transmission line voltage is co-sinusoidal.
2. Derive an equation for the reactor current of a TCR assuming the
transmission line voltage is sinusoidal.

You can verify your answers in the prescribed book.

6.4 FIXED-CAPACITOR THYRISTOR-CONTROLLED

REACTOR COMPENSATION
A fixed capacitor in parallel to a load draws current leading the voltage from
the supply. A TCR in parallel to a load draws current lagging the voltage from
the supply and its magnitude depends on the delay angle α. Combining the
fixed capacitor provides a method to cancel the reactive current drawn by the
load over a range of currents. This causes the supply to only see active current,
thus providing a power factor of 1. A few worked examples are done in the
prescribed book by using a FC-TCR as the compensator circuit.

One type of problem provides the capacitor and reactor value and requests
the range of currents that can be compensated for. Another type of problem
provides the current range and requires the design calculations for the capacitor
and the reactor. Yet another type provides C and L, asking for the delay
angle of a specific reactive component of the load current. Keep in mind that
the compensator circuit has to cancel the load’s reactive current. It therefore
has to be 180º out of phase. This can be done by reversing the sign of the
load current’s reactive component. Numerical methods have to be used to

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57 P CE4701/1


solve the delay angle. Make sure that you can follow the procedure shown in
the worked examples.

34 Ac tivit y 6. 3
1. An TCR is used in parallel to a capacitive bank to provide compensation.
It thus forms a FC-TCR as referred to previously. The inductive load is
supplied by a single-phase, 230 V 50 Hz AC supply. The load current
varies between (4 − j0) A and (6 − j12) A. Determine the values of C
and L to maintain a unity power factor.
2. A compensating capacitor C = 145 µF. The TCR inductor L = 58,4 mH.
If the load current is (6 + j0) A, determine the TCR delay angle. The
bus voltage is 230 V at 50 Hz.
3. A TCR is used to compensate for the reactive current in a 240 V line.
C = 200 µF and L = 50,7 mH. The real part of the current remains 10
A. Calculate the range of current that the TCR can compensate for.
The voltage is taken as sinusoidal.
4. A TCR consisting of a 200 µF capacitor and a 50,7 mH reactor are used
to keep the power factor unity on a 240 V line. What is the delay angle
when the load current has a reactive component of − j11 A?
5. A single-phase line of 240 V, 50 Hz, has a load current varying from
I1 = (8 + j2) A to I2 = (8 − j14) A. A TCR reactor of 52 mH with a compensating
capacitor of 186 µF was installed to improve the power factor. Examine
the correctness of L and C for I1 and I2 expressing any errors as a
percentage. If the compensation is incorrect, determine the power
factor of the current with the incorrect compensation.

You may verify your answers in the prescribed book.

6.5 CONCLUSION
This study unit provided an overview of a flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS). This does not mean that everything related to this topic has been
covered, but the study unit will have given you a sound basic grasp of such
a system and enough knowledge to further educate yourself about FACTS if
the need arises in future.

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58
7 STUDY UNIT 7

7 AC Motor Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to do the following:
•• Sketch the block diagrams of a scalar control, direct torque control and
vector control VSD.
•• Describe the functional operation of a scalar, direct torque and vector
control VSD.
•• Do the calculations and sketch the current space vector in all six intervals
of a motor fed from a three-phase inverter.
•• Show that the direction of rotation of an induction motor connected to a
VSD can be changed.
•• Use a Park transform to determine the coordinates as seen from the rotor
or stator reference frames (d-q) that is time invariant.
•• Determine the instantaneous currents delivered by an inverter if the required
direct and quadrature currents at a particular instant are known.
•• Calculate and sketch the SVM switching sequence of one period for a given
resultant vector.

7.2 INTRODUCTION
Reading: To complete this unit, you should study the chapter on AC Motor
Drives in your prescribed book.

In this study unit, we will explore the operation and control methods used
in VSDs that are controlling the speed of three-phase induction motors. The
principles learned here are also used to control synchronous motors and
permanent magnet motors. Since the characteristics of the different types of
motors differ, other control variables will apply to them. These are left to you to
learn if and when you encounter them at a later stage in the work environment.

The basic equation of the rotor frequency in an induction motor is given by:

where s is the slip, f the supply frequency and p the number of pole pairs.

Since the slip is usually small in a motor running at a constant speed, it

means that the speed can either be controlled by changing the frequency or
by changing the number of pole pairs. The latter leads to expensive motors
and the speed control is limited. Changing the frequency provides a range of

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59 P CE4701/1


speeds from starting up to the base speed and even beyond if used with field
weakening.

Although the magnitude of the voltage supplied to an induction motor fed by

a fixed frequency can be used to control the speed, it is only over a narrow
range at a reduced efficiency, reduced torque and prone to overheating. The
torque of an induction motor is proportional to the voltage applied to the mo-
tor thus the reason for the reduced torque.

Three control methods are presented in this study unit, namely

•• Scalar control
•• Direct torque control
•• Vector control

The block diagrams of VSDs employing the first two methods are presented
in figure 7.1 while the block diagram of the vector control can be found in
the prescribed book.

35 Ac tivit y 7.1
1. Sketch a block diagram of a scalar-controlled variable speed drive.
2. Sketch a block of a direct torque-controlled variable speed drive.
3. Sketch a block diagram of a vector-controlled variable speed drive.

7.3 SCALAR CONTROL

FIGURE 7.1
Block diagram of a scalar-controlled induction motor variable speed drive

The controller compares the desired frequency with a speed feedback signal to
produce an error signal. A PI or PID algorithm in the controller will provide a
smooth change in the gating signals to bring the motor to the desired rotational
speed with no overshoot or “hunting”. Gating signals are produced by the
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60
 S T U DY U N I T 7:  AC M o to r Va r i a b l e Sp e e d D r i ve s ( V SD)

controller for the controlled rectifier as well as the inverter. The gating signals
to the inverter are necessary to produce the frequency that when applied to the
motor will produce the desired rotational speed in the motor while the gating
signals for the controlled rectifier will vary the DC link voltage to keep the
voltage to frequency ratio constant. This is to ensure optimum flux conditions
in the motor air gap between the stator and the rotor.

7.4 DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL

ABB was the first firm to use DTC in the drives that they manufacture. The
control variables are the motor’s flux and torque. The block diagram in
figure 7.2 contains a speed control loop as well as a torque and flux control
loop. The error produced by comparing the desired speed and the actual
speed signals is used to determine the electrical torque of the motor. This is
then compared with an estimated torque determined by using the current and
voltage values supplied to the motor by the inverter. An error signal for the
torque is then compared in a three-level hysteretic comparator that determines
whether the torque must be increased, stay the same or be decreased. A
two-level hysteretic controller determines whether the flux must increase or
decrease. The outputs of these two hysteretic comparators are used to select
the appropriate action in a switching table as illustrated in table 7.1. The signs
of the flux linkage components are used to determine the sector number. The
sectors are illustrated in figure 7.3. The vectors v0 through to v7 presented in
table 7.1 are the voltage space vectors that are available in a three-phase inverter.

FIGURE 7.2
Block diagram of a DTC induction motor variable speed drive
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61 P CE4701/1


A sector can be defined as a 60º angle centred on a voltage vector. Other

possibilities also exist but this discussion will only be limited to a sector between
a 30º lagging angle to a 30º leading angle around a voltage vector. The voltage
vectors are at 0º, 60º, 120º, 180º, 240º and 300º angles. These correspond to
the voltage vectors that result when the six switches in a three-phase inverter
are operated. Refer to figure 7.4.

Closing two switches in one arm is an illegal condition since it will create
a short of the DC link voltage. When one switch in the top row is closed,
two switches in the bottom must be closed and vice versa. Closing all three
switches in the bottom row will result in a zero volt drop over the load. This
is indicated by the zero-voltage vector v0. Closing all three switches in the
top row will also result in a zero volt drop over the load. This is indicated by
the zero-voltage vector v7. If we denote a top row switch closure as a logical
1 and a bottom row switch closure as a logical 0, it corresponds to the 0 (0002)
and the 7 (1112).

FIGURE 7.3
DTC sectors illustrated

Using this notation 0012 means that switches S1, S6 and S2 are closed. Similarly,
0102 indicates that switches S4, S3 and S2 are closed. That does not mean that
the voltage vector positions in figure 7.3 are determined by the binary value
given by the switch positions as described above.

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 S T U DY U N I T 7:  AC M o to r Va r i a b l e Sp e e d D r i ve s ( V SD)

FIGURE 7.4
Switch equivalent circuit of an IGBT three phase inverter

36 Ac tivit y 7. 2
Determine which switches are closed for the voltage vectors v110, v101, v011
and v100.

Figure 7.5 illustrates a typical flux linkage obtained by implementing DTC

on an induction motor drive.

FIGURE 7.5
DTC resultant flux linkage

Referring to table 7.1, notice that when the three-level hysteretic comparator
output indicates that the torque is “within limits”, the resulting action is a zero
vector, meaning either v0 or v7. If both the torque and flux have to increase,
select the next vector in a clockwise direction. If the flux must increase but
the torque must decrease, select the previous vector (i.e. in an anticlockwise

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direction). If the flux must decrease but the torque must increase, select the
second vector in a clockwise direction. If the flux and the torque must decrease,
select the second vector in an anticlockwise direction.

TABLE 7.1
DTC inverter control lookup table

Te Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3 Sector 4 Sector 5 Sector 6

Increase Increase v2 v3 v4 v5 v6 v1

Increase Within limits v7 v0 v7 v0 v7 v0

Increase Decrease v6 v1 v2 v3 v4 v5

Decrease Increase v3 v4 v5 v6 v1 v2

Decrease Within limits v0 v7 v0 v7 v0 v7

Decrease Decrease v5 v6 v1 v2 v3 v4

37 Ac tivit y 7. 3
Determine which switches have to be activated (switched on) in a DTC
control of a three-phase inverter if the sector selector indicates Sector 3 and
the two hysteretic comparator outputs indicate that the torque must be
increased while the flux must be decreased. Refer to figure 7.4 and table 7.1.

7.5 VECTOR CONTROL

Vector control enables a drive to control an induction motor as if it is a
DC motor. A DC motor can react very fast to a change in torque since the
armature and field flux lines are at 90º to each other (orthogonal) and are
controlled separately. In an induction motor, the rotor cannot be accessed
directly but all energy passed on to it has to go through the stator windings.
Furthermore, it is also important to remember that a DC motor’s torque is
determined by its rotor current, while an induction motor’s torque is determined
indirectly by the stator voltage. The three phases fed from a three-phase
inverter connected to an induction motor produce a voltage space vector that
is rotating at a certain frequency as determined by the timing of the inverter
switching. This rotating voltage space vector gives rise to a rotating current
space vector. The rectangular coordinates of this current space vector can now
be controlled to imitate the rectangular coordinates of a DC motor where the
real part represents the flux and the quadrature component represents the
torque. These can now be independently controlled resulting in an induction
motor drive that is equal to the DC motor drive in steady state and in transient
response.

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 S T U DY U N I T 7:  AC M o to r Va r i a b l e Sp e e d D r i ve s ( V SD)

7.5.1 Rotating voltage space vector

The action of the sequential switching of the six switches in a three-phase
inverter give rise to the phase voltages shown in figure 7.6. These voltages
have a stepped nature. The section in the prescribed book on inverters shows
how these voltage wave shapes were arrived at. Refer to the 180º control of
the three-phase inverter to refresh your memory since these were dealt with
on a diploma level. Each phase is a 120º phase shifted from the other two
phases as is normal in a three-phase system. There are six distinct intervals
in one period of the wave forms. Each period will result in a voltage space
vector that will be stationary for the duration of the interval. At 50 Hz, each
interval will last 3,333 ms.

The voltage space vector is given by:

During Interval (1) the voltage space vector is:

Similarly, during Interval (2):

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FIGURE 7.6
Stator phase voltages

Similarly, during Interval (3):

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Similarly, during Interval (4):

Similarly, during Interval (5):

Similarly, during Interval (6):

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FIGURE 7.7
Stator voltage space vectors in all six intervals

Inspection of the stator voltage vector diagram in figure 7.7 reveals that the
magnitude of the stator voltage vector is the same in each interval (216 V).
During each interval, the voltage space vector is stationary for the duration
of the interval. At the end of each interval, the space vector jumps 60º in a
counter-clockwise direction, thus the direction of rotation is anti-clockwise.

38 Ac tivit y 7.4
An induction motor’s direction of rotation is changed by swopping two
of the three phases feeding it. Show that the direction of rotation of the
voltage space vector will be clockwise if two of the phases in figure 7.6
are swopped.

39 Ac tivit y 7. 5
Consider the three-phase inverter shown in figure 7.4 and the voltages
produced by this three-phase inverter as shown in figure 7.6. Use the
same logic as used in DTC. Determine which arm conditions produced
the voltages in each of the six intervals shown in figure 7.6. The answer is
given in figure 7.8.

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Answer:

FIGURE 7.8
Activity 7.5 answer

7.5.2 Reference frames

There are three reference frames that must be understood to understand the
actions taking place in modern variable speed drives. These are:
•• The three-phase reference frame in which the vectors are co-planar three-
phase quantities spaced at 120º to each other.
•• The orthogonal reference frame in which the α-component along the α-axis
is perpendicular to the β-component on the β-axis and in the same plane
as the three-phase reference frame.
•• An orthogonal rotating reference frame in which the direct component
(denoted d) is at an angle θ (rotation angle) to the α-axis and the
quadrature component (denoted q) is perpendicular to the direct component
on the q-axis.

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Figure 7.9 illustrates the phasor diagrams as well as the graphical representation
of the three reference frames.

FIGURE 7.9
Three reference frames

40 Ac tivit y 7.6
A three-phase inverter supplies the following phase currents: Ia , Ib and Ic .
1. Sketch the phasor diagram as well as the graph after these currents
have been transformed to a two-phase reference frame.
2. Sketch the phasor diagram as well as the graph after these currents
have been transformed from a two-phase reference frame to a rotating
reference frame with an angle of θ between the stator and the rotor
of an induction machine.

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The transformation from balanced three-phase quantities into balanced two-

phase quadrature quantities is called the Clarke Transform (Edith Clarke
presented a paper describing the procedure in the 1920s). The Inverse Clarke
transform does the opposite.

The Park transform converts the vectors in a balanced two-phase orthogonal

stationary system into an orthogonal rotating reference frame. The Inverse
Park transform does the opposite. (Robert Park presented a paper describing
the procedure in 1929, which was voted as the second-most influential paper
in Power Engineering for the 1900s).

41 Ac tivit y 7.7
Compare the block diagram of the vector control VSD in the prescribed
book with the one in figure 7.11. What are the alternative labels given in
the prescribed book to the functional blocks referred to as Park, Inverse
Park and Clarke Transforms in figure 7.11?

7.5.3 Clarke Transform

Consider the phasor diagram in figure 7.10. It shows the resultant current space
vector Is as well as the current vectors Ia, Ib and Ic at the instant indicated by
the vertical dashed line on the time-domain waveforms.

The current space vector is given by:

(1)

But

(2)

and

 (3)

Substitute equations (2) and (3) into (1)

 1 3  1 3
⇒ I= I a (1) +  − + j  I b +  − − j  Ic
2 
S
 2 2   2

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FIGURE 7.10
Three-phase time-domain waveforms and phasor diagram

 (4)

But and thus  (5)

Substitute equation (5) into equation (4)

(6)

Scaling equation (6) by so that gives

Thus  (7)

But and thus  (8)

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Substitute equation (8) into (7)

FIGURE 7.11
Field-orientated vector control functional block diagram
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FIGURE 7.12
Three-phase to two-phase conversion illustrated

We have now seen that the Clarke Transform converts the three-phase space
vector to an orthogonal two-phase reference frame scaled by . The space
vector, its two orthogonal vectors an its three-phase space vectors are illustrated
in figure 7.12.

42 Ac tivit y 7. 8

Determine Ia and Iβ if the three-phase currents are Ia = 70, 71, Ib = 25,88

and Ic = −95,59 A.
Answer: (70,71; 70,71)

7.5.4 Park Transform and Inverse Park Transform

Park referred the stator and rotor variables to a reference frame fixed on the
rotor. From this point of view, all the variables become constant (DC) values.
Thus, Park’s transformation eliminates all time- varying inductances due to
rotor axial movement from the voltage equations of three-phase AC machines.

FIGURE 7.13
Clarke and Park transforms from a three-phase rotating frame to a stationary frame

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Refer to figure 7.14.

 (9)

 (10)
 (11)

FIGURE 7.14
Deriving

Substituting equations (10) and (11) into (9)

=I d iα cos θ + iβ sin θ  (12)

Refer to figure 7.15.

FIGURE 7.15
Deriving

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(13)

 (14)

 (15)

Substituting equations (14) and (15) into (13)

 (16)

The symbolic presentation of the Park transform is shown in figure 7.16.

FIGURE 7.16
Symbolic presentation of the Park Transform

43 Ac tivit y 7.9

Determine Id and Iq if ia = 70, 71, iβ = 70, 71 A and θ = 45º.

1. 
Answer: (100; 0)
2. Determine Id and Iq if ia = 70, 71, iβ = 70, 71 A and θ = –45º.
Answer: (0; 100)
3. Determine iα and iβ if Id = 100 A, Iq = 0 A and θ = 45º. (Use the Inverse
Park Transform given in figure 7.17.)
Answer: (70, 71; 70, 71)

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FIGURE 7.17
Symbolic presentation of the Inverse Park Transform

The next section deals with space vector modulation.

7.5.5 Space vector modulation (SVM)

We have seen that the three-phase bridge inverter has eight possible states
that are defined by the position of the six solid state switches. Two of them
are zero states and the other six produce six vectors that are 60º apart and
have the same magnitude. The eight possible switching states are illustrated
in figure 7.20.

The maximum voltage that can be achieved in each arm of the three-phase
bridge inverter is .

This is illustrated in figure 7.18.

FIGURE 7.18
Equivalent circuit and voltages for V100 state

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Thus, during the period that the inverter is in the V100 state, the voltages for Va ,
Vb and Vc would be as illustrated in figure 7.19.

FIGURE 7.19
Arm voltages during the V100 state

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FIGURE 7.20
Eight possible switching combinations for a three-phase bridge inverter

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The average value of Va during V100 is thus . However, if we only switched

Arm a to the 1 state for half the time (as illustrated in figure 7.21) the average
voltage would be .

FIGURE 7.21
Arm a switching for an average voltage of

By varying ton and keeping the period constant, the average value can be
modulated. The formula is given by:

(17)

44 Ac tivit y 7.10
Prove mathematically that the average voltage of Arm a in figure 7.21 is
.

If we now increase the switching frequency to be k times the fundamental

frequency, it will be possible to not only apply pulse width modulation
(PWM) to change the average vector voltage, but it will also be possible
to switch between adjacent vectors to produce a space vector between
the two adjacent vectors.

Consider the two sets of wave forms in figure 7.22. Decreasing the period
by k does not influence the average value, since ton is also decreased by
the same factor k.

It now becomes possible to use the time that V100 is inactive in a switching
period to introduce an adjacent vector. The two adjacent vectors are V110
and V101. Creating two vectors with average values of each can be
done as shown in figure 7.23. This is called time division multiplexing.

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Since the switching time period can be made high, it would appear that the
resultant space vector would be displaced exactly between the two vectors
V110 and V100. It would therefore be at an angle of 30º to the horizontal axis
and its magnitude would be the vector addition of the two vectors
spaced 60º apart.

FIGURE 7.22
Increasing the switching frequency

FIGURE 7.23
Switching between V100 and V110 vectors

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We have now seen how it is possible to create two adjacent vectors of half
magnitude. To create adjacent vectors with unequal magnitudes, it is necessary
to also use the two zero vectors (V000 and V111) in a single switching period.

FIGURE 7.24
Voltage space vectors available with a three-phase inverter when using SVM

Suppose a reference voltage Vs as shown in figure 7.24 is generated by the

Inverse Park Transform functional block in figure 7.11. The SVM functional
block must now generate the gate control timing signals to control the static
switches in the three-phase inverter so that the vector Vs will be applied to the
motor. The dotted line traces the maximum value of Vs.

FIGURE 7.25
Voltage space vector and two adjacent base vectors

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The reference vector Vs in figure 7.25 can be represented by

 (18)

where  (19)

and r1 and r2 are coefficients determined by application of eq(17).

From figure 7.25

(20)

But


 (21)

Substitute eq(21) into eq(20)


(22)

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Substitute eq(19) into eq(22)

(23)

Furthermore
 (24)

and  (25)

But eq(23) = eq(24)

(26)

Substitute eq(19) into eq(26)

(27)

We can now define thee time periods:

(28)

 (29)

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T2 = r2T(30)

where

T0 is the zero-vector duration in a PWM period,

T1 is the is the V1 vector duration in a PWM period,
T2 is the is the V2 vector duration in a PWM period and
T is the PWM period.

To prevent switching two arms at the same time as well as minimising

harmonic components and creating an asymmetrical load, symmetric pulsation
and using both zero vectors is usually used in implementing SVM. This means
that the pulses are arranged around the centre of the PWM period and that half
of the zero-vector time will be in the centre and the other half divided equally
between the first and last sections of the PWM period. The zero-vector V000 is
used for at the beginning and end of each PWM period. The zero-vector V111
is used for at the centre each PWM period. The other two vectors involved
will each have half of their time period between the two zero-vector periods.

Worked example

A three-phase voltage is produced by an inverter by using space vector

modulation (SVM). The space voltage vector at a certain instant is given by
. The DC link voltage is 500 V and the PWM switching frequency
is 8 kHz.

Determine which base vectors are needed for generating this voltage.

Calculate the time durations of these base vectors.

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Sketch one period of the PWM switching sequence to generate the expected
voltage by using symmetric pulsation and both zero vectors (indicate each
vector in the diagram).

The angle 165º lies between 120º and 180º. Thus, the two vector states
concerned are V010 and V011.

FIGURE 7.26
SVM switching to create vector Vs = 100e j165º V

45 Ac tivit y 7.11
A three-phase voltage is produced by an inverter using space vector
modulation (SVM). The space voltage vector at a certain instant is given
by Vs = 100ej45º V. The DC link voltage is 600 V and the PWM switching
frequency is 8 kHz.
1. Determine which base vectors are needed for generating this voltage.
2. Calculate the time durations of these base vectors.
3. Sketch one period of the PWM switching sequence to generate the
expected voltage by using symmetric pulsation and both zero vectors
(indicate each vector in the diagram).
Answer:

4. Think about everything you have learnt in this module. What, would
you say, were the three most important insights you gained?

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7.6 CONCLUSION
This study unit provided an overview of variable speed drives for induction
motors and you should now have a sound basic grasp of this type of drive.

This study unit concludes the module. Studying this module will have enabled
you to identify various applications, topologies and techniques of power
electronics, and to analyse and solve problems relating to the applications of
power electronics in AC and DC drives as well as power transmission and
illumination. These skills should prove useful in your workplace as you pursue
your career in electrical engineering.

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