APPROACHING PIAZZOLLA’S MUSIC

Analysis and composition in interaction

Marcus Löfdahl

Degree Project, Master of Fine Arts in Music,

Music Theory
Spring Semester 2012
Degree Project, 30 higher education credits
Master of Fine Arts in Music, Music Theory
Academy of Music and Drama, University of Gothenburg
Spring Semester 2012

Author: Marcus Löfdahl

Title: Approaching Piazzolla’s music. Analysis and composition in interaction
Supervisor: PhD Joel Eriksson

ABSTRACT

Key words: piazzolla, music theory, music analysis, style analysis, pastich

The aim of this degree project is to enhance the understanding of Astor Piazzolla’s
musical style. As a method, a comparative approach and pastiche preparation is
chosen. Form analyses are mainly the basis of a style study, which is limited to five of
Piazzolla’s compositions. Consequently, the study results in significant style elements
that is realised and contextualised in new compositions. The final chapter discusses
the importance of valuing a pastiche in relation to the style idiom. It points out that a
good pastiche should present a balanced amount of style elements. Additionally, the
chapter discusses the relation between analysis and composition, and it points out
that an interaction between these two activities enables a deeper understanding of a
certain style.

2
Preface

For some years now I have been interested in Astor Piazzolla’s music and his composing
style. It all started while studying and performing his composition Libertango with a chamber
ensemble. The mixture of traditional tango, classical music and jazz fascinated me. Then I
started playing some of his music transcribed for solo accordion and I became eager to
compose this kind of music my self. After several attempts, I realised that I needed to increase
my knowledge in this style.

During this degree project, it has been valuable discussing my ideas with other persons along
the way. First of all, I would especially like to give thanks to my main supervisor Joel
Eriksson for encouragement and for giving me constructive feedback. Thanks also to my
main teacher Bengt Lundin and my co-supervisor Anders Tykesson for giving me advisory
response. Furthermore, I would like to thank the other teachers and colleagues at Academy of
Music and Drama that have supported me. Thanks also to Erik Jensen and Niklas Rudbäck
that have contributed with thoughtful observations, and to the chamber ensemble that
performed my compositions. I have indeed appreciated all the feedback! Finally, I would like
to give thanks to Maria for sympathy and patience during these two years.

3
Table of Contents
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Purpose and questions ................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Astor Piazzolla ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Analysing style ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 The pastiche.............................................................................................................................. 17
1.5 Accepted characteristics of Piazzolla’s style ........................................................................... 17
2 Method ............................................................................................................................... 20
2.1 Choice of method ..................................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Sample ...................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Analysis questions and design.................................................................................................. 20
2.4 Composition ............................................................................................................................. 24
3 Style Study ......................................................................................................................... 27
3.1 Fugata ....................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Soledad ..................................................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Libertango ................................................................................................................................ 38
3.4 Milonga del ángel ..................................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Fuga y misterio ......................................................................................................................... 45
3.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 49
4 Composition ....................................................................................................................... 53
4.1 Realisation of models ............................................................................................................... 53
4.2 Milonga and Fuga..................................................................................................................... 55
4.3 Episodes ................................................................................................................................... 60
5 Conclusions........................................................................................................................ 65
5.1 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 65
5.2 Further research ........................................................................................................................ 68
6 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 70
6.1 Literature .................................................................................................................................. 70
6.2 Music score .............................................................................................................................. 71
7 Appendix............................................................................................................................ 72
7.1 Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 72
7.2 Models ..................................................................................................................................... 89
7.3 Compositions ............................................................................................................................ 92

4
Figures
Figure 1-1: Rhythms .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 2-1: The tresillo rhythm and its possible shifts ........................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-2: Analysis and composition in interaction ............................................................................................. 25
Figure 3-1: Middle dimension view of Fugata ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3-2: Linear intervallic pattern (sixths) ........................................................................................................ 29
Figure 3-3: Extended harmony and percussive gestures ........................................................................................ 32
Figure 3-4: Middle dimension view of Soledad ..................................................................................................... 33
Figure 3-5: Compound melody .............................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 3-6: Middle dimension view of Libertango ................................................................................................ 39
Figure 3-7: Tresillo rhythms and ostinato gesture ................................................................................................. 39
Figure 3-8: Pending and descending bass line ....................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3-9: Passive and active melody, structural motive ..................................................................................... 44
Figure 3-10: Middle dimension view of Fuga y misterio ...................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-11: Compound melody - descending sequences that form fauxbordouns ............................................... 48
Figure 3-12: Change of key area - tonicization ...................................................................................................... 49
Figure 3-13: Change of key area - descending chromatic motion with pedal ...................................................... 50
Figure 3-14: Ostinato gestures in Milonga del ángel, Fugata and Soledad........................................................... 51
Figure 3-16: Descending and ascending motion .................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4-1: Transition pattern in Piazzolla's music ................................................................................................ 53
Figure 4-2: The process of key-area changes ......................................................................................................... 54
Figure 4-3: Middle dimension view of Milonga .................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4-4: Fugue theme in Fuga........................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4-5: Middle dimension view of Episode ..................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4-6: Reduction of fugue theme ................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4-7: Reduction of (S) .................................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 4-8: Tonicization as prolongation technique .............................................................................................. 64

5
Tables
Table 3-1: Large dimension view of Fugata.......................................................................................................... 27
Table 3-2: Large dimension view of Soledad ........................................................................................................ 32
Table 3-3: Large dimension view of Libertango ................................................................................................... 38
Table 3-4: Large dimension view of Milonga del ángel ........................................................................................ 41
Table 3-5: Large dimension view of Fuga y misterio ............................................................................................ 45
Table 3-6: Summary of general characteristics ...................................................................................................... 52
Table 4-1: Large dimension view of Milonga........................................................................................................ 55
Table 4-2: Large dimension view of Fuga ............................................................................................................. 58
Table 4-3: Large dimension view of Episodes ....................................................................................................... 61

Examples
Example 3-1: Main theme in Fugata ..................................................................................................................... 28
Example 3-2: Two-part technique .......................................................................................................................... 29
Example 3-3: Appogiaturas.................................................................................................................................... 30
Example 3-4: Change of key area by descending chromatic motion ..................................................................... 31
Example 3-5: Primary melody in Soledad ............................................................................................................. 33
Example 3-6: Secondary melody in Soledad ......................................................................................................... 34
Example 3-7: Opening gestures ............................................................................................................................. 35
Example 3-8: Descending fifths combined with descending chromatic motion.................................................... 36
Example 3-9: Change of key area by descending chromatic motion ..................................................................... 36
Example 3-10: Change of key area by descending chromatic motion ................................................................... 37
Example 3-11: Exposed fourths and fifths ............................................................................................................. 37
Example 3-12: Tonicization as prolongation technique......................................................................................... 40
Example 3-13: Change of key area gestures .......................................................................................................... 42
Example 3-14: Motivic gestures ............................................................................................................................ 42
Example 3-15: Example of bass lines and reharmonisation of the melody ........................................................... 43
Example 3-16: Rhytmical passage that changes key by arrastre ........................................................................... 44
Example 3-17: Fugue theme in Fuga y misterio .................................................................................................... 46
Example 3-18: Two-part technique and instrumental rubato ................................................................................. 47
Example 3-19: Diminished seventh chords in descending chromatic motion ....................................................... 48
Example 4-1: Passages derived from pattern ......................................................................................................... 54
Example 4-2: Opening motive ............................................................................................................................... 55
Example 4-3: Primary theme and sequences of changing key area ....................................................................... 57
Example 4-4: Chromatic descending motion with pedal line ................................................................................ 57
Example 4-5: Tresillo rhythms............................................................................................................................... 59
Example 4-6: Key change by descending chromatic motion ................................................................................. 63

6
1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and questions

The purpose of this study is to increase the understanding of how music analysis may
contribute to composing in a certain music style, and how composition can contribute when
analysing a style. Thus, I want to study how these two activities relate to each other. The
knowledge I acquire through analysing Piazzolla’s music will be an important experience
when formulating new ideas to apply in music analysis. Furthermore, I want to analyse
Piazzolla’s compositional style and thereby develop tools to apply in my own compositions.
Consequently, this study is based on the following research questions:

• What are the characteristics of Piazzolla’s style?

• How may I apply these characteristics in my own compositions?

1.2 Astor Piazzolla

Astor Piazzolla was born 1921 in Mar del plata, a town south of Buenos Aires, where he lived
his first two years. Due to various circumstances, his family moved to New York where Astor
spent most of his childhood. His parents, who had emigrated from Italy, worked hard for their
living in New York. Vicente, Astor’s father, loved the traditional tango music of Argentina
and when Astor was eight years old, hoping that his son someday would be a tango musician,
he gave him a bandoneon1 for his birthday. Astor did not fancy the traditional tango at all, but
he enjoyed classical music though. One day he heard someone of the neighbours practicing
the piano; a concert pianist had moved into an apartment and was now practising music that
fascinated Astor:

At that age I didn’t know who Bach was, but I felt as if I had been hypnotized. It is one of the great
mysteries of my life. I don’t know if it was Johann Sebastian Bach or one of his sons. I believe I have
bought all Bach’s recorded works, but I could never find that music again. That pianist practiced nine
hours a day: three hours of technique in the morning, three hours of Bach in the afternoon, and three at
night, trying out repertoire for his concerts. He was Hungarian. His name was Béla Wilda, and soon he
became my teacher.2

1
Bandoneon, invented in Germany in 19th Century, is a bellow instrument (free-reed aerophone) based on the
same technology as the accordion.
2
Gorin: Astor Piazzolla: a memoir, p. 125

7
As his teacher, Béla Wilda3 introduced classical music in Astor’s life and he helped out
adapting Bach’s music to the bandoneon4. Occasionally, Astor played bandoneon at school
and soon he became popular; he had a great talent and playing the bandoneon was quite rare
in New York back then. At this time he met the famous actor and tango singer Carlos Gardel,
and because of his talent, he began to accompany Gardel at some presentations. Astor learned
some tangos and he also participated in a Gardel movie. In 1936 the Piazzolla family moved
back to Mar del plata and at this time Astor hade a new great musical discovery; it was a
tango orchestra he heard on the radio. This inspired him deeply and in 1938 he moves, all by
him self, to Buenos Aires to be a tango musician. After some years of playing in different
tango orchestras he starts playing in one of the most coveted orchestra; the orchestra of
Anibal Troilo. After a while Astor become the arranger of the orchestra and in the meantime
he is studying composition for Alberto Ginastera. In the late 40’s Astor starts his own
orchestra and by impulses from the classical music he develops his own style. All the while
he continues to study composition and he also studies piano and orchestra conducting, and in
1953 he wins first prize in a composition contest that takes him to a one-year trip to Paris.
With the famous pedagogue Nadia Boulangier as teacher he is studying counterpoint,
harmony, and pastiche composition. She told him that everything he brought to her was well
done but she couldn’t find the true Piazzolla in his works. Astor had not told her that he was a
tango musician; knowing her poise in the world of classical music made him ashamed of his
past:

Nadia looked into my eyes and asked me to play one of my tangos at the piano. So I confessed to her
that I played the bandoneon; I told her she shouldn’t expect a good piano player because I wasn’t. She
insisted, ”It doesn’t matter, Astor, play your tango.” And I started out with ”Triunfal”. When I finished,
Nadia took my hands in hers and with that english of hers, so sweet, she said, ”Astor, this is beautiful. I
like it a lot. Here is the true Piazzolla – do not ever leave him.” It was the great revelation of my
musical life.5

This was the great break point for him, and when returned from his study period with Nadia
Boulangier in Paris he formed his Buenos Aires Octet, and it was at this time he started to
develop his own composition style for real. By growing up in New York and Buenos Aires,
he was influenced by the Blues and the Tango. As a result, combining this with inspiration
from Bach (whose inventions he learned from Belá Wilda) and Stravinsky, he led the tango

3
Béla Wilda had been a student for Rachmaninov.
4
In a way, the bandoneon was back at it’s roots. When it was invented in Germany it originally was intended as
a ’low-budget’ substitute for church organ.
5
Gorin: Astor Piazzolla: a memoir, p. 71

8
into a new era. With influences from classical music Piazzolla used techniques that were not
traditional in tango music. He applied a contrapuntal way of thinking and expanded the
formal structures of tango music by processing thematic material. From Bach's legacy for
example, he used the fugue technique, layered voices, sequences and pedal lines as
compositional tools. Influenced by Bartok6, Stravinsky and Ravel, he applied extended
harmonies and orchestration techniques that were not in traditional tango music.7 Piazzolla
collaborated with various ensembles where he explored the expression of his style, and the
musicians he worked with often contributed their personal performance style. These
contributions turn out to be significant components of Piazzolla's style.8

1.3 Analysing style

In Musik som handling, Tykesson describes the purpose of analysis: “Analysis is about
examining a phenomenon or an object by breaking it down to its constituents.”9. Additionally,
he argues that how one analyses and what it leads to depend on why one is analysing, what is
analysed and for whom it is meant. I suggest that it could be formulated as purpose, subject
and object. Tykesson points out that an analysis can help the listener to gain understanding of
a music piece, and this may in itself be an important aim. The analysis should explain and
reveal phenomena that are not apparent to the listener.10 However, it is important to be aware
of the limitations; an analysis can never replace music itself: “It can never cover the
composition in all its dimensions, simply because it lacks the ability to be expressed in the
composition's own medium.”11 One must remember that music analysis is merely an attempt
to identify things that the composer often has not been aware of during the composition
process.12 Furthermore, Tykesson argues that an analysis must continue by forming a whole, a
synthesis.13

In Musikvetenskap, Bengtsson poses the question what the material of music is and points out
that in music it is not easy to pinpoint the constituents as it is in for example the building arts.

6
http://www.piazzolla.org/biography/biography-english.html
7
Aslan, Tango Stylistic Evolution and Innovation, p. 16
8
Quin Link: Culturally identifying the performance practices of Astor Piazzolla’s second quinteto, p. 53
9
Tykesson: Musik som handling, p. 34 (my own translation) : Att analysera är att undersöka en företeelse eller
ett objekt genom att dela upp objektet i dess beståndsdelar.
10
Ibid, p. 35
11
Ibid p. 43 (my own translation) : Den kan aldrig omfatta verkets helhet i alla dess dimensioner, helt enkelt
därför att den saknar möjligheten till gestaltning genom uttrycksmedlets eget medium.
12
Ibid, p. 36
13
Ibid, p. 38

9
He presents two answers and the first one is that anything may function as music material. It
could be an instrument, a series of notes or perhaps a song that is remade. Consequently, the
first answer is an every day life way of thinking. The second answer is more about musical
material as a technical term: how notes can be regarded as material to intervals; how intervals
can be regarded as material to motives; and so on. However, there is still the question of the
structural elements in music. Bengtsson argues that there is no simple answer and that it
depends a lot on what kind of music is being analysed. He criticizes LaRue’s approach that
suggests that it is rhythm, melody and harmony that are the fundamental elements of music; it
is not that simple and one must carefully pay attention to the interaction between these.
Furthermore, Bengtsson claims that LaRue’s method for style analysis is useful when
applying it on music from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but it is not that useful to
separate these elements when for example analysing the music of Debussy or Webern.14

A fundamental element of music is movement. It may create an expectation and also confirm
what has occurred previously:

At the same time that a piece moves forward, it creates a shape in our memories to which its later
movement inevitably relates, just as the motion of a figure skater leaves a tracing of visible arabesques
on the ice when the movement has passed far away.15

In Guidelines for style analysis, LaRue points out that the movement of music leaves trails
that tell us what has happened. Just like LaRue, Bengtsson suggests that one can consider
every event in music as a kind of movement; it is primarily the rhythm that mediates
movement.16 Additionally, LaRue argues that one of music's strengths, as an art, is its
potential of personal experience and subjective understanding. A series of pitches may be
perceived in an infinite number of ways. On the other hand, this potential is one of the
difficulties of music. If one wants to analyse music and explain its movement and shape, it is
required to confine the experience of music into a kind of artificial context where the
movement is frozen in time. LaRue compares it to frozen fruit, which never can taste as good
as fresh fruit. Although the analysis can never replace our subjective experiences of music, it
may enrich our view and experience of it. As an outcome, we may gain our understanding of
the composer's intentions.17

14
Bengtsson: Musikvetenskap, p. 231-232
15
LaRue: Guidelines for style analysis, p. 1
16
Bengtsson: Från visa till symfoni, p.25
17
LaRue: Guidelines for style analysis, p. 1-2

10
I would argue that performing a style analysis of a certain composer's work is about
identifying items that are characteristic and finding out how they relate to each other. In order
to identify them it is essential to know which questions to ask and what methods to apply. In
A guide to musical analysis, Cook presents a number of analysis methods and two of them are
the psychological approach and the formalistic approach. The former seeks to explain how
music is experienced through time, which is exemplified by the Schenkerian analysis method
whose point of departure is that one experiences music as a movement towards an ending.
Furthermore, it is about how musical phenomena are experienced in different contexts; For
example how a certain chord progression is experienced in two different music styles.18 The
formalistic approach, on the other hand, is aiming for music itself and its inherent musical
structure:

[…]if you explain music in terms of the formal structures it presents and not in psychological factors
like listeners' expectations, then the fact that chromatic neighbour notes are normal in Schubert's style
becomes irrelevant. Instead it becomes necessary to find an explanation for everything in terms of the
structure of the individual piece under analysis.19

LaRue presents an analytic method with a style analytical approach. As quoted earlier, he
discusses the idea of movement in music and the shape it generates. According to him, the
first preparation when analysing a style is to be aware of the background and the historical
reference. He exemplifies it with the progression V7-I; if it is found in a score from the
fourteenth century it would draw our attention, but when written in the eighteenth century it is
probably not worth any attention. A further initial preparation is that one has to concentrate
on significant observations, thus observations that are distinctive and meaningful. One must
know what data that is worth to collect and LaRue argues that: "Successful style analysis
combines dissection with selection, insight with overview. If we mindlessly proliferate
observed details, we may never reach larger understanding."20. Additionally, Bengtsson points
out criterions that are relevant when observing. Observations that are useful he puts between
two non-relevant extremes where the first is characteristics that are axiomatic, and the second
one is characteristics that are so detailed that they rather is to be regarded as sub stylistic. In
some ways, each music piece creates its own framework and hence it is important when
analysing to be able to adjust the initial outline of an analysis.21 LaRue has devised method

18
Cook: A guide to musical analysis, p. 67
19
Ibid, p. 120
20
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 4
21
Bengtsson: Musikvetenskap, p. 251

11
when classifying the range of a specific characteristic. Nearly any characteristic can vary
between extremes but it is important to be aware of that one can generalise and just put it in a
yes, no or maybe category.22 LaRue’s concept is that when analysing music it is important to
know in what dimension the analysis is applied. He refers to three dimensions: large; middle;
and small:

Small dimensions Motive

Subphrase
Phrase

Middle dimensions Sentence

Paragraph
Section
Part

Large dimensions Movement

Work
Groups of works

Sometimes it is not practical to study all the parts of every dimension, the central idea is that
observing these dimensions view is a good start to find relevant parts in the specific piece.
Consequently, they may occasionally overlap each other.

The large dimension covers the largest completed unit, e.g. a whole piece, a movement or a
number of movements that are parts of a larger unit. The task in large dimensions, when
analysing a succession of movements, is to observe what is happening between the
movements. These observations may be e.g. changes of instrumentation, tonality, meter and
structure. When analysing a standalone movement the task is rather to observe the
relationships of its inner parts and attain a general understanding of the movement as a whole.
Relevant questions when analysing a movement in large dimension are for example:

Where are the most impressive dynamic climaxes?[...]Apart from the tonic, which keys receive most
attention?[...]Is there a symmetrical balance of melodic peaks or an upward progression between
sections?[...]Are the layers of rhythm more complex in certain parts than others?[...]Are the main
articulations marked by areas of greater stability?[…]23

Focusing on the middle dimension is about what proceeds within the different parts of a
piece; to find what is characteristic in the specific part and not how it relates to other parts in
the movement. The size of the middle dimension is ambiguous though, it is not as easy to

22
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 4-5
23
Ibid, p. 7

12
determine as it is when working with large or small dimensions. Large dimensions have one
fixed boundary because it cannot be larger than the piece itself, and small dimensions also
have one fixed boundary because it cannot be smaller than the smallest motive or note. The
boundaries of middle dimensions are somewhere in-between: “Yet we can master the
seemingly slippery ‘in-betweenishness’ of middle dimensions by thinking of them
functionally: they concern happenings fixed at the lower limit by the main articulations of the
movement and at the lower limit by the size of the first complete idea[…]”24. The units
illuminated in small dimensions are the smallest completed ideas, and LaRue suggests
analysis questions like: Is the melody line mostly moving in steps or skips; What is the
dominating surface rhythm; Do the subphrases create a sense of static balance or a sense of
progression. Accordingly, the unit analysed in small dimension will often be a phrase and as a
further step: how it relates to motives within it. In some music though, it could be of interest
to analyse even smaller units such as motive fragments and individual chords. When
analysing small dimensions it is easy to fall into certain details that seem interesting. As
Bengtsson pointed out, LaRue also claims that it is essential to remember that analysis of
details is about finding out what they contribute to functions on higher levels.25

Just like Bengtsson, LaRue is dealing with the issue of contributing elements and refers to
four categories: sound; harmony; melody; and rhythm. According to LaRue, these are the
basis of a comprehensive style analysis and he describes how to use them as yardsticks when
analysing in large, middle and small dimension. They often overlap each other, as in harmony
rhythm and contour rhythm, but to be able to analyse a piece one have to, in some way,
separate them from each other. As pointed out, Bengtsson criticises LaRue’s style analytical
approach of not being helpful when analysing for example Debussy because of the lack of
interaction between the elements. LaRue, however, argues that the elements are not able to
individually keep up a musical structure, and because of that he stresses that they may serve
as contributors.

According to LaRue, when analysing sound in large dimensions the main issues are fabric and
contrast. The fabric is concerning the spectrum of acoustical choices and how many types of
fabric there are. In the latter it is helpful to use terms like linear/massive,
homophony/polyphony or counterpoint/harmony. Because of the importance of generalising

24
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 8
25
Ibid, p. 6-9

13
when analysing style, LaRue recommends the terms linear and massive. He thinks that it is
crucial to examine the contrasts of sound, and suggests that useful categories of contrast are
high, medium and low frequency of contrast. Sound in middle dimension is concerning
timbre, dynamics, fabric, movement and shape. The timbre is classified with terms like
choice, range, idiom, degree and frequency of contrast. When observing dynamics, the main
attention ought to be focused at degree and frequency of dynamic contrasts. LaRue points out
that these elements are probably best experienced in middle dimensions. Contrary to in the
large dimensions, analysing fabric in middle dimension is concerning contrasts rather than
different textures. Terms to describe fabric in middle dimension are for example thick/thin,
narrow/broad, loud/soft and simple/complex. The change of sound between sections
contributes to movement and the changes create a shape that often is immediately experienced
by a listener. In small dimensions, the observation of sound is concentrated rather to change
of registers than change of instruments. The categories used to describe sound in middle
dimensions are appropriate also for small dimensions. Once again, LaRue points out that
when analysing small dimensions one must be aware of the risk falling into detailed
observations.26

LaRue presents a typology that he thinks is advisable when analysing harmony in large
dimensions, especially when comparing movements: coloristic/tensional;
chordal/contrapuntal; dissonant/consonant; and active/stable, are some of the dichotomies he
uses. Furthermore, he points out that it is useful to relate the movement’s harmony to one or
more stages of specific tonalities that have been common during the western music history
and refers to: linear tonality (polyphony); migrant tonality (moving in temporary keys);
bifocal tonality (oscillation between major and relative minor); unified tonality (a center
around a single tonic); expanded tonality (enlarged diatonicism, neomodality, polytonality,
whole tone); and atonality (avoidance of tonality). To classify the relationships of tonality
between and within movements may also be a further step when analysing the tonality of a
piece. The typology used when analysing harmony in large dimension is similarly suitable
when comparing sections or phrases in middle dimensions. At this level though, harmony has
a strong impact and one may perceive phenomena like modulations and harmonic rhythm in a
more immediate sense than in large dimensions. Additionaly, LaRue defines modulations as
either ornamental or structural. An ornamental modulation is a short modulation that

26
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 30-37

14
immediately leads back to the previous key.27 He argues that by observing the modulation
technique one can reveal certain composers control of transitional processes. Furthermore, he
stresses the importance of observing harmonic rhythm in middle dimensions. The harmonic
rhythm may create powerful contrasts between sections and it can form structural patterns.
Regarding harmony in small dimension, LaRue claims that the common-known typology
when analysing chord progressions is just somewhat useful when analysing style because of
its limits considering the common practice period.28 This typology does not explain the
indirect relationships of chords. Instead, he prefers to categorise chords as: primary chords
(direct relationships within a tonality – chords of tonic scale); secondary chords (indirect
relationships – chords built on degrees of tonic scale); and remote chords (relationships
through secondary chords or no relationships at all). It is then possible to make a general
chord scheme for every style. Exemplified by arguing that some primary chords in Strauss
style would be regarded as remote chords in Mozart style, LaRue claims that using these
categories allows analysing music from all periods. According to LaRue, a further important
item to observe in small dimensions is the composer’s handling of dissonance. He suggests
that one can basically classify the presence of dissonance in categories like: frequent; average;
and rare. By doing this one can reveal a composer’s preferences: “[…]a dissonance is like a
descriptive adjective, and the composer’s choice of these non-chordal “adjectives” closely
reflects his creative personality.”29

The next contributing element is melody, and in large dimensions the task is to observe the
characteristics of a whole movement. LaRue suggests using words to describe this like:
modal; diatonic; chromatic; and exotic. Additionally, he argues that one have to observe range
and tessitura. Classifications like stepwise, skips and cantabile are more accurate for middle
and small dimensions. According to LaRue, middle dimension is the most important
dimension when analysing melody since it is in this dimension one percieve melodies; it may
be the most interesting dimension when analysing how one perceive music per se.30 He
stresses that when analysing melody in middle dimensions it is crucial to be able to modify
the boundaries adjacent to sub phrases, phrases, sections and parts. The intial task is to scan

27
Tonicization
28
He refers to analysts like Walter Piston and Donald Francis Tovey and writes ”common practice” period. I
suppose that he refers to music from about 18th century. I think that LaRue means that scale degree analysis
cannot explain the relationships of chord progressions satisfactory. It would be interesting to know what LaRue
would think of using functional analysis when analysing harmony in small dimensions.
29
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 62
30
As pointed out earlier (Cook – the psychological approach)

15
the melodic profile within these boundaries and apply the typology applied in large
dimensions. Second, one have to perform a detailed observation of thematic use. Analysing
melody in small dimensions, the tasks is to find out which intervals that are used and how the
melody moves within phrases. LaRue adds a third category to the well-known categories
steps and skips: the leap. By implementing this, it may be easier to describe a melody that is
moving mostly in steps, small skips and large skips. Instead of using the term large skips, he
suggests the term leap. He points out that it is necessary to relate these three terms to the
music one is analysing and therefore they have to be rather flexible. As a tool for analysing
the melodic curve within phrases, LaRue presents a method that describes the curve as: rising;
falling; level; and wave (R, F, L and W). These can be combined with one another, and in
addition they can include upper- and lower case letters. For example: a rFLR curve is a curve
that rises, falls, proceeds at the same level, and then ascents again.31

Dealing with aspects of rhythm in large dimensions, LaRue starts with how tempo and meter
differ in parts or movements. Additionally, a further aspect is the ratios between the parts
within a movement. He argues that composers consider the proportional lengths of their
compositions, and one way of comparing lengths of parts is consequently performed by
counting bars or converting bars into estimated elapsed time. He suggests that it is beneficial
to organise the lengths in three categories: equivalent; significantly greater; and twice as
large. By accomplish this one may regard for example a large movement as a stress, or a
small movement as an upbeat. LaRue suggests that the same typology used in large
dimensions is applicable also when analysing rhythm in middle dimension; it is helpful to
observe the rhythm of thematic material. If a section starts with primary material, continues
with secondary material, and then ends with closing material, one might regard the
proportions of this thematic material as a rhythm. One further aspect of rhythm in middle
dimension that intersects small dimensions is the characteristic rhythmic module of a
composer. When one analyses rhythm in small dimensions, LaRue claims that one will find
that rhythm is movement in itself.32 As pointed out earlier, Bengtsson argues that it is the
rhythm that mediates movement; LaRue and Bengtsson might share the idea of that rhythm in
small dimension is movement in itself.

31
LaRue: Guidelines to style analysis, p. 69-85
32
Ibid, p. 88-113

16
1.4 The pastiche

Nationalencyklopedin (NE) defines pastiche as ”A piece of art where, with a certain purpose,
an artist’s or a period’s style is distinctly replicated. The pastiche differs from an imitation,
hence, in the former the depiction is regarded as an artistic quality”.33 Furthermore, NE refers
to music pieces like Grieg’s Holberg Suite and Stravinsky’s Pulcinella suite. Thus, the
pastiche is like a sophisticated imitation of a certain style where the craftsmanship is
emphasised. Oxford Music Online has a similar definition: “Imitation, […]a work deliberately
written in the style of another period or manner, e.g. Prokofiev's Classical Symphony and
Stravinsky's Pulcinella.”34

Composing in a certain style, or pastiche composition, have been a pedagogic method for a
long time in western music education. In Analysis through composition, Cook refers to the
European tradition of teaching composition where students are allowed to compose in certain
styles35. He argues that it is a tradition that lies upon the assumption that composition students
find their own way of expressing themselves as a result of the pastiche composition. An
example is the tradition of writing counterpoint exercises, which has taken for granted in a
solid composition education for ages. By accomplish these exercises, the understanding of
each single voice’s individuality is increased, and the student may later add this accumulated
knowledge to his or her own composing toolbox.

1.5 Accepted characteristics of Piazzolla’s style

According to Quin Link, an essential rhythmic pattern that became Piazzolla’s hallmark is the
tresillo.36 The basic structure of this rhythm is 3+3+2 and it originates from the song tradition
milonga canción where it has 3+1+2+2 as structure.37 The latter one is also known as the
milonga rhythm, the habanera rhythm, or the rumba rhythm.38 The surface rhythm in

33
www.ne.se: search word pastisch (my own translation) : Ett konstnärligt verk i vilket en annan konstnärs eller
epoks stil tydligt efterbildats i bestämd avsikt. Pastischen skiljer sig från imitation genom att själva
efterbildandet används som ett konstgrepp.
34
Oxford Music Online: search word pastische
35
Cook: Analysis through composition, preface p. 2
36
Quin Link: Culturally identifying the performance practices of Astor Piazzolla’s second quinteto, p. 38 -
tresillo is the spanish word for triplet
37
Ibid, p. 23
38
According to Åhlén (Åhlén, 1984), the word habanera believs to originate from the town Havanna, where the
milonga tradition were established. It was later commingled with the counterdance (kontradanza), which had
French/Haitian origin.

17
Piazzolla’s music is often accentuated with the tresillo or its variants obtained by shifts. By
shifting it in stages eight various rhythms is created where some of them are more common
than others. Furthermore, these rhythmic cells can be paired together across two or more
measures and form a 2:3 feeling, for instance 1 3 3 3 3 3.39

As expected, several of the characteristics in this style are derived from the traditional tango.
Some of them, like the tresillo, are more frequent than others. One that is applied repeatedly
as well is the marcato technique. It is a melody line in steady crotchets, typically played by
the piano and the double bass. The marcato technique provides a foundation in rhythmic
terms. However, it also has an important harmonic function similar to the walking bass line in
jazz.40 Additionally, an essential rhythmical pattern in the idiom is the arrastre, which is an
upbeat gesture that originates from when the bandoneon opens its bellows before a
downbeat.41 The arrastre is imitated by the piano as an ascending scale and by the strings as a
slide.42 To resemble a percussive effect, the piano's arrastre is performed as an indefinite
series of notes.

œ™ œ œ œ œ™ œ œ œ œ™ œ™ œ

j j
œ™ œ œ œ œ™ œ œ œ œ™ œ™ œ
>œ > >
‰
& J œ œ œ œ œœ œœœœœœ
> > œœ

? j ‰ j ‰ œj ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ œj ‰ j
œ. œ. >. œ. œ. œ. >. œ. ‰
> >
Figure 1-1: Rhythms

Piazzolla applied the percussive gestures that had been common in traditional tango in his
compositions. Effects like: lija(sandpaper); golpe(knock); látigo(whip); perro(dog); and

39
Pelinski, Astor Piazzolla: entre tango y fuga, en busca de una identidad estilística, p. 9
40
Quin Link, Culturally identifying the performance practices of Astor Piazzolla’s second quinteto, p. 37
41
Ibid, p. 75
42
As a portamento

18
tambor(snare drum) were often performed by the violin43 and occur frequently in his style.44
One further percussive technique is the strappato that often is played by the double base, and
the strongly accented rhythmical patterns that the piano often reproduces in a percussive
way45.

In Instrumental Rubato and Phrase Structure in Astor Piazzolla’s Music, Kutnowski analyses
the phrase structure in Piazzolla’s music, and detects a technique that he defines as
instrumental rubato. It concerns the rhythmic transformations a melody endures when it
rushes towards the end of a phrase faster than required or expected. He argues that this
technique origins from the song tradition in tango, in particular from the singer Carlos Gardel.
The rubato was usually improvised by the singer. Consequently, when played simultaneously
by several instruments, it had to be notated in the score.46 Furthermore, Kutnowski describes
the phrase structure in Piazzolla's music as an overlapping technique , where the last measure
of a phrase at the same time is the first measure of the next phrase. Additionally, he argues
that it creates a feeling of continuity.

43
Quin Link, Culturally identifying the performance practices of Astor Piazzolla’s second quinteto, p. 78
44
If you are interested of listening to this techniques, there are some demonstration videos on YouTube:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZZOFl7ieN0
45
Quin Link, Culturally identifying the performance practices of Astor Piazzolla’s second quinteto, p. 81
46
Kutnowski, Instrumental Rubato and Phrase Structure in Astor Piazzolla's Music, p. 107-108

19