Saving and Credit Cooperatives for Women Empowerment:

A Case of Ejere Woreda, West Shoa Zone,

Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia
Adugna Gela Tufa, Formerly PG scholar, Dept. of Cooperatives, Ambo University, Ambo.
and
Prof.M.Karthikeyan, Dept. of Cooperatives, College of Business & Economics, Wollo University, Dessie,
Amhara Region, Ethiopia, Email: mkeya2003@gmail.com ; mobile:0962378889

ABSTRACT
Although women constitute about half of the Ethiopian population their social status
especially in rural areas remains very low. Women belong to the most deprived section of
the society facing adverse conditions in terms of social oppression and economic inequality,
a visible majority of them being poor. Considering this scenario, this paper analyzed
services provided by saving and credit co-operatives in the study area, examined
contribution of SACCOs for women empowerment in terms of economic, social and political
dimensions, and assessed factors influence women empowerment in SACCOs. The
methodology of this study is an integration of quantitative and qualitative methods based on
data collected from three saving and credit cooperative societies in the study area. Data
were collected from 128 respondents by employing random sampling technique from
sampled three SACCOs and data also collected from FGD and KI interview. The findings
clearly indicate that, women in the study area gained different economic, social and
political empowerment after joining SACCOs. Saving and credit cooperatives playimportant
role in improving women decision making power by contributing in economic activities. A
Cumulative Women Empowerment Index (CWEI) was developed and three key indicators of
empowerment status covering economic, social, and political dimensions of empowerment
finding shows that, in aggregate terms there is an improvement and significant change of
women status in all selected empowerment dimensions after joining saving and credit
cooperatives. Moreover, the result of multiple regression analysis shows that,education,
legal and rights awareness, asset ownership, credit accessibility, attendance in meeting,
income, management participation, and voting rightwere highly influencing women
empowerment in saving and credit cooperatives. The researcher recommend that SACCO
should provide adequate knowledge on empowerment to members, promoting women in the
management committee members, and providing regular training on saving and credit
cooperatives benefits in order to access to information, balancing family resources, business
responsibilities and at large empowering women.
Keywords: Credit, SACCO, Saving, Women Empowerment

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1.1 Background of the Study
More than one billion people in the world, the great majority of which are women, live in
unacceptable condition of poverty, mostly in the developing countries. Women in Ethiopia
face various multifaceted problems. The feminization of poverty and employment, lack of
adequate financial resource, lack of equal opportunity and limited access to education and
choices of professions, the multiple burden of domestic tasks, professional obligation and
the community socialization, the traditional harmful practices and violence against women
are prevailing socio-economic obstacles affecting women’s live (world Bank, 2005).
Women account for almost a half of the world’s population (Trading Economics, 2014)
estimated at 7.18 billion people by the United States Census Bureau (2014). Their ability to
contribute optimally to economic development was however, either suppressed or not
recognized as a result of cultural and chauvinistic tendencies. This made the proportion of
women living in conditions of extreme poverty much higher compared to that of their male
counter parts. The status of women in the past three decades have witnessed a steadily
increasing awareness of the need to empower women through measures to increase social,
economic and political equity, and broader access to fundamental human rights,
improvements in nutrition, basic health and education. Along with awareness of the
subordinate status of women has come the concept of gender as an overarching socio-
cultural variable, seen in relation to other factors, such as race, class, age and ethnicity.
Gender equality refers to that stage of human social development at which “the rights,
responsibilities and opportunities of individuals will not be determined by the fact of being
born male or female,” in other words, a stage when both men and women realize their full
potential (Augusto, and Saadia, 2005).
The belief that men are superior to women in most cultures in Ethiopia consider men to be
superior in hierarchy, hence, men and women do not hold equal status socially,
economically and politically. This creates dependency of women on men at every level
depriving women of their right to make decisions concerning their own rights. Hence,
empowerment of women (Social, economical, political) is vital for meaningful involvement
of women in the development process and to benefit equally from the results as their male
counterparts (Brahme, 1984).
Empowerment has always been fundamental to the saving and credit cooperative idea where
weaker sections of the people get together to achieve goals that they would not be able to
achieve on their own. The members themselves decide the goal and, since SACCOs are
organized on the principle of one person one vote and it provides women with the
opportunity of participating on equal terms with men. Various literatures also state that
SACCOs are one of the means to empowerment women. This research will be an ideal
attempt to deal with the role of SACCO in promoting women empowerment.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

One of the successful steps which aim to provide women with the condition for their
economic independence and empowerment is allowing the poor and especially women with
access to financial services. With respect to access to the services, women face special
constraints which men are not subjected to because of their limited access to household
assets, low level of skills, experience and education and social and domestic roles that
pressure women to concentrate on traditional activities (Goetz, and Gupta, 1996). This has

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led to the justification that to develop credit delivery system for rural women. Hence, in
Ethiopia, where the livelihood of the majority of the population depends on agricultural
output at subsistence level and also where credit facility is almost non-existent for rural
people including women, financial institutions like saving and credit cooperatives are of
paramount importance for providing facilities for saving and extending credit. Saving and
credit schemes are, therefore, the shortest possible means of accumulating saving and
extending loan to the low income groups where established commercial banks are limited in
number and far behind the reach of the society. This approach and movement has now been
accepted as an effective strategy in any development endeavor as it is believed to be the
main way of increasing income and boosting productivity in an attempt to break through the
vicious cycle of poverty by mobilizing saving and provision of credit to their members.
In addition from past Studies in Ethiopia (Berhan, Kelemework and Muthyalu, 2011)
observed‘ that, SACCOs had substantial impact on gender equality, by contributing to some
extent in generating economic activities, improved their income, to have their own assets
and brought change in decision making and asset formation compared to the “before”
situation of the women member. However, very limited empirical studies are available on
the role of SACCOs in empowering women. Thus, the present study was taking an attempt
to check whether the women have achieved empowerment or not through SACCOs in Ejere
woreda. It will be tried to identify Women’s empowerment by analyzing the Empowerment
indicators and related socio-economic factors. It was hypothesized that women’s
empowerment could be achieved through saving and credit cooperatives.
More than half of the total population of Ethiopia is women. Therefore they can contribute
immensely to the national development. However, due to prevailing gender discrimination,
current socio-economic status of women in Ethiopia is very poor. Women are being
discriminated in every aspect of the society. These and so many other factors have pushed
women to be at the back of the development (Bhup Bahadur K. C, 2012). Some of the major
problems faced by women associated in the Ethiopia are summarized as follows;
i. They are not fully involved in economic activities,
ii. They are not fully involved in social meeting and,
iii. They are not fully involved in every decision making of the family.
Though SACCO has provided saving and credit services to women, the credit service, have
not yet solved their financial problem as expected by them. From the early 1970s, women’s
movements in a number of countries identified credit as a major constraint on women’s
ability to earn an income and became increasingly interested in the degree to which poverty-
focused credit programmers and credit cooperatives were actually being used by women.
SEWA in India, for example, set up credit programmers as part of a multi-pronged strategy
for an organization of informal sector women workers. Since the 1970s, many women’s
organizations world-wide have included credit and savings, both as a way of increasing
women’s incomes and to bring women together to address wider gender issues. The 1980s
saw the emergence of poverty-targeted SACCO institutions like Grameen Bank and others.
Many of these programmers see themselves as empowerment-oriented. In the 1990s, a
combination of evidence of high female repayment rates and the rising influence of gender
lobbies within donor agencies and NGOs led to increasing emphasis on targeting women in
SACCO programmers (Mayoux, L. 2001)

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In order to create women empowerment among women settings, scholars and field
practitioners have recognized the importance of empowering women. To successfully
empower women, both gender and empowerment concerns should be integrated in to every
service provision area. Moreover, they should be incorporated in the economic, social, and
political spheres as well as at the individual, household, and community levels in order to
overcome women empowerment (Mayoux, 2000). And the SACCO should provide
comprehensive, direct and context specific strategies to empower women. These strategies
include creating gender consciousness, enabling women to mobilize community resources
and public services, providing support to the challenges of traditional norms and providing
access to vocational and life skills to increase women’s access to and control over economic
resources.
Saving and credit cooperative programmers not only give women access to saving and
credit, but also reach millions of people worldwide bringing them together regularly in
organized groups. They are potentially a very significant contribution to gender equality
and women empowerment as well as pro poor development and civil society strengthening.
Though the study will be needed for their contribution to women ability to earn an income,
these programs have potential to initiate a serious of “virtuous spirals of economic
empowerment, increased wellbeing for women and their families and wider social and
political empowerment (http://www.genfinance.accessed on May 9, 2008). Moreover, local
studies on women empowerment particularly studies based on women empowerment
through SACCOs are rare.
As a result, there is lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding women empowerment
through SACCO and the factors that associated with them. This study, therefore, has been an
attempt with the purpose of examining women empowerment in SACCOs in Ejere woreda
by considering economic, social, and political dimensions of empowerment.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective of the Study
The general objective of the study is to assess the contribution of Saving and Credit
Cooperatives in Empowering Women.
1.3.2 The specific Objectives of the Study
1. To analyze services provided by saving and credit co-operatives in the study area;
2. To examine contributions of SACCOs for women empowerment in terms of
economic, social and political dimensions; and
3. To assess the effect of independent variables on women empowerment in SACCOs.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Empowered women contribute greatly to the health and production of whole families as well
as to the communities. Empowering women is an indispensable strategy for advancing
development and reducing poverty. Monitoring progress towards gender equality and
women’s empowerment is therefore of great importance. Empowerment of women,
demands recognition of their rightful place in the decision making process. Women should

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 have knowledge and resources, greater autonomy in decision making, greater ability to plan
their lives, greater control over the circumstances that influence their lives and free from
chains imposed by prevailing customs, beliefs and practices. They should become active
members in development process rather than simple beneficiaries of programmers and
service. Women must be provided opportunities to have control over production resources
that would lead to better life for their families and their children. The result of this study
may provide useful information to improve saving and credit delivery and implement
appropriate mechanism to Ejere woreda cooperative promotion office (government
Organization who are responsible to organize, promote and regulate primary cooperative
societies) thereby to improve the income and to empower the urban women. The output of
the research may contribute to improve the credit supply system of saving and credit
cooperatives and hence motivate women to increase their saving amount.

1.5 Limitations of the Study

The study will be limited both in area coverage and time. Due to resource and time
constraints not all of the primary saving and credit cooperatives had been involved in the
study. A limitation in terms of geographical area sample of three (3) primary saving and
credit cooperatives had been purposively selected.

1.6 Conceptual Framework of the Study

Figure 1: The conceptual framework of the study shows the relationship between the
study variables.

Demographic factors
Age
Family size
Social factors
Marital status Level of education
Political factors
Legal and right leadership
awareness Women
Training
Participation in
Empowerment
political activities Household decision
making
Exposure to mass
media
Economic factors
Coop. related factors
Income
Access to and control of Credit accessibility
family resources Management
participation
Occupation Voting right
Asset ownership Attendance in meeting
Part in decision making
Sources: Designed by the researcher, (2018, G.C.), based on review of literatures

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1.7 Operational Definition of Variables
1.7.1 Dependent Variable
Women Empowerment: - is the dependent variable. Cumulative Women Empowerment
Index (CWEI) was calculated by combining the economic, social, and political
empowerment score. CWEI in SACCOs was assumed to be influenced by different
independent variables as factors.
1.7.2 Independent Variables
Age: - this variable is continuous variable and refers to the age of the householder. The
experience that the members accumulate about principle and values of saving and credit
cooperatives will motivate to participate on issues of women empowerment. Therefore, this
variable is expected to influence positively.
Family size: - is continuous variable which refers to the total number of a family of
cooperative member. It was hypotheses that a member of cooperative having large family
size may have less opportunity to participate on training and education and due to this, there
could low awareness regarding women empowerment in cooperative. Thus this variable is
expected to have negative effect on women empowerment.
Marital status: - This indicates the status of women as either married, single,
divorced/widow.
Level of education:-it is an ordinal variable and refers to the level of respondent’s
education and their quality. Possession of higher level education enhances members of
SACCO to actively participate in women empowerment.
Leadership: - it is a nominal variable and refers to the management of the saving and credit
cooperative societies. A right leadership/management of saving and credit cooperative
enhances women empowerment in decision making, and policy setting of their society.
Training: - it refers to training given by the saving and credit cooperatives and other
organization to its member on benefit of women empowerment. It takes a value of ‘1’ if the
members given the training from its SACCO or otherwise ‘o’. Training has positive effect
on women empowerment.
Household decision making: - is a dummy variable which takes ‘1’ as women have a
decision making power in a household otherwise ‘0’.
Exposure to mass media: - is dummy variable that takes the value ‘1’ if women exposure
to mass media information and ‘0’ otherwise. The member of saving and credit cooperative
exposure to mass media facilitates the activities of women empowerment.
Legal and right awareness: - is a dummy variable. It increases the empowerment of
women in SACCOs. It assumes that women aware of their legal and right has a positive
relationship with women empowerment. It takes the value of ‘1’ if the women aware of their
legal and right or otherwise ‘0’.
Participation in political activities: - it is a dummy variable. Women’s participation in
political activities has a positive influence on women empowerment and it takes ‘1’ if the
women participated in political activities or otherwise ‘0’.
Income: - it is continuous variable and refers to the monthly income of respondents. The
incomes of individual members of respondents will increase women empowerment.
Access to and control of family resources: - is dummy variable that takes the value ‘1’ if
the asset or resources will access to and control by the women of family and ‘0’ otherwise.
Women’s access to resources, particularly jobs in the formal economy, is limited due to

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cultural conditions that subordinate the role of women (Brahme, 1984). It is primarily to
equality in the opportunity to use or apply basic capabilities through SACCO access to
economic assets and resources to empower women.
Occupation: - is continuous variable which refers to the job of women of SACCO member.
Asset ownership: - it is a dummy variable. The member of a SACCO who has a right of
asset ownership takes the value ‘1’ or otherwise ‘0’.
Credit accessibility: - refers a dummy variable and it takes ‘1’ if the credit will accessible
to women’s otherwise ‘0’.
Management participation: - it is a dummy variable. If a woman participates in the
management committee of SACCOs it takes the value of 1 or otherwise 0.
Voting right: - it is a dummy variable and if women of SACCO’s members have access to
voting right it will takes the value of ‘1’ or otherwise ‘0’.
Attendance in meeting: - it is defined as the presence of all women members in meetings
and it is conducted to set the societies objectives, decide on bylaws, exercise ownership
control over the society’s growth freely and elect capable board of directors, control
committee and subcommittee, hear budget report and pass necessary decisions. It is
measured as a dummy variable that takes the value ‘1’, if members attendance in meetings,
or otherwise ‘0’. It can assume that attendance in meetings has positive effect to women
empowerment in SACCOs.
Part in decision making: - refers a dummy variable which takes ‘1’ as women have a
decision making part in a SACCO or otherwise ‘0’.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Women Empowerment

2.1.1. Empowerment: Concept and its Meaning
Empowerment can be viewed as means of creating a social environment in which one can
make decisions and make choices either individually or collectively for social
transformation. It strengthens the innate ability by way of acquiring knowledge, power and
experience (Hashemi Schuler and Riley, 1996). Empowerment is the process of enabling or
authorizing individual to think, take action and control work in an autonomous way. It is the
process by which one can gain control over one’s destiny and the circumstances of one’s
lives. Empowerment includes control over resources (physical, human, intellectual and
financial) and over ideology (beliefs, values and attitudes). It is not merely a feel of greater
extrinsic control, but also grows intrinsic capacity, greater self-confidence and an internal
transformation of one’s consciousness that enables one to overcome external barriers to
accessing resources or changing traditional ideology.

Women empowerment is very essential for the development of society. Empowerment

means individuals acquiring the power to think and act freely, exercises choice and fulfill
their potential as full and equal members of society. Thus, empowerment means a
psychological sense of personal control or influence and a concern with actual social
influence, political power and legal rights. It is a multi level construct referring to
individuals, organizations and community. It is an international, ongoing process centered in
the local community, involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring and group

7
participation, through which people lacking an equal share of valued resources gain greater
access to the control over these resources.
Kabeer, N. (2005) the elements required in enabling one to gain power, authority and
influence over others, institutions or society may be listed as following:
 Decision-making power of one’s own
 Access to information and resources for taking proper decision
 Availability of a range of options from which choices can be made (not just yes/no,
either/or.)
 Ability to exercise forcefulness in collective decision making
 Positive thinking on the ability to make change
 Ability to learn skills for improving one's personal or group power.
 Ability to changes others ‘perceptions by democratic means.
 Involvement in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-
initiated
 Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma
 Increasing one's ability in careful thinking to sort out right and wrong
In short, empowerment is the process that allows one to gain the knowledge, skill-sets and
attitude needed to cope with the changing world and the circumstances in which one lives.
This can be further clarified by following path diagram.
Figure 2: Indicators of empowerment

Access to Autonomy
resources (power of
decision
Empowerment making)

Well being Agency (power

(achievement) of act upon
one’s own
Source: Adopted from Linda Mayoux, 2001challenging
goal)
(Linda Mayoux, 2001) Women’s movements in a number of countries identified credit as a
major constraint on women’s ability to earn an income and became increasingly interested in
the degree to which poverty-focused credit programmers and credit cooperatives were
actually being used by women. The increasing emphases on targeting women in micro-
finance Programmers underlying the current debate are three ‘paradigms’; these are:
• Economic empowerment: women’s access to savings and credit gives them a greater
economic role in decision-making through their decision about savings and credit (Figure
2.1). When women control decisions regarding credit and savings, they will optimize their

8
own and the household’s welfare. The investment in women’s economic activities will
improve employment opportunities for women and thus have a ‘trickle down and out’ effect.
The financial sustainability and feminist empowerment paradigms emphasize women’s own
income-generating activities. In the poverty alleviation paradigm, the emphasis is more on
increasing incomes at the household level and the use of loans for consumption. In the
feminist empowerment paradigm, individual economic empowerment is seen as dependent
on social and political empowerment.
• Increased well-being: access to savings and credit facilities and women’s decision about
what is being done with savings and credit strengthens women’s say in economic decisions
the household (Figure 2.1). This enables women to increase expenditure on the well-being of
themselves and their children. This is the main concern in the poverty alleviation paradigm.
Women’s control over decision-making is also seen as benefitting men through preventing
leakage of household income to unproductive and harmful. Other welfare interventions are
advocated in addition to micro-finance, typically nutrition, and health and literacy
campaigns to further decrease vulnerability and improve women’s skills. In the financial
self-sustainability and feminist empowerment paradigms, improved well-being is an
assumed outcome from increasing women’s economic activities and incomes.
Social and political empowerment: a combination of women’s increased economic activity
and control over income resulting from access to micro-finance with improved women’s
skills, mobility, and access to knowledge and support networks (Figure 2.1). Status within
the community is also enhanced. These changes are reinforced by group formation, leading
to wider movements for social and political change. The financial self-sustainability
paradigm and the poverty alleviation paradigm assume that social and political
empowerment will occur without specific interventions to change gender relations at the
household, community or macro-levels. By contrast, the feminist empowerment paradigm
advocates explicit strategies for supporting women’s ability to protect their individual and
collective gender interests at the household, community and macro-levels.
A woman’s individual savings plays the critical role in securing her well-being by enhancing
her bargaining power. If she can keep savings under her control (usually anonymously), she
is better able to act in her best interest in the case of an abusive husband or an economic
downturn. Moreover, such savings, however small, provide women with some minimal
resources to provide for themselves and their children without being entirely dependent on
their husbands. Numerous studies have identified that many women feel shamed when
forced to supplicate to men; in contexts of scarcity they may be forced to plead for every
penny to meet their basic food needs. Putting money in the hands of women plays a critical
role in ensuring a household’s food security. Indeed, given the precarious and risky nature of
peasant production in Ethiopia, women’s role in procuring food for the household and the
community is crucial (Getaneh, 2010).
Social empowerment is supposed to be the result of true economic empowerment where
women have voice, choices, confidence and therefore are able to participate in various
leadership positions both politically and in the society. The rationale for providing women
access to SACCO services is that gender inequalities inhibit economic growth and
development. The predominant image of empowerment in development is that of women
gaining (material) means to empower themselves as individuals, and putting this to the
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service of their families and communities. This is primarily because empowerment is
understood in relation to deliberate and planned interventions such as electoral quotas,
education, economic empowerment initiatives, legislative change and non-governmental
public action (Kulkarni, 2011).
The Inter-American Development Bank (2010) defined women’s empowerment in terms of
expanding the rights, resources, and capacity of women to make decisions and act
independently in social, economic, and political spheres’, The UN (2001) defined women’s
empowerment in terms of five components: ‘women’s sense of self-worth; their right to
have and determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their
right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and
their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and
economic order, nationally and internationally”.
Malhotra et.al (2002) constructed a list of the most commonly used dimensions of women’s
empowerment, drawing from the frameworks developed by various authors in different
fields of social sciences. Allowing for overlap, these frameworks suggest that women’s
empowerment needs to occur along multiple dimensions including: economic, socio-
cultural, familial/ interpersonal, legal, political, and psychological. Since these dimensions
cover a broad range of factors, women may be empowered within one of these sub-domains.
2.2. Measuring Empowerment
Malhotra (2002) emphasis that even after identifying empowerment as a primary
development goal, neither the World Bank nor any other major development agency has
developed a rigorous method for measuring and tracking changes in levels of empowerment.
The UNDP’s Human Development Report of 1995 introduced two new complementary
indices: the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment
Measure (GEM). The GDI indicator measures the inequalities between men and women in
terms of access to basic needs. GEM evaluates women’s access to political and economic
posts. The three indicators retained are the share of seats held by women in the
parliamentary assemblies, the share of supervisory posts, high administrative posts and
technical posts assumed by women, and the estimated share of income from work of women
compared to that of men. Based on Amartaya Sen’s work, the UNDP makes the distinction
between the measure of inequality and empowerment. The GDI focuses on the extension of
capabilities; the GEM is concerned with the use of those capabilities to take advantage of the
opportunities of life. The UNDP found a very strong correlation between its gender
empowerment measure and gender-related development indices and its Human
Development Index (Bardhan, 1999), points that these indices have limitations. Firstly, the
presence of large proportion of elected women members in the national parliament does not
necessarily have significant real power. Secondly, such a measure does not take into account
the participation of women in the local political institutions and their visibility in other
bodies of civil society.

2.3 Measuring Women Empowerment

2.3.1 Measuring Empowerment from a Universalist Perspective
As we move from a discussion of conceptualizing empowerment to measuring it, it is
important to note that measures of empowerment must involve standards that lie outside
localized gender systems and a recognition of universal elements of gender subordination

10
(Nussbaum, 2000). It is clear from the literature on gender and empowerment that the role of
gender in development cannot be understood without understanding the socio-cultural (as
well as political and economic) contexts in which development takes place. The concept of
empowerment only has meaning within these specific contexts. At the same time,
operational definitions (e.g. definitions embodied in indicators to be applied in the context of
development assistance policies, programs, and projects) should be consistent with the spirit
of international conventions to which countries providing international development
assistance have been signatories. The approach based in universal human rights offers the
best operational framework for this task.
2.3.2 Multidimensionality and Existing Frameworks
As early as (Acharya and Bennett, 1981) noted that status is a function of the power attached
to a given role, and because women fill a number of roles, it may be misleading to speak of
“the status of women”. Another early writer on the topic, Mason (1986), pointed out that the
phenomenon of gender inequality is inherently complex, that men and women are typically
unequal in various ways, and that the nature or extent of their inequality in different settings
can vary across these different dimensions (as well by social setting and stage in the life
cycle). Since that time, a number of studies have shown that women may be empowered in
one area of life while not in others (Kishor, 2000b). Several different efforts have been made
in recent years to develop comprehensive frameworks delineating the various dimensions
along which women can be empowered.

2.4 Women Empowerment in African Context

Although African countries have adopted a number of universal declarations and
commitments but little have been done in translating those declarations into national policies
(Economic Commission for Africa, 2005). Even where commitments have been
implemented nevertheless African women are persistently marginalized in accessing
information and information communication technologies (ICTs) due to problem of
illiteracy, socio-cultural attitudes and lack of understanding of the resources and situational
impediments experienced by women (African Development Forum, 2008). This is perhaps
as a result of low access to productive information resources and wide gap between
commitments and implementation (Economic Commission for Africa, 2005).
The promotion of women’s empowerment in Africa in areas such as education, politics and
economics has been slow and much remains to be done. The African Development Forum
(2008) averred that empowering women to participate in the information economy would
bring about benefits such as increased creativity, expertise and competitiveness in
technology sector and thus assist the information economy thereby lead to economic growth.
The government in African countries cannot do this enormous task alone, this is the reason
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Africa have stood up to the responsibility of
empowering women in different areas.

2.5 Women in Ethiopia

From her birth, an Ethiopian female in most families is of lower status and commands little
respect relative to her brothers and male counterparts. As soon as she is able, she starts
caring for younger siblings, helps in food preparation, and spends long hours fetching water
and carrying firewood. As she grows older, she is valued for the role she will play in

11
establishing kinship bonds through marriage to another family, thereby strengthening the
community status of her family. She is taught to be subservient, as a disobedient daughter is
an embarrassment to her family. Low status characterizes virtually every aspect of girls’ and
women’s lives. Given the heavy workload imposed on girls at an early age, early marriage
without choice, and a subservient role to both husband and mother-in-law, girls and women
are left with few opportunities to make and act on their own decisions (Wilder, 2007). The
National Committee for Traditional Practices in Ethiopia identified 120 Harmful Traditional
Practices, including Female Genital Cutting, early and forced marriage, rape, and wife
inheritance. Pathfinder programming addresses many of these barriers to women’s progress
in an effort to grant them physical and social access to quality reproductive healthcare
services.
Traditional practices endure in conservative societies because they go unquestioned. In rural
Ethiopia, individual status is closely linked to family strength and success (Wilder, 2007). A
daughter brings pride and status to her parents by being successfully married and
establishing strategic kinship links with another family. Great shame is brought onto parents
whose daughter never marries. She is their failure. A pregnancy out of wedlock, whether
consensual or by rape, is deeply shameful to the entire family. For many families, marrying
a daughter at a young age is understood as the best way to protect her from sexual advances
and an unwanted pregnancy. Many development professionals consider early marriage to be
the most significant harmful traditional practice for women in Ethiopia, as it harms women’s
physical and psychological well-being and curtails their education and future income-
earning potential.
Ethiopian society is highly structured, and great deference is paid to religious, political and
civil leaders, teachers, and other prominent community members. Over many years,
Pathfinder has developed trusting relationships with political and traditional leaders, from
the national level down to the smallest communities (Wilder, 2007).

2.6 The Concept of Women Economic Empowerment

According to (Kidist, Bamlaku and Aragaw, 2012) there is no universally accepted
definition of empowerment and economic empowerment, and it is not the purpose of this
report to compare and analyze different definitions. There are in any case commonalities
among the different definitions of the concept. While some define empowerment as the
process of acquiring “power” individually and collectively that enables people to make their
own decisions regarding matters that affect their life and society, others suggest that the
notion of empowerment forms part of the vision to acquire power, to control one’s life and
make choices.
An interest in women economic empowerment suggests, therefore, that we are not only
concerned about whether women are economically active or not, but also about the quality
of their economic involvement. The issue of quality draws us towards an examination of
women’s ability to become employed or start and grow businesses; of whether women earn
enough to allow them to satisfy basic needs and access services, and their ability to take
decisions about wider matters, for instance, about how they spend their earnings and other
household decisions.

12
Feminization of poverty, lack of access to resources, the growing rates of unemployment
and insecurity have a negative effect on women’s economic empowerment. Employment
(including the type of employment) is one aspect of social life that exemplifies gender roles
and relationships. Employment is a source of financial security and empowerment for both
women and men, especially if they are in control of the income they generate. Employment
(including the type of employment) is one aspect of social life where imbalanced gender
roles and relationships are manifested. The 2011 EDHS shows that 38 % of Ethiopian
women are currently employed compared to 80% of men. Besides, only 36 % of women
responding to the 2011 EDH Survey said that they themselves mainly decide how their cash
earnings are used. This has implications on women’s ability to own and control resources
and assets, requiring support for them to innovatively invest and manage their earnings.
Informal employment, women are concentrated in “female” occupations and sectors.
According to information from the Central Statistics Agency (CSA), in 2010, 42.5% of
women employed in urban areas were working in sub-standard jobs that did not require
capital, education, or knowledge. Additionally, evidence points to the fact that women go
abroad to work at low level jobs and according to the 2010 workers’ and social affairs
report. 87% of those that obtain work permits and go abroad are women - most of them as
domestic servants. The share of women in government offices is 42% and for the most part
they occupy low level and low paying positions. This necessitates a stronger focus on
promoting women’s leadership in the public sector.
2.6.1 Government Policies, Programmers and Commitments
The Ethiopian Government has demonstrated its commitment to resolve gender inequalities
and thereby enhance women economic empowerment through various public policies and
strategies. At an international level, it is a signatory to several important international
conventions, aimed at supporting women’s empowerment in general, including the
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW),
Beijing Platform of Action, Cairo Declaration on Population and Development, and the
Millennium Development Goals.
At a national level, the Government has attempted to create an enabling environment
through, among other measures, the 1995 Constitution and several policy frameworks,
which explicitly emphasize the need for gender equality and women’s empowerment. The
most relevant policies include:
I. the Health Policy (1993),
II. the National Policy on Ethiopian Women (1993) (which aimed at ensuring
democratic and human rights of women and creating an enabling environment for the
participation of women in the decision-making process at all levels on equal footing
with men),
III. the Educational and Training Policy (1994), and
IV. The Development and Social Welfare Policy (1996).

The Government’s commitment to prioritize gender equality and women empowerment is

also manifested in the integration of the National Action Plan on Gender Equality (NAP-
GE) into the Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty (PASDEP)
and the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) (where a potentially positive force towards

13
its success is expected because it addresses issues of different segments of the society and
women in particular). NAP-GE provides for addressing poverty reduction and women’s
economic empowerment through increasing rural women’s access to agricultural land,
employment opportunities, agricultural inputs and extension services, improved crop and
animal husbandry, among others. The land certification drive carried out in the different
regions of the country has also been a reflection of the government’s commitment to enforce
the policy of improving women’s access to land and acquisition of property thereby
enhancing their economic capacity.
2.6.2 The Growth and Transformation Plan
The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) analyses women’s empowerment through their
increased ability to improve their income and economic status, and their active participation
in the development process. Thus, in relation to natural resource management and rural
livelihoods, it states that: “…those households that have very small plots, and landless youth
and women, will be encouraged to engage in non-farm income generating activities. In
addition they will be provided with adequate support to ensure their food security by
providing packages of skill and business management training, credit and access to market.”
Three of the five gender targets in the GTP specifically address women's economic
empowerment and target, increasing women's participation in decision making, is crucial to
enhancing women's empowerment across all activities. The targets are:
1. Increase the number of women entrepreneurs that graduate from operating micro
enterprises to small and medium businesses.
2. Increase the number of women who receive training in management and entrepreneurship.
3. Increase the number of women beneficiaries of credit and saving services.
4. Reduce the rate of abduction, child marriage and female genital mutilation.
5. Increase the participation of women in decision-making processes.
One way of attaining all the above forms of empowerment is through enhancing women
access to the credits. A growing body of literature argues that SACCO (credit programs)
empower women by strengthening their economic roles, enhancing their capacity to
contribute to their family‘s income, helping them establish their identity outside the family
and giving them experience and self confidence in the public sphere (UN 2001).

2.7 Cooperatives for Women Empowerment

As ILO (2007) gender equality refers to the enjoyment of equal rights, opportunities and
treatment by men and women in all spheres of life. It asserts that people’s rights,
responsibilities, social status and access to resources do not depend on whether they are born
male or female. Despite commitments in many international agreements and treaties to the
principle of gender equality, women worldwide continue to face oppression, discrimination
and human rights violations. These take many forms, from violence against women to
restricted access for women to education and health services. Inequalities between women
and men also exist in the world of work, both in quantity of job opportunities and quality of
employment. On average, men earn more than women undertaking equivalent work, and
men continue to fill the leadership and management positions. Gender equality in the world
of work signifies equality of opportunity and treatment, equality of remuneration and access
to safe and healthy working environments, equality in association and collective bargaining,

14
equality in obtaining meaningful career development, maternity protection, and a balance
between work and home life that is fair to both men and women.
The internationally agreed Cooperative Values and Principles commit the cooperative
movement to the values of self-help, self-responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and
solidarity. Democratic member control, on the basis of one member one vote and with-out
gender, social, racial, political or religious discrimination lies at the heart of cooperative
values. Cooperative enterprises can play a role in contributing to achieving the economic
and social empowerment of women. There are inspiring examples from around the world of
women using the cooperative business model to support themselves, their households and
their communities. However, there is more that the international cooperative movement can
and should do to put women’s empowerment and gender equality at the heart of its activities
and agenda for change.

2.8 Savings and Credit Cooperatives in Women Empowerment

Women in Ethiopia are involved in all forms of informal sector work, most of which offers
minimum wage, is dangerous at times, and most importantly, has failed to significantly lift
them out of poverty. At the same time, however, women’s organizations in Addis Ababa
have shown remarkable initiative with regards to mobilizing women around savings and
cooperative schemes aimed at mobilizing women to save and regenerate their incomes.
These schemes enjoy a broad reach, including women working as coffee sellers, weavers,
street vendors, domestic workers, firewood carries, garbage collectors and even beggars.
There are a number of initiatives to empower women especially those that have no education
and income, through savings, loans and income generating activities. Many are organized
under self-help groups and cooperatives, which offer not only economic incentives, but are
also playing a significant social and cultural role in bringing together women who
previously would not work together due to discrimination and stigma around certain work
like garbage collection, which are identified with a lower caste in other words, challenging
the gendered, ethicized political economy of labor relations in Ethiopia. Many women also
previously did not have confidence in the savings schemes, fearing that poverty was their
fate and that subjecting their not enough incomes to such schemes would only impoverish
them further. The savings and credit schemes therefore can be seen as playing an important
sociological as well as psychological function towards empowerment and encouraging self-
reliance among women.

15
Figure: 3 Savings and Credit Cooperatives in Women Empowerment

Savings and

Credit

Repayment

Women's
Decision about
Savings and
Credit Use Increased Status
Women's and Changing
Decisions about Roles
Consumption Women
entrepreneurs

Ability to
Increased negotiate change
Wellbeing Relations in
of Women Income Under Gender

Women's Control
Increased
Wellbeing Women's
of Children Networks and
Mobility

Increased Wage
Increased
Employment for Wider
Wellbeing of
Women Movements for
Men
Social, Political &
Legal Change

Source: Adopted from (Mayoux, 2000)

As (U.Steger, A. Schwandt and M. Perissé, 2007) Most microcredit programs, replicating
the system designed by Muhammad Yunus, prioritize women as a target for their services.

16
According to the Grameen Bank’s website, 97% of the institution’s clients are women. This
is for the following reasons:
• They are known to take repayments more seriously.
• The loan is more likely to benefit the whole household (children’s education and
healthcare, housing, etc) than loans to men.
• Access to financial services can empower women, i.e. enhance their self confidence and
status within the family.
This last aspect has led many social-oriented micro finance institutions to prioritize
women’s empowerment as a key driver of development in their strategy formulation. In fact,
in a 2001 paper commissioned by the World Bank, researchers concluded that “societies that
discriminate on the basis of gender pay the cost of greater poverty, slower economic growth,
weaker governance, and a lower living standard of their people.” The consequences of
empowering women through microcredit include better status in the community, a decrease
in household violence, enhanced decision-making power in the family and better childcare.
Saving and credit cooperatives are financial institutions which can play significant role to
develop Economic situation of the developing countries. “A saving and credit cooperative is
an association of persons usually of limited means who have voluntarily joined together to
achieve a common economic end through the information of a democratically controlled
business organization, making equitable contributions to the capital required and accepting a
fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking”. Saving and credit cooperatives, as
economic enterprises and as self-help organizations, play a meaningful role in uplifting the
socio-economic conditions of their members and their local communities. Over the years,
saving and credit cooperative enterprises have successfully operated locally-owned people
centered businesses while also serving as catalysts for social organization and unity. With
their concern for their members and communities, they represent a model of economic
enterprise that places high regard for democratic and human values and respect for the
environment. As the world today faces unstable financial systems, increased insecurity of
food supply, growing inequality worldwide, rapid climate change and increased
environmental degradation, it is increasingly compelling to consider the model of economic
enterprise that saving and credit cooperatives offer. The saving and credit cooperative
sector, especially in developing countries, also presents itself as an important element that
can contribute to the realization of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Acharya,
2009).
Saving and credit cooperatives can contribute to the achievement of the MDGs because of
their inherent characteristics. Because saving and credit cooperatives are economic
associations, they provide the opportunity for poor people to raise their incomes. Because
they are democratic with each member having one vote, they empower people to own their
own solutions, and because they pool risks at the level of the enterprise and offer micro-
insurance they increase security. In addition, there is increasing evidence indicating that
saving and credit cooperatives also contribute directly and indirectly to meeting several of
the other MDGs, such as primary education for children, gender equality, women
empowerment and reducing child mortality (Acharya, 2009).
The saving and credit cooperative enterprise also presents an important model as many of
the poorest and disadvantaged face social exclusion, lack of access to opportunities and
growing economic inequality. As the uneven effects of globalization have led to a rise in the
17
unregulated informal economy, workers in the informal sectors have formed shared service
cooperatives and associations to assist in their self-employment. In rural areas, savings and
credit cooperatives provide access to banking services which are lacking in many
communities (Thapaliya, 2009).
Savings and credit cooperatives were historically unpopular in Ethiopia (Sebhatu 2012: 79),
and as such, their recuperation under the current neoliberal regime as a path towards
women’s empowerment is worth a brief interrogation here. Successive regimes, starting
from the Imperial period to the EPFDR government, gave due recognition to the role of
cooperatives and made deliberate effort to promote the same. However, the principles and
approaches followed were markedly different, reflecting the political thinking and ideology
of the regimes. In its Five Year Development Plan, the Imperial regime envisaged an
important role for cooperatives in transforming smallholding agriculture. Thus, it set the
stage by providing the first legal framework (the Farmer Workers Cooperative Decree No.
44, later replaced by the Cooperative Societies Proclamation No. 241/1966). The military
regime, which viewed cooperatives as an instrument to build a socialist economy pursued
the cooperatives agenda more aggressively. The approach followed combined coercion with
extensive support including priority access to resources, goods and services (such as land,
irrigation, bank loans at lower interest rate, capital goods, inputs & extension services, and
consumer goods. Cooperatives were so unpopular that following the end of the Derg regime
in 1992 almost of them disappeared quickly. The disorderly manner (e.g. bank loans and
other obligations were not settled, no distribution of assets between members, etc.) of their
termination also created a lasting disbelief and distrust of cooperatives, the stigma of which
is unforgettable cooperatives until today. In an attempt for a fresh start with promotion of
cooperatives, the incumbent government issued a new legal framework (Proclamation No.
147/1998 and 402/2004). In addition to being comprehensive, it incorporated universally
accepted principle of cooperatives. SACCOs, which were only 495 during the Derg period
(with membership of 119,799), reached 5,437 (with membership of 381,212) by 2012,
currently constituting the second most common type of cooperatives (next to housing
cooperatives) in the country in terms of both number and membership (Sebhatu 2012: 79).
The retreat of the state under neoliberals also facilitated the rethinking of the nature of
cooperatives: the market logic prevailed to accelerate competition between buyers and
sellers, and the proliferation of cooperatives also meant increased mobility of members to
alternative cooperatives which they perceived as better serving their needs. Women-led
cooperatives, organized under the umbrella of women’s NGOs proliferated in this context.
But, as Wanyama (2012: 11) points out, the immediate collapse of cooperatives and
increased malfunctioning of others activated a corrective response from both the state and
the cooperative movement itself.

2.9 Empirical Studies

A study in India, on indicators of women’s empowerment indicates that a much higher
proportion of women who have completed at least middle level of education are involved in
decision making, have freedom of movement and also have access to money, compared to
women who are illiterate. Employment also helps to provide alternative sources of social
identity, financial independence, and exposure to and integration in to power structures
independent of kin networks (Dixon, 1993). A study in India on dimensions of women’s
autonomy and the influence on maternal healthcare utilization reveals that employed women

18
were much more likely to have higher control over finances, high decision making power
and a tendency toward better freedom of movement.
As per the empirical study conducted in Pakistan by Azhar (1995) cited by Teka (2008),
income determines the extent as well as the form of saving. Landholding, especially the size
of farming land, strongly influence the rate of total saving, since the size of landholding
influences income and income also influence saving positively. A large family size exerts a
negative influence on saving in kind. The age of the household members exerts an uncertain
impact on savings; if they are productive, the influence is positive. Underemployed or
unemployed members are a burden on the household income and have a negative impact on
saving. The empirical survey of gender specific saving aptitude indicated that women are
found to be financially conservative and try to hold money for the family’s security, whereas
men prefer to concentrate upon the accumulation of social capital.

A study conducted by Temu A., (2009) on innovations in addressing rural finance

challenges in Africa showed that a cooperative movement can have a major impact in
providing financial services. The financial services wing of the cooperative movement
centered on saving and credit cooperatives (SACCOs) model. A women level of education,
her employment status, particularly employment for cash, and media exposure are expected
to be positively related to empowerment (Hirut, 2004). Women who are educated,
employed, and exposed to the media are likely to be better equipped with the information
and the means needed to function effectively in the modern world. Together these factors are
expected to influence women’s inherent abilities as well as their attitudes towards gender
roles.
Finding from the study revealed that less than 20% of women had access to the various
training opportunities in cooperatives. The world over, statistics show that women’s
participation in cooperative is low. In developing countries, culture and religious factors are
often hindering its movement. Women’s ‘inside’ role, discretions, not speaking in front of
men, tradition of men negotiating and handling money matters, irritancy, family size
supposed inferior ability and social pressures make it difficult for women to play an active
and visible public role. Johnston, (2009) likewise found that, in India, decision making,
mobility, and access to resources were more closely related to each other than to child
related decision making, freedom from physical threat from husbands, and control over
resources.
Generally, past studies revealed that there is a research gap of understanding women
empowerment and saving and credit cooperatives. Therefore, this research will to fill this
research gap.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
The study was carried out on the basis of quantitative and qualitative research approach. It
focused to investigate the role of saving and credit cooperatives in women's empowerment.

19
3.2. Sources of Data
An intensive field survey was conducted to obtain data and information for the study.
However, the information was obtained from secondary sources was also used for the
analysis. Secondary data was derived from different relevant books, journals, reports,
institutional publication and website.

3.3. Reasons for the Selection of Study Area

Ejere woreda was selected for the purpose of studying the role and contribution of Savings
and Credits Cooperatives in Women Empowerment. Ejere Woreda was selected purposively
by using purposive sampling technique.
Because of:
a. Availability of primary saving and credit cooperatives with required data in the
Woreda ,
b. Experienced in saving mobilization and giving loans for the members of primary
saving and credit cooperatives in the Woreda ,
c. No research has been done in the Woreda on the topic previously.

3.4. Sample Frame

In the study area, there were 20 primary saving and credit cooperatives. From the total
primary saving and credit cooperatives found in study area, three SACCOs were selected
purposely based on the year of establishment, longevity of service and availability of the
required data.
3.4.1. Map of Study Area
Figure 4: Map of Study Area

Map of Ethiopia Map of Oromia

20
 The study area
Map of west shoa

Source: http://www.maplibrary/Ethiopia/index.htm accessed on Jan. 9, 2018

Table 1: Ejere woreda saving and credit cooperative

members Capital
Establishment Coop.
S.N woreda Name of the SACCOs
year (E.C) type
male female total

Kusaye vegetable & fruits 1996

1 Ejere prodn. SACCO 48 8 56 28029

2 Ejere Burka gudina 1998 SACCO 26 2 28 9806

3 Ejere Gudetu 2003 SACCO 5 28 33 3085

4 Ejere Gadisa berga 1996 SACCO 43 0 43 2150

5 Ejere Ganda gorba 2006 SACCO 26 0 26 2750

6 Ejere Ganda bolongo 2006 SACCO 0 63 63 -

7 Ejere Ganda ciri 2006 SACCO 112 22 134 13400

8 Ejere B/Ganda dhamotu 2006 SACCO 73 1 74 3700

9 Ejere Lalistu 2006 SACCO 1 29 30 1500

10 Ejere Gaba Jimata 2007 SACCO 7 15 22 1100

11 Ejere Tuqa 2007 SACCO 28 0 28 1400

12 Ejere Baso 2007 SACCO 37 2 39 3900

13 Ejere Amanu'el 2007 SACCO 38 0 38 3800

14 Ejere Gaba jimata 2007 SACCO 17 5 22 1150

15 Ejere Jijirama boru 2007 SACCO 32 4 36 3600

16 Ejere Abdi Gudina 2007 SACCO 4 28 32 1600

21
17 Ejere Ganda Horata 2007 SACCO 44 1 45 2250

 Ejere Ejere teachers & workers 1993 SACCO 177 112 289 25833.53
18
 Ejere Agricultural office
19 Ejere 1990 SACCO 28 67 95 1607472
workers
 Ejere Admn, Finance & 1995
20 Ejere health office workers SACCO 46 11 57 46902.4
  Total     792 398 1190 1623078
 

Sources: Ejere Woreda Cooperative Promotion Office, Basic Data 2018G.C.

22
3.5 Sample Size Determination
Table 2: Sampled SACCOs and respondents
members
Establishment
S.N woreda Name of the SACCOs sample
year (E.C.) male female total

Ejere teachers &

1 Ejere workers 1993 177 112 289 76

Ejere Agricultural
2 " office workers 1990 28 67 95 45

Ejere Admn, Finance &

3 " health office workers 1995 46 11 57 7

Total 251 190 441 128

Sources: \compiled from Ejere Woreda Cooperative Promotion Office, Basic Data 2018G.C.

Again from three (3) primary saving and credit cooperative societies the respondents were
selected in a representative way to increase its reliability and validity of the samples.
Accordingly, the sample size of the study or the number of member respondents was
determined by using Kothari (2004) sampling design formula:

n= z2pqN

e2 (N-1) + z2pq

Where:
n= sample size
N=total population (190)
Z=95%confidence interval under normal curve (1.96)
e= acceptable error term (0.05) and
P and q are estimates of the proportion of population to be sampled (P=0.5 and q= 0.5)
To get the p and q values the researcher has undertaken a pre test on 20 members of SACCO
members in the study area. From 20 members only 10 of them said SACCO contributes for
the empowerment of women, and 10 of them said not. So, the value of p is 0.5and value of q
is 1-0.5 = 0.5.
n = z2pqN
e2 (N-1) + z2pq
 = (1.96) 2 (0.5) (0.5) (190)
(0.05)2 (190-1) + (1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)
= 182.48/1.43 = 128 respondents
Thus, according to the above formula, the number of respondents was 128. Those 128
respondents were selected randomly by using simple random sampling technique based on
the proportionality to their population size from three primary cooperative societies.
Accordingly, from Ejere woreda teachers and workers SACCOs 76, Ejere woreda
Agriculture office workers SACCOs 45, and Ejere woreda administration, Finance and
Health office workers primary saving and credit cooperative societies 7 respondents were
selected. Every female member of SACCOs had got an equal chance to be involved in the
sample.

Table 3: Categories of Respondents and Data Collection Techniques

S.No Types of respondents Method of Number of Tools used to
data collection respondents collect data
1 Cooperative members Survey 128 Interview schedule

2 Zonal promoter experts Key informant 3 Interview guide

interview
3 Woreda promoter experts Key informant 2 Interview guide
interview
4 Management committee of FGD 15 checklist
sample SACCOs
Total 148
Sources: Own Sketch, 2018

3.6. Sampling Procedure

For the study the researcher selected Ejere Woreda Saving and Credit Cooperatives that
located in the oromia regional state. In the field survey 128 respondents were interviewed.
The samples were selected by using simple random sampling method.

3.7. Methods of Data Collection

For the research both primary and secondary data were used. Primary data was collected
from field survey; using interview schedule, key informant interview, and FGD. Likewise
secondary data was collected from woreda and Zonal cooperative promotion office, websites
and internet, report of the NGOs or INGOs, relevant books, journal, magazine, and other
related research literature. For the study following techniques were used to collect primary
data.
3.7.1 Interview Schedule
To obtain the primary data face to face interviewing was adopted, where the
researcher/enumerators directly interviewed to the respondents to elicit information for the
study. It involves interaction between interviewer and respondents. The interview schedule
included general information, information about business activities, and contribution of
SACCO on women empowerment.
3.7.2 Key Informant Interview
In this study, five (5) key informants were interviewed to elicit information on women
empowerment by using interview guide. Two from woreda promotion office and three from
zonal promotion office who are experienced in SACCOs activities.
3.7.3 Focus Group Discussion
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was used to collect primary data. For this study one focus
group was conducted with management committee of selected SACCOs. The discussion was
held with the aid of check lists among those FGD members. The researcher facilitated all the
FGDs with the local language Afan Oromo. Short hand notes were used to document the
content of FGDs.

3.8. Method of Data Analysis

First and second objectives were analyzed using descriptive statistics namely frequency, and
percentage. The third objective was analyzed by employing econometric model.
3.8.1 Econometric Model
For third objective economic model was employed in order to know the extent of women’s
empowerment in selected SACCOs, Cumulative Women Empowerment Index (CWEI) was
calculated. The CWEI is a composite of three empowerment indicators combining both
quantitative and qualitative data in order to get a comprehensive feature of women
empowerment. The quantitative part represents three categories (e.g., 1= low, 2= moderate
and 3= high), which was done on the basis of total obtained score for each empowerment
indicator from the survey. The qualitative dimension stems out from total weighted scores
indicated by one focus group participants (where 3 denote ‘very important’ and 1 denotes
‘less important’). Thus all specific attributes were added together to develop CWEI in order
to understand the economic, social and political dimensions of women empowerment. Study
conducted by Deribi (2012) followed the same procedure to measure empowerment of rural
women by developing cumulative empowerment index.
The Multiple Linear Regression Model applied for analyzing the determinants of women
empowerment in selected SACCOs. This model was used Cumulative Women
Empowerment Index (CWEI) as dependent variable. As observed in different studies, this
variable can be expressed in terms of percentage and ratio depending on the purpose of the
study. For example, Dawit (2014) used Empowerment Index (EI) ratio in the study of
women’s economic empowerment through microcredit intervention, and Kifle Tasfamariam,
(2008) used CEI in his study in Ethiopia.
Cumulative Women Empowerment Index (CWEI) in SACCOs was hypothesized to be
influenced by a combined effect of various factors as seen in the conceptual framework.
Based on literature review, in this research, a total of 19 variables were used as predictors in
order to check for their significance as women empowerment determinants. Their
operational definition and measurement techniques were presented next to conceptual
framework. Thus, it is expected that the CWEI was a function of, age, family size, marital
status, level of education, leadership, training, household decision making, exposure to mass
media, legal and right awareness, participation in political activities, income, access to and
control of family resources, occupation, asset ownership, credit accessibility, management
participation, voting right, attendance in meeting, and part in decision making. In order to
understand the combined effects of all the conceptualized variables, a multiple linear
regression model was used. This provides an estimate of the combined explanatory power of
the independent variable on the CWEI. Under the above assumption the researcher estimated
the following equation:-
Specification of the Multiple Regression Model
Y= a+b1x1+b2x2+---+b19x19+e
Where;
Y = Estimated value of the dependent variable (CWEI)
a = constant
b1, b2---b19 = slope associated with X1, X2---X19 respectively
x1 = age
x2 = family size
x3 = marital status
x4 = level of education
x5 = leadership
x6 = training
x7 = household decision making
x8 = exposure to mass media
x9 = legal and right awareness
x10 = participation in political activities
x11 = income
x12 = access to and control of family resources
x13 = occupation
x14 = asset ownership
x15 = credit accessibility
x16 = management participation
x17 = voting right
x18 = attendance in meeting
x19 = part in decision making
The above model was used to examine the effect of factors on women empowerment in
selected SACCOs.
4. MAJOR FINDINGS
4.1. Findings of services provided by SACCOs to members
SACCOs have been considered as means of empowering resource poor women who have no
access to formal financial facilities economically. They promote the provision of saving,
loan, training, asset ownership right, household decision making power, participation in
local political institution, voting right, participation in management committee, and
information services to the members. Savings and credit cooperatives will become a stronger
influential in political force if more women are actively participate in SACCO’s movement.
Growth trends of saving and loan by the members of selected SACCOs shows fluctuating
growth rate year after year. But by the year 2018 it shows the higher trends of saving and
loan growth rate.

4.2. Findings of contribution of SACCOs to Women Empowerment

Through awareness creation, gender sensitization, education and training, the obstacles to
women’s empowerment in SACCOS can be solved. Women empowerment increased after
membership of SACCOs due to increasing in household decision making power and through
training. Women through SACCOs were able to acquire more assets than before
membership and have an improved well being. Women that are educated and economically
empowered were also found to have an improved role in decision making in the household.
Among the explanatory variables level of education, legal & rights awareness, asset
ownership, credit accessibility, attendance in meeting) have significant positive effect on
Women Empowerment while income, management participation, voting right have
significant negative effect on Women Empowerment in SACCOs. For SACCOs to continue
the contribution to women empowerment in a sustainable way, it is essential to know the
effects of independent variables on women empowerment. The findings shows that, the
contribution of SACCOs for women empowerment as of economic dimension, most of
respondents (67.2%) and (19.5%) have used the loan for the purpose of house construction
and for household consumption respectively. The respondents income increased due to
SACCO’s membership was 52.7%, similarly financial services provided to members
increased through SACCOs was 57%, respondents started a business due to SACCOs
membership was 37.5%, respondents asset status increased due to membership of SACCOs
58.6%, and generally respondent’s empowerment increased to an average extent due to
membership of SACCOs As of social dimension, financial sustainability and poverty
alleviation at household level due to SACCOs membership was 39.1%, members of
SACCOs have got empowered through training was 32.8%, most of the respondents were
decided on the control and usage of credit by jointly with their husband (75.8), and decision
making power of women was increased from 15.6% to 52.3% after membership of
SACCOs, and it is possible to conclude that, SACCOs had improving the power of decision
making for women. As political dimensions, women participation increased in local political
institutions due to SACCOs membership was 41.4%, members aware of their voting right in
different committees meeting in SACCOs were 63.3%, and respondents participated in
management committee was 21.9%.

4.3. Extent of Women Empowerment

On the basis of the CWEI score range, a composite level of women economic, social and
political empowerment was assessed by scoring women empowerment level and categorized
into three levels such as low, medium and high level of empowerment. The following Table
4 presents the level of women empowerment as the three women empowerment dimensions,
and the Cumulative Women Empowerment is also shown.

Table 4: Women Empowerment level of sample respondents

Level of Women Empowerment Dimensions Cumulative Women
Empowerment economic social political Empowerment
Low (0-5) 52(40.6) 10(7.8) 7(5.5) 27(21.1)
Moderate (6-11) 65(50.8) 54(42.2) 71(55.5) 75(58.6)
High (12-17) 11(8.6) 64(50.0) 50(39.1) 26(20.3)
Total (18) 128(100) 128(100) 128(100) 128(100)
Source: Computed from survey data, 2018
*Figures in brackets represent percentage to column total
* Level of empowerment in percentage: Low= 0-29.41, Moderate 29.42- 64.71, High >64.71
As depicted in the Table 4, majority (50.8%) respondents are at moderate level of economic
empowerment followed by low level (40.6%), which indicates that most of the respondents
are at moderate level with respect to economic empowerment. As for social empowerment,
majority (50.0%) respondents are at high level followed by 42.2% at moderate level, which
shows that most of the respondents have achieved high level of women empowerment.
Majority (55.5%) respondents are at moderate level of political empowerment followed by
39.1% are at high level. The reason high empowerment level for social dimension is that as
implied in Table 4:1, most of the respondents are literate and easily aware to participate in
social activities like decision making on the control and usage of credit, household decision
making equally or jointly with their husband. As far as cumulative women empowerment is
concerned, majority (58.6%) are at moderate level. In other study conducted in Ethiopia,
Dawit (2014) found the empowerment of women was limited to the low to medium level.

4.4. Effect of Independent Variables on Women Empowerment

The third objective of the study was to assess the effect of independent variables on women
empowerment. Accordingly, the most important nineteen selected demographic, economic,
social, political and cooperative related explanatory variables in which expected to have
influence on women empowerment were hypothesized and Multiple Linear Regression was used
to assess the effect of independent variables (explanatory variables) on the dependent variable
(women empowerment). For the analysis purpose, Cumulative Women Empowerment Index
(CWEI) was calculated by scoring the results of economic, social, and political empowerment.
The analysis and results are discussed in detail below:

4.4.1. Regression Analysis

Regression analysis was used to identify the relative importance of various factors which
influence women empowerment of the respondents in the study area. As there are several
factors which contribute to women empowerment of the respondents in varying measures,
linear regression is considered to be the most appropriate statistical tool to assess the effect
of independent variables on dependent variable. The following model with 19 independent
variables was used.
Y= a+b1x1+b2x2+---+b19x19+e
Where;
Y = Estimated value of the dependent variable (CWEI)
a = constant
b1, b2---b19 = slope associated with X1, X2---X19 respectively. Those variables are age, family
size, marital status, level of education, leadership, training, household decision making,
exposure to mass media, legal and right awareness, participation in political activities,
income, access to and control of family resources, occupation, asset ownership, credit
accessibility, management participation, voting right, attendance in meeting, part in decision
making.
In order to observe the influence of explanatory variables on dependent variable or to
identify the major factors which influencing women’s empowerment, multiple regressions
was applied to explore the actual contribution of each selected independent variables to the
dependent variable. Before running the model, it was necessary to see the problem of
multicollinearity (MC) among the variables. According to Gujarati (2004), there are various
indicators of multicollinearity and no single diagnosis will give complete information about
the problem. Hence, for this research MC among the dummy variables and association
between the discrete variables were checked using the contingency coefficients respectively.
The results of these tests confirmed that there was no multicollinearity problem with dummy
variables. A common rule of thumb is that correlations among the independent (dummy)
variables between -0.7 and 0.7 do not cause difficulties. The usual remedy for
multicollinearity is to drop one of the independent variables that strongly correlated and
compute the regression equation (Robert, 1999). Accordingly, in this study the variable
which its value of correlation coefficients exceeds 0.7 showing there is serious MC problem,
is removed from the model since it was found highly correlated with one of the other
dummy variable. As of this study there is no variables exceeds the correlation coefficients
0.7, hence, for further analysis a total of 19 variables which were believed to have effect on
women empowerment were entered into the model and regression analysis was performed
by using SPSS version 20. The Table 5 depicts the result of regression analysis and it is
observed that the multiple correlations of coefficients(R), coefficient of determination (R 2)
and the adjusted R2 values are 0.673, 0.453 and 0.345 respectively implying that there is
intermediate relationship between independent variables and a women’s empowerment.
4.4.2 Effect of Independent Variables on Women Empowerment
The major factors that have effect on women empowerment were explanatory variables.
Table 5: The effect of independent variables on women empowerment: MLR Model
Standardized
Factors Coefficients t Sig.
Beta
(Constant) -.640 .523
Age .081 .843 .401
Family size .003 .042 .967
Marital status .031 .371 .712
Level of education .424*** 4.851 .000
Leadership -.019 -.229 .819
Training -.067 -.870 .386
Household decision making .127 1.554 .123
Exposure to mass media -.019 -.233 .816
Legal and rights awareness .231*** 3.050 .003
Participation in political activities -.024 -.316 .753
Income -.182* -1.824 .071
Access to and control of family resources .065 .837 .404
Occupation -.059 -.753 .453
Asset ownership .245** 2.128 .036
Credit accessibility .151* 1.775 .079
Management participation -.185** -2.139 .035
Voting right -.169** -2.142 .034
Attendance in meeting .307*** 3.848 .000
Part in decision making -.178 -1.516 .132
N= 128, R=0 .673, R =0.453, and Adjusted R =0.345
2 2

*** Significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, * significant at 10%, probability level

Source: Computed from survey data, 2018
4.4.3 Interpretation of Model Results
A multiple linear regression model was used to assess the effect of independent variables on
women cumulative empowerment index. The Multiple regression results (Table 5) show
that, out of nineteen independent variables, eight independent variables (level of education,
legal & rights awareness, income, asset ownership, credit accessibility, management
participation, voting right, attendance in meeting) do have effect on Women
Empowerment in SACCOs.
Level of education: - Women empowerment was greatly influenced by level of education.
The effect level of education on women empowerment was positive (β=+0.424) and
statistically significant at 1% (p<0.001) probability level. This implies that having more
level of education more capacity of knowledge and economically active for different
development activities, which empowers women. In other words results indicated that,
women empowerment increases with the increase in educational attainment level. This
finding is supported by Vijayanthi (2002) mentioned that education is one of the most
important means of empowering women and of giving knowledge, skills and the self-
confidence necessary to be full partners in the developmental process. In other study,
Parveen (2005) argued that education improve the socio-economic condition of women,
facilitate them to demand and protect their rights. Heaton (2005) found that educated and
literate women had greater access to information and knowledge that increased their chances
for paid jobs, other benefits and resources. Rehman (2008) concluded that education
provides women the courage to speak against social injustice and political discrimination,
and has enough potential for empowering women. In consistent with this Haregewoin C,
Emebet M, (2005) found that, higher educated women have the highest level of
empowerment in economic decision making and household decision making. This suggests
that education in a patriarchal society improve women empowerment regarding physical
movement as well as the overall empowerment or autonomy of women.
Legal and rights awareness: - it contributes to women empowerment positively
(β=+0.231), and statistically significant at 1% (p=0.004) probability level. This indicates
that, legal and rights awareness of women supposed to be the result of true empowerment of
women, where women have voice, choice, and confidence therefore are able to participate in
various leadership positions both politically and in the society. To get empowerment,
women should increase their legal and rights awareness, self-esteem, self- confidence, and
understanding of their own potential, appreciate themselves and value their knowledge and
skills. This finding is supported by (Gaelle Ferranti (2011) Women should obtain equal
distribution of power and involvement in decision making at home, and in society, through
women empowerment highlights the issues of women empowerment and improvement in
economic, social and political participation. Women must have authority, power, and
preference in functional and important political decisions.

Attendance in meeting: - The results show that respondents’ attendance in meeting has a
positive effect on women empowerment (β=+0.307) and the effect is statistically significant
at 1% (p=0.000) probability level. The positive effect means presence of respondent on
meeting which provides her to share different information and decisions regarding to
SACCO’s services. This shows that as respondents, participating in meeting they gained
knowledge, skills of communication, decision making capacity, the chance of election and
be elected as management committees; and this ensures women empowerment. The FGD
and KIs results also confirmed that members participating in general assembly meeting or
any meeting regularly capacitates the confidence of women members.
Asset ownership: - It has a positive effect on women empowerment (β=+0.245) and
statistically significant at 5% (p<0.05) probability level. This indicates that as women gain
the capacity of asset ownership right increases empowerment. This is supported by Alicia
Peter Mbagga (2013) mentioned that the study of micro credit scheme in Tanzania shown
that majority of members were investing more on fixed assets by using SACCOs as an
opportunity to get loan and empower women.
Credit Accessibility: - It has a positive effect on women empowerment (β=+0.151) and the
effect is statistically significant at 10% (p<0.1) probability level. The implication of the
result is, as most of the members of SACCOs were from resource poor family, there was a
chance to use the money secured from SACCOs in meeting their emergency needs. Access
to credit by the respondent ultimately increases the level of confidence of the women
participating in economic activities that is the pre-requisite of women empowerment. More
the credit access more would be the women empowerment.
Management participation: - As a result of finding it has a negative effect on women
empowerment (β=-0.185) and the effect is statistically significant at 5% (p<0.05) probability
level. This is consistent with theory. Management participation is expected to have a
positive sign because respondents with more management participation will be able to
understand the benefits of women empowerment. But the finding shows that majority of the
respondents never participate in management therefore it affects women empowerment
negatively. As management participation decreases in SACCOs women empowerment also
decreases. The FGD and KIs results also confirmed that participation of women in
management committees was low due to the reasons: lack of the time for meeting, burden of
household work, and absence of confidence serving in management committees.

Voting right: - It has a negative effect on women empowerment (β=-0.169) and the effect is
statistically significant at 5% (p<0.05) probability level. This is consistent with theory.
Voting right is expected to have a positive sign because respondents those used their voting
right will be able to encourage empowering. Women participation in voting has an effect on
women empowerment; the respondents in the study area hadn’t used their voting right
properly. So it affects women empowerment negatively.

The FGD and KIs results also confirmed that most of the women never used their voting
right. The active participation of women in meeting and voting has promoted women
empowerment in SACCOs. But the reasons for absence of participating in voting was lack
of awareness of their right, perception of culturally dominancy of male and burden of
household work. Goetz, A.,(1997), in his women empowerment study argued that voting
right is important in this era of globalization to make men and women enlightened, but
women in developing countries have limited access to voting right, so they are really
handicapped regarding their scopes, rights and issues of gender inequality. So, when a
woman gets better access to the voting right, she comes to know about her scopes and
opportunities through which she can improve her status in the family as well as in society.
Income: - It has a negative effect on women empowerment (β=-0.182) and the effect is
statistically significant at 10% (p<0.1) probability level. Respondent’s monthly income is
expected to have a positive sign because respondents with more monthly income will be
able to save more, participating in meeting regularly and understand the benefits of women
empowerment in SACCOS. This indicates that the level of women empowerment increases
with the increase of income women earns. But respondents in the study area are not earning
more income which is evident that majorities earn below 4000 birr per month; to sustain the
status of their living standards, therefore it affects women empowerment negatively.

Generally to measure women empowerment level four economic indicators (women income,
starting a business, access to financial service, asset ownership right), five social indicators
(enhanced women status in the community, financial self-sustainability at household,
training, decision making in a family, and social participation), and five political indicators
(the confidence to participating in various leadership positions of SACCOs, participating in
local political institutions, voting right, participating in SACCOs committee members,
participating in community leadership ) were considered to measure women empowerment
by developing Cumulative Women Empowerment Index (CWEI). Then as cumulative
women empowerment is concerned, majority of respondents (58.6) are at moderate level of
empowerment. Among the explanatory variables level of education, legal & rights
awareness, asset ownership, credit accessibility, attendance in meeting) have significant
positive effect on Women Empowerment while income, management participation, voting
right have significant negative effect on Women Empowerment in SACCOs.

5. Conclusion
The analysis of study provided important results to comprehend the phenomenon of women
empowerment. Study explored that significant number of women respondent were educated,
which is from secondary education to university, and those women who have education
where more empowered. This study also revealed that training exposure also enhanced
women empowerment. It can be concluded that access to education and knowledge play an
important role in increasing women empowerment. The analysis of data was demonstrated
that most of the respondents were married. Most of the women took loan from their
SACCOs. They took loan not only to start their business, but also used for house
construction, education (specifically to send their children to college and university),
medicals, to buy household consumption and assets, and to have resources like fixed assets.
Therefore, it can be concluded that participation in SACCOs enables women to have own
assets and access to resources. Furthermore, the study showed that helping women to
contribute financially to the household and consequently increased self-confidence and
economic empowerment. This capacity helped them to be empowered. On the basis of above
mentioned findings it is concluded that more secure the economic future of women greater
will be the empowerment. The women brought about a positive change to their financial and
social situation and started taking active part in the household decision making process.
Educated married women participate in the household decision making equally with their
spouse otherwise their husband decides mostly in the household.

The study also revealed that women have begun to acquire positive self-confidences,
especially in political activities of their own personal interests after joining SACCOs. Most
of the respondents have gained more confidence that can enable them to raise enough money
to feed their family alone and few of them also have confident to raise their opinion in
public and speak freely in meeting. The study also found that empowerment increased with
the increase of asset ownership right at household. Therefore, in order to address women
empowerment, start should be taken from household level; the overall conclusion of this
study is that the level of women empowerment is at moderate level. The majority of women
have low to moderate level of empowerment.

To sum up, the results obtained from the study regarding women empowerment provide
sufficient evidence that SACCOs, the newly emerging institutions in Ethiopia, have a trend
to contribute to some extent in women empowerment. The analysis shows that the overall
level of women empowerment is at moderate level. The level of women empowerment after
membership is relatively better than that of before joining saving and credit cooperatives.
Hence, from the analysis, it can be concluded that SACCOs are seen to be quite helpful for
opening up economic, social, and political opportunities for the women. It is possible to
upgrade economic, social and political status of women by providing them with access to
SACCO’s services. The finding shows that level of education, legal and rights awareness,
asset ownership, credit accessibility, and attendance in meeting have positive influential
effect on women empowerment, and income, management participation, and voting right
have negative effect on women empowerment in the study area. Generally, the effect of
participation on the empowerment of women is positive for most women as a function of the
indicators showed. For most of the women, participation in saving and credit cooperatives is
observed as a contribution to their economic, social and political empowerment; or it has at
least drawn women from their disempowered position. Therefore, the analysis suggests the
need for implementing holistic strategies for women (particularly in the areas of human
resource development, which makes women to acquire knowledge and skill to choice the
strategy of their life) that may enhance women empowerment.

6. Recommendations
On the basis of the main findings discussed above some recommendations could be drawn
with the purpose of improving and sustaining the level of women empowerment in saving
and credit cooperatives. Since the finding has revealed the importance SACCOs to women
empowerment, it should strengthen and expand their support to resource poor women.
Empowering women is an important end in itself, not only as a human rights issue but also
as having the potential to enhance human well being. It is largely a means to a broader goal,
development and sustainable development. Attention to empowerment of women and
equality of women with men are prerequisite for achieving full potential of economic, social,
political, environmental, and cultural development of the entire society thus ensuring
sustainable development. Therefore to improve women empowerment through saving and
credit cooperatives, the following recommendations have been formulated to be undertaken
by SACCOs, Governments, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and other
Stakeholders aimed at stimulating the process of women empowerment.
i. Raising gender awareness, through group discussion, training and general assembly
meeting, about gender difference and the important of women empowerment at home and
community.
ii. Promote women knowledge and position by providing regular training on saving and
credit cooperatives benefits, byelaws, cooperatives proclamation, cooperatives principles
and values. These type of training might increase their knowledge and skill and may
create opportunities of self-employment and increase income earning for strengthen their
self-esteem and improving their participation in the household decision making process,
which eventually empowered the women in their family as well as in the society.
iii. Monitoring and follow up supervision and support from NGO and Government credit
extension workers can help to prevent misuse of loans money and at the same time
motivates women to manage their loan by themselves efficiently. This could undoubtedly
act as catalyst to promote economic, social, and political uplift of women in the study
area.
iv. SACCOs should provide adequate knowledge to members to increase their savings in the
SACCOs; this could ensure sustainability of SACCO’s activities and better provision of
services
v. Promoting women in the management committee enables them to have access to
information, education and training, balancing family resources and business
responsibilities and at large empowering them.
vi. Women members should be encouraged to participate more actively in discussion and
deliberations to attendance in meetings of SACCOs.
vii. Beyond financial support, the contribution of credit services to women empowerment
should be enhanced through a combination of more effective motivation support
activities. These includes exposure visit with other successful saving and credit
cooperative which allows first hand experiences to be passed from one beneficiary to
another.
Generally to increase opportunities for women in economy, they must have an access to
better jobs, a business environment that supports them in doing business, access to financial
sector that meet their needs to protect legal rights of women, and to make sure that their
voices are heard are important elements of empowerment. Women empowerment helps to
achieve women rights and development goals such as economic growth, poverty reduction,
health, education and welfare.

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