Notes - Module I

For Whom the Bell Tolls/No Man is an Island

by John Donne

Lines 1-14

No man is an island,

Entire of itself.

Each is a piece of the continent,

A part of the main.

If a clod be washed away by the sea,

Europe is the less.

As well as if a promontory were.

As well as if a manor of thine own

Or of thine friend’s were.

Each man’s death diminishes me,

For I am involved in mankind.

Therefore, send not to know

For whom the bell tolls,

It tolls for thee.

Summary:

In the first lines of ‘For Whom the Bell Tolls/No Man is an Island’ the speaker begins with a
clear and memorable opening line. He states that “No man is an island”. No single person is
entirely separate from the rest of the world. Every human being is part of a whole. Donne
transitions into one of the metaphorical conceits for which he is well-known. He compares
human beings, their connection to one another and the rest of the world, to landmasses that
are part of a continent. They are all “part of the main”.
In the next quatrain, the conceit is continued. In these lines he adds onto it, saying that if the
continent lost anything, from a “promontory” to a “clod,” or a “manor” that it would be less.
This is relating back to human beings and how every loss, or death, is an injury to the whole.
Humans are interconnected with one another and can therefore not afford to be flippant with
one another’s lives.
In the sestet, of the final six lines of the sonnet, Donne adds onto the statements he made
previously by noting that not only “your” loss is meaningful but also “thine friends”.
Everyone is injured when one person is.
The poem then transitions into first-person where the poet addresses himself and his
connection to “mankind”. He speaks of “Each man’s death” as diminishing him. He is
“involved” in the workings of humankind.
The last three lines directly address death and what it means when a new death comes to pass.
He uses the image of a church bell tolling to symbolize death. When it rings, he says to the
listener, do not ask “For whom” it tolls because it “tolls for” you. Whenever anyone dies, it is
like everyone has died.

John Donne: a brief introduction

John Donne (1572-1631) was a hugely important figure in Elizabethan and Jacobean
literature. As a young man in the 1590s, he had pioneered what would become known as
metaphysical poetry, writing impassioned and sensual poetry to his beloved that drew on new
debates and discoveries in astronomy for its imagery and poetic conceits.

Common features of metaphysical poetry include elaborate similes and metaphors, extended
poetic conceits and paradoxes, colloquial speech, and an interest in exploring the interplay
between the physical and spiritual world (and between the big and the small). Donne is often
said to be first metaphysical poet, and Donne’s genius for original, intellectually complex
poetry certainly helped to set the trend for the poetry that followed him.

He began writing at the end of the sixteenth century, but the high moment of metaphysical
poetry would be in the century that followed. Other key characteristics of metaphysical
poetry include: complicated mental and emotional experience; unusual and sometimes
deliberately contrived metaphors and similes; and the idea that the physical and spiritual
universes are connected.
That is how Donne, as a young man, embarked on a literary career (although he appears to
have written his early work to amuse his friends and associates, rather than for publication).
Then, as he grew older, he became a devoted Anglican and rose to become Dean of St. Paul’s
Cathedral. He would write a series of Holy Sonnets which transferred his earlier youthful
passions from a woman on to God Himself. But Donne was also a powerful writer and
deliverer of sermons, and a talented prose writer. The famous lines he wrote that contain the
‘for whom the bell tolls’ statements were written in his last years.

In 1623, he fell ill with a fever and, while he recovered, he wrote the Devotions upon
Emergent Occasions, a series of prose writings split into three parts: ‘Meditations’,
‘Expostulations to God’, and ‘Prayers’. The oft-quoted ‘no man is an island’ line, as well as
the ‘for whom the bell tolls’ one, come the seventeenth Meditation in Donne’s Devotions.

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O Captain! My Captain!
By Walt Whitman

What is ''O Captain! My Captain!'' About?

Walt Whitman's poem ''O Captain! My Captain!'' is one of the poet's most famous works. It
was written shortly after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865,
and the end of the U.S. Civil War. It became immediately popular and has remained one of
Whitman's most widely reproduced poems. The poem is notable for its emotional response to
the death of Lincoln and because it represents a departure from Whitman's typical style.

Line 1-16
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won,

The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,

While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;

But O heart! heart! heart!

O the bleeding drops of red,

Where on the deck my Captain lies,

Fallen cold and dead.

O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;

Rise up -- for you the flag is flung -- for you the bugle trills,

For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths -- for you the shores a-crowding,

For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;

Here Captain! dear father!

This arm beneath your head!

It is some dream that on the deck,

You've fallen cold and dead.

My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still,

My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will,

The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,

From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;

Exult O shores, and ring O bells!

But I with mournful tread,

Walk the deck my Captain lies,

Fallen cold and dead.

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“O Captain! My Captain!'' Meaning:

''O Captain! My Captain!'' is an elegy, a poem that mourns the dead or takes up a similarly
serious theme. The poem can also be described as a dirge, a song for the dead. The poem
discusses the death of a ship's ''Captain.'' The poetic speaker is distraught at the death of the
captain. Readers can identify with the powerful sense of mourning and loss in a general way.
Whitman wrote ''O Captain! My Captain!'' in response to President Abraham Lincoln's death.
Thus, the poem as a whole can be seen as a symbolic response to the passing of the President.
''O Captain! My Captain!'' Summary:
''O Captain! My Captain!'' has three stanzas that build upon the theme of the death of the
captain and the poetic speaker's reactions to his death. The first stanza describes how a ship
has returned from a voyage that was ''fearful.'' The voyage has been successful, with the
speaker noting that a ''prize'' has been won. However, the poetic speaker admits that there has
been a tragedy. The Captain of the ship is dead, his bleeding body lying on the deck of the
ship.
In the second stanza, the poem shifts to reactions to the captain's death. The stanza mentions
a ''swaying mass'' of people mourning his death. The speaker describes the sounds and sights
of mourning, including bouquets of flowers, pealing bells, waving flags, and bugle calls.
The third stanza returns to describing the Captain. In contrast to the noisy responses of the
crowd, the Captain's body is lifeless, ''pale and still,'' with ''no pulse nor will.'' Though the
voyage is over and successful, the poetic speaker continues to mourn the death of the
Captain.

''O Captain! My Captain!'' Analysis:

''O Captain! My Captain!'' uses the imagery of the ship and the Captain as a way of
describing loss. Sailing was dangerous in the nineteenth century when ships lacked the
technical and mechanical innovations of today. Readers of Whitman's time would understand
when the poem describes the ship's voyage as ''fearful.''
As President, Lincoln was responsible for leading the country through one of its most fearful
times -- the Civil War -- much like a captain responsible for a ship, its crew, and passengers
on a dangerous voyage. Whitman's poem makes this meaning clear by utilizing the metaphor
of the Captain and his ship throughout all three stanzas.
The poem also features an easily heard rhyme scheme and rhythmic pattern giving the
stanzas a musical feel. This makes the poem memorable and familiar-sounding to audiences.
The ease at which the poem's meaning can be grasped suggests the poem is meant to be
readily understood and appreciated by people, almost like a folk song, so that they can join in
mourning the loss of Lincoln.
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 Hints Development

Points to remember:

1. Read the passage twice or thrice carefully.

2. Understand the passage well.

3. Jot down the points.

4. If the events in the passage are in present tense, write the story in the past tense. .

5. Arrange the matter in two or three paragraphs.

6. Give a suitable title.

Write a few paragraphs by developing the following hints:

Children in garden __ giant's friend __ seven years __ big wall __ notice board __ Nature's
fury __ winter throughout the year __ wonderful sight __ little boy __ giant's help __ spring
__ giant's information__ to the children __ longing to see the small boy __ giant's sickness
__ little boy's arrival __ giant dead.

Hints: An essay is written to express one’s views and opinions on a topic. Given below is the
format of an essay-
A) Introduction
B) Body (categorized in 3 paragraphs)
C) Conclusion
Sample:
Let’s write a few paragraphs based on the above given hints:
On the far hillside, few orphaned children used to live with an old woman. The old woman
had taught these children to be hardworking, disciplined and compassionate. One of the little
boys was quite weak and timid. He used to spend most of his time playing around in the
garden. He met a friendly giant who became his friend.
After seven years had passed, the little boy and the giant had become best friends. They both
used to play in the park and eat fresh fruits from the trees. There was a big wall in the garden
with a huge notice board which informed the people about the upcoming winter storm.
Everyone stayed indoors and witnessed nature's fury. The little boy was worried about his
giant friend’s health and whereabouts. So, he covered himself and ran out to find him. It
started snowing and the little boy was amazed by the wonderful sight. The little boy was
unaware that the roads were blocked and there was a disastrous storm coming his way. The
giant arrived and saved the little boy, he took him into his huge cave and rested him on a soft
bed. The boy thanked the giant for saving his life.
As time passed, the little boy and the giant became inseparable. Soon, spring arrived and all
the children ran around and enjoyed amidst the colourful garden. The little boy was helping
the old woman with some chores when a young boy came running and told him about the
giant’s illness. The little boy ran as fast as he could and climbed the mountain to reach the
giant’s home. As he entered, he saw the giant lying weak on his bed. The boy sat beside him
and read him his favourite story as the giant slowly closed his eyes and went closer to death.
After the giant’s death, the little boy honoured him by naming the garden after the giant.
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Self Introduction
Tips to remember Freshers "How to Introduce yourself " in Interview:

 Before Attending the interview go through with Job description and company details.
 First of all, think about What I Want To Hear If I Ask You To Tell Me About Yourself?
 Start with the present and tell why you are well qualified for the position.
 Best to start with a strong simple statement about yourself (again related to the job
and type of person they’re looking for) about your project works, and any
achievements in your career which will help to get a job (based on the job
description).

Tips to remember Experienced Candidates How to Introduce yourself:

 Before Attending the interview go through with Job description and company details.
 First of all, think about What I Want To Hear If I Ask You To Tell Me About Yourself?
 Start with the present and tell why you are well qualified for the position.
  Best to start with a strong simple statement about yourself (again related to the job
and type of person they’re looking for) and expand with a synthesized work history
that shows how miraculously everything you’ve done up to now has led you to this
precise moment and prepared you perfectly for this job!

So how do you answer “Tell me about yourself”? for freshers:

How do you project an image of a pleasing, confident personality without sounding arrogant
or impatient? Let’s have a look.
1. At first, begin your answer only when the interviewer fully stops speaking, and begin by
thanking the interviewer.
2. Next, mention your Full Name along with where you come from– Pay attention to your
grammar and do not use ‘myself so and so’. Instead, say ‘ I am’ or ‘My name is’. Mention the
place you belong to.
3. Next, talk about your highest qualification – and especially emphasize the skills helpful for
this job.
For example: I am a software engineer with certification in Java, or I am a commerce
graduate with the highest ranking in my university and pursuing a diploma in Project
management. You can write about 2 sentences maximum for this part, and make sure you
include the most relevant, important, and that part of your resume that will arouse curiosity.
4. Explain about your project work. What you have done in the project, what skills have you
used to complete your project, and How it is beneficial to the company?
5. If you have attended or participated in any college events and got any prizes or
achievements you got can mention them in your self-introduction candidate.
6. The last but also the most important part of your introduction, mention some of your
Hobbies.
For Example: ‘During my free time, I like to read and listen to music or something like, ‘I
am passionate about traveling and when I am not working, I like to travel or write travel
blogs. I am also learning music these days.
An answer like this will tell that you have a creative side to yourself and are someone who
likes to broaden horizons and explore.
7. The toughest part is the ending of your introduction. Though you can simply do it by
stopping after your last sentence, if you have to make an impact, you should pay attention to
ending your introduction properly. You can mention your reason for being interested in this
profession, or your role model, or also your goal.
For Example: I am passionate about entering the world of websites and contributing
towards making a social impact on your users, or something like – That’s all about me, I wish
to utilize my skills, learn and grow together with your company and provide top-notch
services to your clients.
How to answer “Tell me about yourself”? for Experienced Candidates:
1. It is very important to know about the company, what industry they are into? what are their
products? and achievements will be an added advantage.
2. At first, begin your answer only when the interviewer fully stops speaking, and begin by
thanking the interviewer.
3. Next, mention your Full Name along with where you come from– Pay attention to your
grammar and do not use ‘myself so and so’. Instead, say ‘ I am’ or ‘My name is. Mention the
place you belong to.
4. Then you can talk about your experience – start with the number of years and you handled
projects. The skills used to reach companies & your targets, goals, and get better results. If
you got any recognition from the company for your achievement you can mention those
details also.
5. Next, talk about your highest qualification with specialization (If you have dual
specialization you can mention both).
6. By mentioning some of your hobbies it will help to weightage to your resume. If you
mention some of the skill improvements related to the work-life 1 or 2 points will get a better
impression of the interviewer. Apart from professional life, you can mention your hobbies.
For Professional Life Examples: Following some blogs, attending some classes, etc.
For Personal Life Examples: reading books, listening to music, watching movies, traveling,
playing sports, etc.
By mentioning some team player games or sports, it can increase your team player ability in
an interviewer’s point.
7. While ending you are “ tell me about yourself interview question “, if you have to make an
impact, you should pay attention to ending your introduction properly. You can mention your
reason for being interested in this profession, or your role model, or also your goal
That’s all about me, I wish to utilize my skills, learn and grow together with your company
and provide top-notch services to your clients.
It’s a good idea for both fresher and experienced candidates to prepare your answer to this
question ahead of time. It’s often used as an ice-breaker, so make sure to share interesting bits
about your personal life and to also smoothly move it towards the interviewer’s curiosity.
Don’t overdo your answer. Before the interview, consider a few personality assets you
believe the hiring manager will value and outline them briefly by being concise. Remember
that the interviewer can always ask more questions if one of your points intrigues him or her.
So the most important catch is, be truthful. Stay positive, relax and smile.
Don’t do these mistakes in your self-introduction interview:
1. Try to avoid your gestures.
2. If you want to tell some negative things about the company, try to explain how to make it
improvisation way.
3. Never show your attitude.
4. Don’t make a low and loud voice.
5. Fumbling over the morning and afternoon.
Sample-1
Good morning Sir,
First of all, I would like to thank you for giving me an opportunity to introduce myself.
I am Anushya from Chennai. I am pursuing my undergraduate graduation in Information
Technology from CSI Institute of Technology. I did my Intermediate from State Board with
72% & High school from State Board with 75%. I like computers Because, In my schooling
days, I scored High marks in that subject compared to Maths, physics. My Hobbies are
playing shuttle, having a passion for music, and teaching kids. My Strength takes Initiative to
work independently, Good leadership skills, Adaptable to any kind of situation in an
estranged group & Helping tendencies. My Weakness is I am not comfortable until I finish
my work in the given time & am friendly in nature. My Short term goal is to get a job in a
reputed company. My Long term goal is to become a more responsible and knowledgeable
personality and in a respectable position in my company. That's all about me.
Thank you very much for giving me a great opportunity to introduce myself behind you.
Sample-2
Good morning Sir,
It’s my pleasure to introduce myself. I am XXX, and I am currently pursuing my degree in
the field of the automobile at ABC University. I was raised in Assam, and when I was 18, I
moved to Bangalore for my university study. Last year I went to the US to join the student
exchange program. During my exchange, I went backpacking with other backpackers from all
over the world to other countries across the US. It was a fun experience. I think I have been
fortunate enough to be able to live in different parts of the world and thus be able to broaden
my horizon.
I have a strong interest in automotive and services industry. The reason is I’d like to leverage
my detail-oriented mind and apply the skills and knowledge that I have attained throughout
my degree courses. I see myself as a people-oriented person. I demonstrated this by working
in various group projects with different types of people in which I had been able to perform
well. I want to be part of your company to further develop myself in the automobile field and
to use my capabilities to serve both your company and your clients.
Sample-3:
Good morning sir/madam;
Firstly, I would like to thank you for giving me this opportunity. I am XY from Chennai. I
completed my B.com with CA from AB University affiliated to Anna University, with an
aggregate of 78%. My hobbies are net surfing, playing chess. I am fresher and have no work
experience in any company. My strength is that I can adapt quickly to any environment.
My short-term goal is to get placed in a reputed company like yours, which will allow me to
enhance my skills and Knowledge. My long term goal would be to reach a higher position in
your company. That’s all about me. Thank you for giving such an excellent opportunity.
Refer www.indiabix.com to learn further..
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Article
The English language uses articles to identify nouns. Articles act much like adjectives.
Articles clarify whether a noun is specific or general, singular or plural. An article appears
before the noun it accompanies.
There are three types of articles:
 Definite article: the
 Indefinite article: a, an.
 No article
We use A/AN with:
1. Singular nouns and the first time we refer to a person, animal or thing.
a child, an elephant, a television
2. We don't use A/AN with possessive pronouns, demonstratives or cardinal numbers.
My shirt is dirty. This car is expensive. One person is in the reception.
3. We use ONE (or more) instead of A/AN when the number is important.
There is only one exit from the airport.
What is the difference between A and AN?
I. A is used when the next word begins with a consonant sound (b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k etc).
a book, a table, a clock, a university (because the beginning of university sounds
like YOU-niversity)
 Use a or an to identify nouns that are not definite and not specific. - Think of a and an as
meaning any or one among many. e.g., a book (any book) a dog (any dog) a cat (one cat) a
house (one among many houses)
 Use a or an only for singular nouns.
 Do not use an article for a plural, indefinite noun. - Think of a plural, indefinite noun as
meaning all. e.g., Students should study hard. (All students should study hard.)
When to use a and when to use an
 Choose when to use a or an according to the sound of the noun that follows it.
 Use a before consonant sounds. e.g., a book a dog
 Use a before a sounded h, a long u, and o with the sound of w.
e.g., a hat a house a union a uniform a one-hour appointment

II. AN is used when the next word begins with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).
an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour (because the H is silent)
 Use an before vowel sounds (except long u). e.g., an asset an essay an index an onion an
umbrella
 Use an when h is not sounded. e.g., an honor an hour
III. The Definite Article – THE
We use THE with:
1. A singular or plural noun when it is clear/obvious which person or thing we are talking
about.
There is a lamp in my bedroom. (we mention the lamp for the first time)
The lamp is next to the desk.
2. Anything which we identify immediately.
We watched the new Brad Pitt movie last night.
3. Musical instruments (the violin, the guitar, the drums, the flute, the piccolo).
She plays the piano.
4. Something that is unique or there is only one.
the sun, the moon, the internet.
5. Names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges and deserts (always in capitals).
The Mississippi River, The Black Sea, The Andes, The Sahara Desert
6. Directions (cardinal points).
the west, the south-east, the north-west
IV. No Article
We use no article with:
1. When we refer to general ideas, plurals or uncountable nouns we do not use THE.
Religion is an important issue. (NOT The religion is an important issue)
Mexican food is spicy. (NOT The Mexican food is spicy).
2. Names of people, books and plays (unless it is part of the title).
I have read Romeo and Juliet.
3. Towns, cities, states and countries.
Cape Town, Montana, Vietnam
(Exceptions – The USA, The UK, The Netherlands, The Czech Republic, The Philippines).
4. Lakes, single islands, continents or mountains.
Lake Victoria, Jamaica, Asia, Mt Fuji
5. Planets
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn
6. Sports or games
Soccer, tennis, skiing, monopoly
7. Meals
Breakfast, lunch, dinner, supper
Exercise:
Choose the correct article in each sentence:
1)Did you bring (a, an, the) umbrella?
2)Are you looking for (a, an, the) shampoo?
3)I checked (a, an, the) mailbox again.
4)Can I have (a, an, the) spoon please?
5)I was born into (a, an, the) poor family.
6)She will come back in (a, an, the) hour.
7)Have you been to (a, an, the) Space Needle Tower in Seattle?
8)I would love to talk to one of (a, an, the) managers.
9)What (a, an, the) amazing view!
10)The helicopter landed on (a, an, the) roof of a building.
 Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies(gives us more information about) a verb in a
sentence.

He eats a mango.
He eats a mango quickly.
The adverb “quickly” in the second sentence modifies the verb ‘eats’ by giving us more
information.
Adverbs modify a verb by giving us information about the following aspects of a verb.

1. When an action happens

2. Where an action happens
3. How often an action happens
4. How an action happens

Depending on the above aspects of modification, the adverbs have following four types:
 Adverbs of Time:
 Adverbs of Place:
 Adverbs of Frequency:
 Adverbs of Manner:

Usage:
Adverbs of Time: ‘when’

These adverbs answer the question ‘when’.

Examples are: tomorrow, today, yesterday, now, then, never, soon, already, ago,
formerly, lately etc.

They died three years ago.

I wrote to her yesterday.
Have you seen her before?
May I leave now?
I will soon return.
He will come tomorrow.
I have warned him already.

Adverbs of Place: ‘where’

These adverbs answer the question ‘where’.

Examples are: here, there, upstairs, downstairs, everywhere, nowhere, in, out, inside,
away.
They have been living here for several years.
She went upstairs.
May I come in?
He came forward.

Adverbs of Frequency: ‘how often’

These adverbs answer the question ‘how often’.

Examples are: again, frequently, always, seldom, hardly, often, once etc.
You are always welcome.
I have gone there only once.
We visit them frequently.
I often go there.

Adverbs of Manner: ‘how/in what manner’

These adverbs answer the question ‘how/in what manner’.

Examples are: slowly, carefully, terribly, seriously, well, pleasantly, really, thus etc.
He fought bravely.
Walk carefully.
She is seriously ill.
He can speak English well.

Adjective
DEFINITION: Adjective is the word which is used to modify noun or pronoun. There are
five kinds of adjective as follow.
1) Possessive Adjective
2) Descriptive Adjective
3) Numeral Adjective
4) Demonstrative Adjective
5) Interrogative Adjective

Comparative Adjective Rules

1.Adjective of one syllable form the comparative by adding “er” and the superlative by
adding –”est “to the positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Eg. Small smaller smallest
Clever cleverer cleverest

2.When the positive ends in “e” , only ‘r”and “st” are added.
Eg. Large larger largest
Brave braver bravest

3.When the positive ends in “y” and is preceded by a consonant, “y” is changed into “I”
before adding “er” and “est”.
Eg. Heavy heavier heaviest
Easy easier easiest

4. One syllable word ends with consonant preceded by a vowel, double the consonant and
add “er”.
Eg. Big bigger biggest
Fat fatter fattest

5. Adjectives consisting of two or more than two syllables form the comparative by adding
“more” before the positive and form the superlative by adding “most” before the positive.
Eg. Difficult more difficult most difficult
Careful more careful most careful
 6. Some adjectives are compared irregularly; their comparative and superlative are not
formed from the positive
Eg. Bad, evil, ill worse worst
Good better best

Exercise:
1. In mountain regions, day travel is -------(good)than night travel.
2. Platinum is ------(expensive)than gold.
3. The process of extraction of oil is ------(simple)than the process of petrol.
4. 24 carat gold is ------(pure) than 22 carat gold.
5. America is -----(rich) than any other country in the world.
6. Diesel costs -----(little) than petrol.
7. The tiger is ------(ferocious) than other animals.
8. Venezuela is -----(close) to the equator than Bolivia.
9. This is the-----(good) book I have ever read.
10. Shakespeare is the --------(great) English poet.

Kinds of adjective

1) POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE
DEFINITION: Possessive Adjective is the adjective which is used to point out the noun that
belongs to someone and there are seven Possessive Adjectives. They are My, Your, Our,
Their, His, Her and Its.
Example:
- This is my book.
- Your car is outside.
- His girl friend is waiting

2) DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE
DEFINITION: Descriptive Adjective is the adjective that is used to tell the sorts of noun or
quality. Descriptive adjectives have several forms as discussed below.
 Colors as adjectives: Black, Blue, White, Green, etc.
 Touch as adjective: Slippery, Sticky, etc.
 Feelings as adjectives: Happy, Sad, Angry, etc.
 Sizes as adjectives: Big, Small, Thin, Thick, etc.
 Origin as adjectives: European, Latin, Greek, etc.
 Shapes as adjectives: Triangular, Rectangular, Square, Circular, etc.
 Qualities as adjectives: Good, Bad, Average, etc.
 Time as adjective: Yearly, Monthly, etc.
 Age as adjectives: Young, Ancient, Old, etc.
 Material as adjectives: Wood, Cotton, Gold, etc.
 Opinions as adjectives: Pretty, hot, expensive, etc.

Example:
- He is a tall man.
- They are good students.
- She is a beautiful girl.
3) NUMERAL ADJECTIVE

DEFINITION: Numeral Adjective is the adjective which is used to show the number of
noun. There are three types of Numeral Adjective as follow.
a) Definite Numeral Adjective
b) Indefinite Numeral Adjective
c) Distributive Numeral Adjective

a) Definite Numeral Adjective

DEFINITION: Definitive Numeral Adjective is the adjective that is used to denote an exact
number of nouns as first, second, third or one, two, three….
Example:
- Taj Mahal is the second wonders of the world.
- Ankor temple has got five towers.

b) Indefinite Numeral Adjective

DEFINITION: Indefinite Numeral Adjective is the adjective which is used to denote an
inaccurate number of nouns as some, any, much, many, a little, a few….
Example:
- I have some friends here.
- She has a few pictures.
c) Distributive Numeral Adjective
DEFINITION: Distributive Adjective is the adjective that is used to denote one noun. They
are every, each, another, other...
Example:
- Each student is very friendly.
- They speak to another person.

4) DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE
DEFINITION: Demonstrative Adjective is the adjective which is used to point out the noun.
They are this, these, that, and those.
Example:
- That man is very handsome.
- These girls are good-looking.

5) INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
DEFINITION: Interrogative Adjective is the adjective that is used to ask the question. They
are where, what, which….
Example:
- Which animal do you like?
- What food do you prefer?
 Punctuation
The English language has many punctuation marks, and you will usually learn to use many of
them as you master the language. Still, there are some punctuation mark uses you might still
not know about despite using and seeing them on a regular basis.
Here are 14 common punctuation marks in English.

1. The Full Stop (.)

2. The Question Mark (?)
3. Quotation Marks/Speech Marks (” “)
4. The Apostrophe (‘)
5. The Comma (,)
6. The Hyphen (-)
7. The dash (en dash (–) em dash (—))
8. The Exclamation Mark (!)
9. The Colon (:)
10. The Semicolon (;)
11. Parentheses ()
12. Brackets []
13. Ellipsis (…)
14.The Slash (/)

Click this link to view PPT:

https://www.slideserve.com/branxton/punctuation-for-college-writing-powerpoint-ppt-
presentation/?utm_source=notification&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=content+sugge
sted
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/786018941202954932/?d=t&mt=signupOrPersonalizedLogin
https://pin.it/3NRt52y

Homograph:
Same pronunciation, same spelling and different meaning.
- Bear - To endure ; Bear - Animal
- Close - Connected ; Close - Lock
- Lead - Metal ; Lead - Start off in front
- Fair - Appearance ; Fair - Reasonable
- Train - Transportation ; Train - Teach
- Lie - Horizontal position ; Lie - Untrue
- Type - What type ; Type - To write via keyboard
- Miss - Unmarried women ; Miss - Failure
- May - Unsure ; May - Month
- Object - Disagree ; Object - Item

Homophone
Different spelling, different meaning and same pronunciation.
• brake/break:
When teaching my daughter how to drive, I told her if she didn't hit
the brake in time she would break the car's side mirror.
• cell/sell:
If you sell drugs, you will get arrested and end up in a prison cell.
• cent/scent:
I won't spend one cent on a bottle of perfume until I know that I love
the scent.
• die/dye:
If you accidentally drank a bottle of fabric dye, you might die.
• heal/heel:
If the heel breaks on your shoe, you might fall. However, your injuries
will heal over time.
• hear/here:
I wanted to sit here so I could hear the singer performing without any
distractions.
• hour/our:
We have one hour before our appointment with the real estate agent.
• knight/night:
The knight is on his way to the castle, but traveling at night is very
dangerous.
• knot/not:
I do not know how she learned to tie the knot to make that necklace.
• poor/pour:
I pour drinks at a bar every night. I am poor because I have too many bills and
not enough money.
• right/write:
There is no right way to write a great novel.
• sea/see:
At my beach house, I love to wake up and see the sea.
• son/sun:
My son is 13 years old. He likes to spend time outside in the sun.
• steal/steel:
Someone who decides to steal a car has committed a crime, but auto parts
are made of steel.
• weather/whether:
I don’t know whether to bring a jacket or not. The weather looks
unpredictable today.
 MODULE II
SPOKEN ENGLISH BROKEN ENGLISH

Spoken English and Broken English - George Bernard Shaw:

'Spoken English and Broken English' is an essay by George Bernard Shaw which is a
transcript of a radio talk recorded in 1927. Thus essay gives some instructions regarding how
to speak English to a foreign student of English when they travel in the British
Commonwealth or in America or when they meet a native. It even says that the native may
even speak in a provincial or cockney dialect of which he is a little ashamed and this may
even prevent him from obtaining some employment which is open only to those speaking
correct English.

The essay he's been divided into three sections. The first part rightly stresses on the
fact that there is no single model of correct speech in English. The first thing everyone
(native or foreigner) must remember is that there lies no ideally correct English. Shaw
discusses that the notion of "correct English", which is the proper way in which English
should be spoken. According to him, no two British subjects speak exactly alike. Though
they all speak differently, they all speak presentably which makes them understandable and
thus acceptable as a person of good social standing. The second part talks about how
everyone irrespective of whether they are educated or uneducated , speaks differently in
public and in private. A person's speech in public needs to be a careful one, measuring each
word before he speaks, to create an impact and make it understandable. But in private a man
is less bothered about the speech, the grammar, articulation,etc .. This section is particularly
the most amusing and Shaw presents himself as a guinea pig.

Now in the last section Shaw advises foreigners on how to speak while traveling in
English speaking country and here he gives another warning of quite a different kind. The
first thing that a person who is a foreigner should do is to speak with strong foreign stress and
use broken English without grammar. Then every native to whom he speaks would
understand he is a foreigner and would try to understand and be ready to help him. He
shouldn't expect everyone to be polite and use elaborate grammatical phrases. But now this
advice is flawed as it is outdated for now that many people not only visit many English
speaking countries but also reside in countries like America and Britain.

With globalization taking its hold on the world and the need of learning multiple
global languages out of which English stands at the very helm, has led people to seek out the
'correct' form of the English language.

Listening: Listening for gist (general meaning)

The Speech that made Obama President. (6.12 minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hWLf6JFbZoo

Pronouns
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or of more than one noun.

Example: The high school graduate accepted the diploma proudly. She had worked hard for
it.

-The pronoun she takes the place of the noun graduate. The pronoun it takes the place of the
noun diploma.

Antecedent- The word whose place a pronoun takes is called its antecedent. In the above
example, the noun graduate is the antecedent of she, and diploma is the antecedent of it.

Note: A pronoun may also take the place of another pronoun.

Example: Some of the students wore red sweaters. They were celebrating Valentine’s Day.

-The pronoun they takes the place of the pronoun some.

There are several kinds of pronouns: personal (which includes the possessive and reflexive
forms), relative, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to 1st person (I), 2nd person (you), 3rd person (it, he).

Examples: I, me, he, him, it, they, them, you, she, her, we, us.

(Personal) possessive pronouns- imply ownership.

Examples: My, mine, his, its, their, theirs, your, yours, her, hers, our, ours.

Personal pronouns combined with –self, -selves may be used in two ways:

1. The may be used reflexively

Example: Jack burned himself during the experiment.

2. They may be used intensively for emphasis.

Example: Maria herself is directing the entire play.

Reflexive and Intensive forms

Example: Myself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves, yourself, itself, yourselves

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to introduce subordinate clauses (clauses that cannot stand alone
as sentences).

Examples: Who, whose, that, whom, which.

Sentence Example 1: The book that you gave me was the one I wanted.

Sentence Example 2: The woman whose name is one the program is running for mayor.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used in questions.

Examples: Who, which, whose, whom, what

Sentence Example 1: What will you give her now?

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point out a particular person or thing. When used before nouns,
however, they are considered adjectives (these books, those houses, that flag).

Example: This, these, that, those.

Sentence Example 1: These are her books.

Sentence Example 2: That is the road she took.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns refer generally, not specifically, to persons, places, or things.

Commonly used indefinite pronouns:

All, another, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few,
many, more, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, one, several, some, somebody, someone,
such.

Sentence Example: Nobody was there to welcome him.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Rewrite each sentence, using the correct possessive pronoun in parentheses.

1.Today (our, ours) school is sponsoring a book fair.

2.Has (your, yours) ever had such an event?

3.(Our, Ours) required a lot of preparation.

4.Actually (my, mine) teacher suggested the idea.

5.The idea of inviting famous authors was also (her, hers).

6.Peggy Parish and Steven Kellogg will talk about (their, theirs) works.

7.Peggy Parish will read from (her, hers) novel Key to the Treasure.

8.Pirate Island Adventure is also (her, hers).

9.After the fair, I will ask for (your, yours) comments.

10.Then I will give you (my, mine).

TWO KINDS OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

A possessive pronoun shows ownership.

Use my, your, his, her, its, our, and their before nouns.

Use mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs to replace nouns in a sentence.

TWO KINDS OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive pronouns used Possessive pronouns that

with nouns stand alone

my My book is green. mine The green book is mine.

your Clean your desk. yours Yours is messy.

his His bike is blue. his The red bike is his.

her This is her house. hers Hers is the gray house.

its Its coat is shaggy. its Its is the shaggy coat.

our Those are our pens. ours Those pens are ours.
 your Take your sweaters. yours Leave yours here.

their Their hats are red. theirs Those hats are theirs.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Choose the possessive pronoun that correctly completes the sentence.

4.Rosa read (her, hers) report about Carlsbad Caverns.

5.Was the report about the pioneer village (your, yours)?

6.(My, Mine) report was about our trip to the zoo.

7.Flo called (my, mine) the best.

7.(Her, Hers) was about a visit to the museum.

8.Tomorrow we will make covers for (our, ours) reports.

10.(My, Mine) is going to be a collage.

11.What will (your, yours) cover look like?

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns.

Some pronouns take the place of nouns in the subject part of a sentence.
Example: Louis rode the skateboard. He rode the skateboard. (Louis is replaced by He)

Write the pronoun found in the box below that can take the place of each noun.

Mrs. May walked down the street to catch the

___________ 1.
bus.

___________ 2. Mary and Paul are going to visit friends.

___________ 3. The turtles were glad to see Aaron.

___________ 4. Lucy drove the tractor on the farm.

___________ 5. The soup was delicious!

___________ 6. Mr. Wheat played the trumpet for the class.

___________ 7. The presentation was very interesting.

___________ 8. Brian rode the horse.

___________ 9. Gianna petted the puppy.

___________ 10. Kali and Susan performed in the talent show.

___________ 11. Timmy and I baked a cake for father.

___________ 12. Mark went skiing with Barry.

___________ 13. Mark and Joe did well on the science project.

___________ 14. Lois cleaned the house.

he it she they we you

Name ________________________ Date ____________________

Pronoun Worksheet

Direction: Circle the correct pronouns given in the parentheses.

1. (I,me) will pick up the groceries.

2. (She,her) sent (I,me) a package in the mail.

3. Are you going to visit (he,him) this evening?

4. Wendy is somewhere around; have you seen (she,her)?

5. The commanding officer gave (him,he) and (me, I) a real bawling-out.

6 . They told (us,we) to meet (them,they) in the parking lot.

7. (They,them) invited (we,us) over for cocktails.

8. Our house is always open to (they,them).

9. Adrian chose (he,him) and (I,me) for teammates.

10. There were dozens of bees buzzing around (we,us).

Pronoun Practice Exercise

Choose an answer for each question. After completing the entire exercise, click on the
"Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

Identify the underlined part of speech

1. Those are Tom's.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

2. They didn't give themselves a chance to think before beginning the competition.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

3. The dog that bit her brother belongs to the man down the road.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

4. Do you know when the movie starts?

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

5. They think hers is the most interesting submission.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

6. The audience sat transfixed as the woman who had just won the award fell down the stairs.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun
7. Someone will need to finish doing the lunch dishes before Don fixes dinner.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

8. Have you been there before?

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

9. The studio plans to give them each a fruit basket.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

10. Ted will choose where they going because either of the options works for Alicia.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

Pronoun Practice Exercise Answers

Identify the underlined part of speech

1. Those are Tom's.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

2. They didn't give themselves a chance to think before beginning the competition.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

3. The dog that bit her brother belongs to the man down the road.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

4. Do you know when the movie starts?

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

5. They think hers is the most interesting submission.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

6. The audience sat transfixed as the woman who had just won the award fell down the stairs.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

7. Someone will need to finish doing the lunch dishes before Don fixes dinner.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

8. Have you been there before?

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

9. The studio plans to give them each a fruit basket.

a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

10. Ted will choose where they going because either of the options works for Alicia.
a. personal pronoun b. relative pronoun c. indefinite pronoun d. interrogative
pronoun e. reflexive pronoun f. demonstrative pronoun

Pronoun Worksheet

Pronouns are words that stand for nouns (names of persons, places, or things).

This worksheet will help you avoid the three most frequent kinds of pronoun mistakes: in
pronoun agreement, in pronoun reference, and in pronoun point of view.

Underline the correct word or words in the parentheses in the sentences below.

1. If anybody here has a cell phone (they / he or she) should turn it off now.

2. Many high schools now require (its / their) students to take a computer course.

3. Each of the actresses who auditioned believes (she / they) should be chosen for the role.

4. Students complain that (they / the maintenance crew) keep(s) the library too hot.

5. While Eric was adding sugar to his coffee, he spilled (it / the sugar) all over the table.

6. Someone offered to show me a copy of next week’s history test, but I said that I didn’t
believe in (this / cheating).

7. If high school juniors and seniors take a special class to prepare them for SAT’s (you will
/ they will) probably have a higher score.

8. I know spring is really here when (I / you) see neighborhood kids playing baseball.

9. If you want to advance in this company, (we / you) must be willing to work overtime.

MAKING THE PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT AGREE:

ANTECEDENT = a noun to which a pronoun refers

 o The car that I want is on sale.
(car = antecedent that = relative pronoun)

o The man on the boat thinks he is safe without a life jacket.

(man = antecedent he= personal pronoun)

o Does anyone have his or her book.

(anyone = antecedent his/her= possessive pronoun)

WHO and WHOM: Refer to persons and members of a group who take on "human qualities"

o Please give the book to the student who has her hand raised.
o The police officers who stopped my car were polite.

WHOSE: Refers to persons, animals and sometimes to things.

o The student whose books were lost is mad.

WHICH: refers to things, animals and persons considered as a group.

o The UO basketball team, which played tonight, is undefeated.

THAT: May refer to inanimate objects, places, things, ideas and animals.

o The theory that the earth is round is accepted as fact.

TWO or more antecedent are joined by a conjunction take a plural pronoun.

o Jody and Jerry coached their (her and his) basketball players.

Singular antecedents joined by OR / NOR take a singular pronoun.

o Neither Tom nor Jerry will present his case to Judge Ito.

With one singular and one plural antecedent joined by OR / NOR the pronoun agrees
with the nearest antecedent.

o Either you or your pals must leave their car keys.

o Either your pals or you must leave your car keys.

Singular indefinite pronouns take a singular pronoun.

o Could someone please give me her book? (to a group of all women))
o Could someone please give me his book? (to a group of all men))
o Could someone please give me his or her book? (to a group of men and
women))
o Anyone with a family history of heart disease should have his or her
cholesterol checked.

Agreement Practice Exercise

Choose an answer for each question. After completing the entire exercise, click on the
"Turn the Page" button at the bottom of this page, to see the answers.

1. Scientists are concerned that a number of species of frogs a) seems b) seem to be mutating.

2. Neither the offensive linemen nor the quarterback a) want b) wants to run the drill again.

3. Will they announce whether that group of students a) boards b) board the plane ahead of
everyone.

4. Kimberly is the only one of those executives a) who b) that believes her product will sell
this year.

5. None of the animals in the shelter a) belong b) belongs to someone.

6. The number of mutated frogs a) is b) are increasing every year.

7. Curtis is sure that the news media a) is b) are not helping the situation.

8. Jennifer is one of those actresses who a) audition b) auditions for every role she can.

9. The school’s alumni a) hope b) hopes to raise enough money to complete the new wing.

10. Finding other contestants a) has b) have been the responsibility of the show's producers.

11. Neither of the executives a) want b) wants to tell the boss that profits are down.

12. None of them a) knows b) know who has the map.

13. There a) has b) have been so many doctors in to see him, that we don’t know who's in
charge.

14. The governor is proud to announce that more than 2,000 pounds of cheese a) has b) have
been collected.

15. Everyone at the park a) is b) are going to the concert, including you and me.

16. Does anyone have a) his b) her c) his or her d) their map of the city?

17. He is the only one of the senators who a) has b) have agreed to testify.

18. One-third of the village a) receives b) receive water from the river just north of here.

19. A group of the city's voters a) choose b) chooses to send in mail-in ballots rather than go
to the polls.

20. Neither his sister nor her friend Sarah a) think b) thinks Benjamin should go to Milan this
summer.

Agreement Practice Exercise Answers

1. Scientists are concerned that a number of species of frogs a) seems b) seem to be mutating.

2. Neither the offensive linemen nor the quarterback a) want b) wants to run the drill again.

3. Will they announce whether that group of students a) boards b) board the plane ahead of
everyone.

4. Kimberly is the only one of those executives a) who b) that believes her product will sell
this year.

5. None of the animals in the shelter a) belong b) belongs to someone.

6. The number of mutated frogs a) is b) are increasing every year.

7. Curtis is sure that the news media a) is b) are not helping the situation.

8. Jennifer is one of those actresses who a) audition b) auditions for every role she can.

9. The school’s alumni a) hope b) hopes to raise enough money to complete the new wing.

10. Finding other contestants a) has b) have been the responsibility of the show's producers.

11. Neither of the executives a) want b) wants to tell the boss that profits are down.

12. None of them a) knows b) know who has the map.

13. There a) has b) have been so many doctors in to see him, that we don’t know who's in
charge.

14. The governor is proud to announce that more than 2,000 pounds of cheese a) has b) have
been collected.

15. Everyone at the park a) is b) are going to the concert, including you and me.

16. Does anyone have a) his b) her c) his or her d) their map of the city?

17. He is the only one of the senators who a) has b) have agreed to testify.

18. One-third of the village a) receives b) receive water from the river just north of here.

19. A group of the city's voters a) choose b) chooses to send in mail-in ballots rather than go
to the polls.

20. Neither his sister nor her friend Sarah a) think b) thinks Benjamin should go to Milan this
summer.
 Linking Words

What are linking words?

 Linking words are words that join clauses into sentences.

 There are three main types of linking words:
 conjunctions
 sentence connectors
 subordinators.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are the most common form of linking word. They are used to join two parts of a
sentence together are generally in the middle of a sentence. There are seven co-ordinating
conjunctions. These are:

 and
 or
 nor
 but
 for
 yet.
 so

Example:

Successful students work hard and they organise their time effectively.

Independent clause Conjunction Independent clause

Sentence connectors

Sentence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give
paragraphs coherence. Sentence connectors perform different functions and are placed at the
beginning of a sentence. They are used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence ideas, theory,
data etc. The following table lists useful connectors.

Logical / sequential order

 Firstly, secondly, thirdly etc

 Next, last, finally
 In addition
 Furthermore Also
 At present / presently
Order of importance

Most/ More importantly

Most significantly

Above all

Primarily

It is essential / essentially

Contrast

However

On the other hand

On the contrary

By (in) comparison

In contrast

Result

As a result

As a consequence

Therefore

Thus

Consequently

Hence

Comparison

Similarly

Likewise

Also

Reason

The cause of

The reason for

Activity - Fill in the gaps

Time management skills are essential for study success.__________, there are
several useful
strategies that can be used to improve your time
management skills.________, have clear goals in
mind.________, plan your time by having a
yearly and weekly planner. Careful planning will enable you to
keep on the top of your work and avoid stress._____, reward
yourself when
the job is done.

Firstly
Finally
Secondly
In fact

Subordinators

Subordinators are linking words that are used to join clauses together. They are used at
the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.

Comparison and contrast

Although

Though

Even though While

Whereas

Cause and effect

Since

So that

Because
Time

After

When

Until

Whenever

Before

Possibility

if

as if

whether

unless

Place and manner

Wherever

Where

How

Activity 2:

Identify 4 linking words I phrases

Do teams in organisations need leaders?

How and why the leader was selected also appears to affect the leader's
effectiveness. Addison (1996), for instance, asserts that if a leader is
elected democratically by the team and from within the team, there is
more likelihood of an effective work relationship between team members.
However, Smith (1996) notes that more than 600/a of 500 workplace
teams studied operate with team leaders chosen by the middle or upper
management. Furthermore, in more than half of these, the team leaders
did not have the confidence of the team members to the extent that
effectiveness and efficiency was compromised.
Referencess:
 http://peepinblog.blogspot.com/2017/02/spoken-english-and-broken-english.html
 https://connectplus.pasco.k12.fl.us/kkeeler/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/Pronouns_detailednotespractice.pdf
 https://www.slideshare.net/coolsimo/linking-words
 END 1183 General English I

Module III

The Cherry Tree by Ruskin Bond:

One day, when Rakesh was six, he walked from the Mussoorie bazaar eating cherries. They were
a little sweet, a little sour; small, bright red cherries, which had come all the way from the
Kashmir valley. Here in the Himalayan foothills where Rakesh lived, there were not many fruit
trees. The soil was stony, and the dry cold winds stunted the growth of most plants. But on the
more sheltered slopes there were forests of oak and deodar.

Rakesh lived with his grandfather on the outskirts of Mussoorie, just where the forest began.
Grandfather was a retired forest ranger. He had a little cottage outside the town. Rakesh was on
his way home from school when he bought the cherries. He paid fifty paisa for the bunch. It took
him about half an hour to walk home, and by the time he reached the cottage there were only
three cherries left.

‘Have a cherry, grandfather,’ he said, as soon as he saw grandfather in the garden.

Grand father took one cherry and Rakesh promptly ate the other two. He kept the last seed in his
mouth for some time, rolling it round and round on his tongue until all the tang had gone. Then
he placed the seed on the palm of his hand and studied it.

‘Are cherry seeds lucky?’ asked Rakesh.

‘Of course.’

‘Nothing is lucky if you put it away. If you want luck, you must put it to some use.’

‘What can I do with a seed?’

‘Plant it.’

So Rakesh found a small spade and began to dig up a flower-bed.

‘Hey, not there,’ said grandfather. ‘I’ve sown mustard in that bed. Plant it in that shady corner,
where it won’t be disturbed.’

Rakesh went to a corner of the garden where the earth was soft and yielding. He did not have to
dig. He pressed the seed into the soil with his thumb and it went right in.

Then he had his lunch, and ran off to play cricket with his friends, and forgot all about the cherry
seed.
When it was winter in the hills, a cold wind blew down from the snows and went whoo-whoo-
whoo in the deodar trees, and the garden was dry and bare. In the evenings grandfather and
Rakesh sat over a charcoal fire, and grandfather told Rakesh stories – stories about people who
turned into animals, and ghosts who lived in trees, and beans that jumped and stones that wept –
and in turn Rakesh would read to him from the newspaper, Grandfather’s eyesight being rather
weak. Rakesh found the newspaper very dull – especially after the stories – but grandfather
wanted all the news…

They knew it was spring when the wild duck flew north again, to Siberia. Early in the morning,
when he got up to chop wood and light a fire, Rakesh saw the V shaped formation streaming
northwards and heard the calls of birds clearly through the thin mountain air.

One morning in the garden he bent to pick up what he thought was a small twig and found to his
surprise that it was well rooted. He stared at it for a moment, then ran to fetch grandfather,
calling, ‘Dada, come and look, the cherry tree has come up!’

‘What cherry tree?’ Asked grandfather, who had forgotten about it.

‘The seed we planted last year – look, it’s come up!’

Rakesh went down on his haunches, while Grandfather bent almost double and peered down at
the tiny tree. It was about four inches high.

‘Yes, it’s a cherry tree,’ said grandfather. ‘You should water it now and then.’

Rakesh ran indoors and came back with a bucket of water.

‘Don’t drown it!’ said grandfather.

Rakesh gave it a sprinkling and circled it with pebbles. ‘What are the pebbles for?’ asked
grandfather.

‘For privacy,’ said Rakesh.

He looked at the tree every morning but it did not seem to be growing very fast. So, he stopped
looking at it – except quickly, out of the corner of his eye. And, after a week or two, when he
allowed himself to look at it properly, he found that it had grown – at least an inch!

That year the monsoon rains came early and Rakesh plodded to and from school in rain coat and
gum boots. Ferns sprang from the trunks of trees, strange looking lilies came up in the long
grass, and even when it wasn’t raining the trees dripped and mist came curling up the valley. The
cherry tree grew quickly in this season.

It was about two feet high when a goat entered the garden and ate all the leaves. Only the main
stem and two thin branches remained.
‘Never mind,’ said grandfather, seeing that Rakesh was upset. ‘It will grow again: cherry trees
are tough.’

Towards the end of the rainy season new leaves appeared on the tree. Then a woman cutting the
grass cut the cherry in two.

When grandfather saw what had happened, he went after the woman and scolded her; but the
damage could not be repaired.

‘May be it will die now,’ said Rakesh.

‘May be,’ said grandfather.

But the cherry tree had no intention of dying.

By the time summer came round again, it had sent several new shoots with tender green leaves.
Rakesh had grown taller too. He was eight now, a sturdy boy with curly black hair and deep
black eyes. ‘Blackberry,’ grandfather called them.

That monsoon Rakesh went home to his village, to help his father and mother with the planting
and ploughing and sowing. He was thinner but stronger when he came back to his grandfather’s
house at the end of rains, to find that cherry tree had grown another foot. It was now up to his
chest.

Even when there was rain, Rakesh would sometimes water the tree. He wanted it to know that he
was there.

One day he found a bright green praying mantis perched on a branch, peering at him with
bulging eyes. Rakesh let it remain there. It was the cherry tree’s first visitor.

The next visitor was a hairy caterpillar, who started making a meal of the leaves. Rakesh
removed it quickly and dropped it on a heap of dry leaves.

‘Come back when you are a butterfly,’ he said.

Winter came early. The cherry tree bent low with the weight of snow. Field mice sought shelter
in the roof of the cottage. The road from the valley was blocked, and for several days there was
no newspaper, and this made grandfather quite grumpy. His stories began to have unhappy
endings.

In February it was Rakesh’s birthday. He was nine – and the tree was four, but almost as tall as
Rakesh.

One morning, when the sun came out, Grandfather came into the garden. ‘Let some warmth get
into my bones,’ he said. He stopped in front of the cherry tree, stared at it for a few moments,
and then called out, ‘Rakesh! Come and look! Come quickly before it falls!’
Rakesh and grandfather gazed at the tree as though it had performed a miracle. There was a pale
pink blossom at the end of a branch.

The following year there were more blossoms. And suddenly the tree was taller than Rakesh,
even though it was less than half his age. And then it was taller than grandfather, who was older
than some of the oak trees.

But Rakesh had grown too. He could run and jump and climb trees as well as most boys, and he
read a lot of books, although he still liked listening grandfather’s tales.

In the cherry tree, bees came to feed on the nectar in the blossoms, and tiny birds pecked at the
blossoms and broke them off. But the tree kept blossoming right through the spring, and there
were always more blossoms than birds.

That summer there were small cherries on the tree. Rakesh tasted one and spat it out.

‘It’s too sour,’ he said.

‘They’ll be better next year,’ said grandfather.

But the birds liked them – especially the bigger birds, such as the bulbuls and scarlet minivets –
and they flitted in and out of the foliage, feasting on the cherries.

On a warm sunny afternoon, when even the bees looked sleepy, Rakesh was looking for
grandfather without finding him in any of his favorite places around the house. Then he looked
out of the bed room window and saw grandfather reclining on a cane chair under the cherry tree.

‘There is just the right amount of shade here,’ said grandfather. ‘And I like looking at the leaves.’

‘They’re pretty leaves,’ said Rakesh. ‘And they are always ready to dance, if there’s breeze.’

After grandfather had come indoors, Rakesh went into the garden and lay down on the grass
beneath the tree. He gazed up through the leaves at the great blue sky; and turning on his side, he
could see the mountain striding away into the clouds. He was still lying beneath the tree when
the evening shadows crept across the garden. Grandfather came back and sat down beside the
Rakesh, and they waited in silence until it was dark.

‘There are so many trees in the forest,’ said Rakesh. ‘What’s so special about this tree? Why do
we like it so much?’

‘We planted it ourselves,’ said grandfather. ‘That’s why it’s special.’

‘Just one small seed,’ said Rakesh, and he touched the smooth bark of the tree that had grown.
He ran his hand along the trunk of the tree and put his finger to the tip of a leaf. ‘I wonder,’ he
whispered. ‘Is this what it feels to be God?’
About Ruskin Bond:

Born in Kasauli in 1934, Ruskin Bond is an eminent Indian author of British descent. He is one
of the most loved authors of our country. He is the recipient of many prestigious awards for his
literary contribution. In 1992 he got the Sahitya Akedemi Award. He was awarded the Padma
Shri in 1999 and Padma Bhushan in 2014. He now lives with his family in Landour near
Mussoorie. His first novel, The Room on the Roof, received the prestigious John Llewellyn Rhys
award in 1957. He has written many novellas, stories, essays and poems. Most of his works are
influenced by life in the hill stations at the foothills of the Himalayas, where he spent his
childhood.

The Cherry Tree by Ruskin Bond: Summary

In The Cherry Tree by Ruskin Bond we have the theme of struggle, resilience, dedication,
conflict, growth, responsibility and pride. Taken from his Collected Short Stories collection the
story is narrated in the third person by an unnamed narrator and after reading the story the reader
realises that Bond may be exploring the theme of struggle. The seed that Rakesh plants incur
many difficulties before it grows to become a cherry tree. Just as an individual may struggle in
life so too does the cherry tree. However, what is interesting is the resilience that the cherry tree
shows. It is as though the cherry tree refuses to be defeated by life. If anything, the cherry tree
becomes more resilient as it grows. The fact that Rakesh also nurtures the cherry tree might be
important as Bond may be suggesting that just as the cherry tree may need a little help to grow.
So too do people. Those who are nurtured and cared for in life have a better chance of success
(like the cherry tree) than those who may be left abandoned or forgotten about. Something that
Rakesh does not do. He constantly keeps an eye on the cherry tree to ensure that everything is
okay. Which may highlight the dedication that Rakesh has?

Just as the cherry tree mirrors the struggles that an individual might incur in life it is also
possible that Bond is suggesting that in life comes conflict too. Something which is very much
the case for the cherry tree. It is defenseless at first against any possible predators due to its size
but as it grows it becomes stronger. Which may be symbolically important as Bond could be
suggesting that an individual as they grow (not only physically) will also become stronger. If
anything with growth comes the ability to overcome adversity. What also makes the cherry tree
so important to Rakesh is the fact that he has been responsible for its growth. Just as a parent
might help a child. So too has Rakesh helped the cherry tree. He has never forgotten his
responsibility and there is a sense that Rakesh has been rewarded for his patience. The cherry
tree is able to look after itself just as child might when he or she matures into adulthood. No
longer does Rakesh have to worry about the cherry tree. Just as a parent may no longer have to
worry about a child when he or she becomes an adult.

Rakesh’s grandfather may also be an important character as he in many ways acts as a guide for
Rakesh. It is through his help that Rakesh is able to ensure that the cherry tree grows to become
stronger. This may be significant as there are many similarities between Rakesh and the cherry
tree. As Rakesh grows taller and stronger so too does the cherry tree. The reader aware that both
have been helped and assisted by Rakesh’s grandfather. It is as though Bond is suggesting that
with age comes wisdom and an ability to be kind to others. The reader already knows that
without Rakesh’s grandfather’s help. Rakesh would not be in school. Which may bead some
critics to suggest that Bond is highlighting the importance of family when it comes to an
individual’s growth. Just as Rakesh might have a responsibility towards the cherry tree. So too
does Rakesh’s grandfather have a responsibility towards Rakesh. The result being that Rakesh
through the help of his grandfather is living a healthy and balanced life. He is being led by his
grandfather along the right path in life. Just as the cherry tree is being nurtured by Rakesh.
Rakesh in turn is being nurtured by his grandfather.

The end of the story is also interesting as there is a sense that Rakesh knows what it feels like to
create something and more importantly to see it reach its potential. Through hard work and
dedication Rakesh has successfully seen the cherry tree grow from strength to strength. To the
point where it no longer needs the protection of Rakesh or his grandfather. Which may be
symbolically important as Rakesh has played the role of a parent when it came to the cherry
tree’s development. He was constantly by the cherry tree’s side just as a parent might be with a
child. He was urging the cherry tree on so that it could reach its potential again just as a parent
might urge on one of their children. At every stage of the story Rakesh has behaved in a manner
that is befitting of a parent. It’s just that on this occasion Rakesh’s responsibility was not to a
child but to a young cherry tree that at times needed his help in order to survive in a world where
there is not only struggle but conflict too. If anything, Rakesh has every right to feel proud of
himself and of the cherry tree. He has cared for and nurtured the cherry tree since it was a seed.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

OPEN ENDED STORY:

Traditional short stories have a catchy start, a fluid free-flowing middle and a satisfying end.
However, many modern writers find that such stories have the drawback of not being able to
communicate the complexities they want to unravel.

They evolved a new style of storytelling, the ‘open-ended narrative’ in which the conclusions are
not clearly stated. The reader is left to resolve the situation with her/his imagination. The writer
simply presents before the reader a sequence of events. Nothing more.

Open ended stories are primarily of two types: situational and character-based.
Situational-based open ended short story

Probably, one of the best examples of a situational-based open ended story is Anton Chekov, the
well-known Russian writer’s “The Lady with the Dog”. The two central characters in this story,
strangers at the beginning, fall in love with each other when on separate vacations.

With the vacation over, the two, there is a big difference in their age and social status, return to
their respective homes. Incidentally, both are married and the man have children of the same age
as the woman with whom he has fallen in love.

The man can’t forget her and goes in search for her. When he finds her, he discovers that she too
cannot forget him. They resume their affair, though not letting others, especially their respective
families know about it.

Chekov’s ending is open-ended. When it seems that the two are very close to a decision, in their
heart they know that the end was very far away.

Hence, in such a story, there are no definite conclusions and it is left to the reader to draw one’s
own conclusion. The situation remains unresolved because of events or circumstances.

Read the short story Wrong Picture to illustrate the example of a situational-based open-ended
story.

Character-based open-ended short story

In an open-ended story or narrative, the reader is left to draw her/his conclusions from what is
presented to her/him. Basically, in character-based open-ended story lacks a clear-cut ending that
follows from the nature(s) of the protagonists.

Take for instance a story, “My Enemy” by the well-known Hindi short story writer, Krishna
Baldev Ved.

The narrator in this story runs into an old friend. They had been out of touch for long. The two
are placed in different situations. The narrator is a married man and respectable. The friend on
the other hand is derelict.

Despite the distance that has grown between the two, the man moves into to the narrator’s house.
After this a series of incidents follow. Then the narrator’s wife, Mala, moves out of the house
with her children. She threatens not to return till the friend is thrown out.

Five days passed after the narrator’s family had left. He now sits and contemplates the options
available. He tells himself that if his wife were there, she would definitely come up with some
alternative. However, she was not there and hence did not know what to do. It is on this note of
self-realization that the story ends.
In this example of character-based open-ended narrative, the reader is definitely perplexed as to
how the turmoil in the narrator’s mind was resolved. However, the reader is left free to make
guesses from what has been revealed of the narrator’s personality.

QUESTIONS: WH-QUESTIONS:

There are two main types of questions: Yes/No questions and WH- question. WH-questions are
questions starting with Wh-words including: what, when, where, who, whom, which, whose,
why and how.

Question words are used to ask about specific qualities, times, places, people and so on. Below is
a list of question words and example sentences:

Question
Usages Examples
Words

- What are you doing?

What Used to ask about things
- What do you think about the movie?

- When will the meeting start?

When Used to ask about time
- When are you leaving?

- Where’s my bag?
Where Used to ask about places
- Where do you live?

- Who do you love the most in your family?

Who Used to ask about people
- Who told you that story?

- Whom did you see in the morning? I saw

Used to ask about people
Whom Mr. Mark, my English teacher.
(object of verb) - Whom was Jim talking to? He was talking to
Jack, his new roommate.

- Which one do you choose? The left or right?

Which Used to ask about choices - Of all the drinks in the menu, which one
would you like?

- Whose pencil is this? Is it yours?

Whose Used to ask about possession
- Whose books are these?

Used to ask about reasons/ - Why did it happen? I didn’t understand.

Why
causes - Why is he crying?

- How can you explain this problem? Please

Used to ask about manner/
How tell us.
process
- How can you get here?
I. How to form WH-questions?

1. with an auxiliary

Wh-word + auxiliary + subject + main verb …?

Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs (not main verbs).

Common auxiliary verbs include be, do, have. Others are will, shall, would, can, could, must,
should, may, might, etc.

 What do you do for a living?

 Why should we read books?
 When is she coming?

2. without any auxiliary

(When Wh-words replace subjects already)

Wh-word + main verb …?

 What happened to Peter?

A bad accident happened to him today.

 Who won the game?

Tio won the game.

 Who gave you this present?

My cousin gave me this present.

II. Responding to WH-questions

1. What

 What is it?

It’s a table.

 What color is your dress?

It’s purple.

 What is your mom doing?

She’s cooking in the kitchen.

  What do you think about the party?

Well. It’s fun. I like the music best.

 What will happen if our team loses this time?

We’ll be out of the game.

2. When

 When will the train arrive?

The train will arrive in 30 minutes.

 When does she get up?

She gets up at 6 am.

 When did the party end?

It ended before 8 pm.

 When are you going to visit James?

I’m going to see him tomorrow.

3. Where

 Where do you live?

I live in Washington D.C.

 Where are you going?

I’m going to the zoo.

 Where’s the coffee bar?

It’s between the supermarket and the cinema.

 Where did you leave my jacket?

I left it in my bedroom.

 Where have you been?

I’ve been in the library reading books.

4. Who

 Who’s this?

She’s my new roommate.

 Who wants to be a scientist in the future?

My sister does. I don’t.

 Who would you like to travel with?

I would like to travel with my best friend, Kim.

 Who told you that secret?

Jenny did. She told me everything.

 Who do you like the most in this class?

I like Henry. He’s so friendly.

5. Whom

 Whom should we talk to?

We should talk to the principal. She’s responsible for student issues.

 Whom did you see yesterday?

I saw Kevin and his girlfriend.

 Whom would you like to interview?

I would like to interview Mr. Patrick, the director.

 Whom do we have to contact?

We have to contact the representative of that company.

 Whom did you meet in front of the building last week?

That was Annie, my secretary.

 Whom do you know in this class?

I only know Danny.

 Whom are you going to invite?

I’m going to invite all of my classmates

 With whom do you agree?

I agree with Henry’s team.

6. Which

 Which shirt do you like?

I like the one with the big yellow star on it.

 Which color do you choose?

I choose red.

 Which part do you like the most in this story?

I love the 2nd part when the prince came and proposed to the princess.

 Which is the longest river in the world?

That’s the Nile.

 Which one is yours?

Mine is the biggest one.

7. Whose

 Whose jacket is this?

It’s my mom’s.

 Whose birthday is today?

It’s Jenny’s.

 Whose pencil is on the floor?

That’s mine.

 Whose team is better?

Will’s team is much better.

8. Why

 Why don’t we visit him now?

It’s a good idea.

 Why did you leave so early?

Because I didn’t enjoy the party.

 Why do you think that he loves you?

Because he’s given me lots of chocolate on valentine’s day.

 Why do people celebrate Thanksgiving?

Because it’s a special day.

 Why can’t I go to the cinema now?

Because you haven’t done your homework.

 Why are you so late?

Sorry, teacher. I missed the bus.

9. How

 How’s the weather?

It’s sunny and hot.

 How do you feel?

I feel much better now.

 How did you know him?

We were old friends.

 How’s your new job?

It’s interesting. I enjoy it.

 How often do you go to the movie theater?

I sometimes go there. I’m quite busy.

 How far is it from your house to school?

Not too far. I walk to school every day.

 How much did it cost?

It cost $4.

 How many people are there in your class?

There are 30 of them.

 How come you lost the game?

I couldn’t answer the first question well enough.

Wh Questions Task:
1.…….. did you see earlier today?

I saw James, the new football player.

Who
Which
How
2……….. did you do last weekend?

I watched movies and played hockey.

Who
What
Whom
3………… will you leave?

After the meeting.

Who
Whom
When
4…………… is David?

He’s still fine. Thanks for asking.

Who
Whom
How

5………….. ball is this?

It’s Nick’s.
Who
Whose
Whom
6……………. gave you this present?

That was my boyfriend, Harry.

Who
Whom
Whose
7……………. did he not come?

He was busy all day.

How
Why
When
8……….. suitcase is mine?

The blue one. The other is Jane’s.

Who
Whose
Which
9……….. long did it take to make such a big cake?

It took 2 hours.
What
When
How
10………… was the weather like on Monday?

It was raining a lot.

How
When
What

YES / NO QUESTIONS (CLOSED QUESTIONS)

In English, there are two basic types of questions: Yes / No questions and Wh– questions. Yes /
No questions are also called closed questions because there are only two possible responses: Yes
or No. When forming a Yes / No question, it must include one of these verbs: BE, DO, HAVE,
or a modal verb. It is impossible to ask a Yes / No question without one of these verbs.
Correct Incorrect

Are elections next year? Elections next year?

Does he want to stay? He wants to stay?

Have the boys eaten? The boys eaten?

Can the dog swim? The dog swim?

Use the verb BE to ask Yes / No questions about the identity or description of a person, place, or
thing.

Question Response

 Am I your friend? Yes. / Yes, you are. / Yes, you are my friend.
 Is this a good restaurant? No. / No, it is not. / No, it is not a good restaurant.
 Are these islands Greek? Yes. / Yes, they are. / Yes, these islands are Greek.
 Was his idea interesting? No. / No, it wasn’t. / No, his idea was not interesting.
 Were they happy? Yes. / Yes, they were. / Yes, they were happy.

Task:

Q: ? A: Yes, she was going to visit.

Q: ? A: Yes, your name is being called.

Q: ? A: No, they haven’t finished.

Q: ? A: No, he has not been working here.

Q: ? A: No, he could not have said that.

Q: ? A: No, he would not have been angry.

Q: ? A: Yes, a visa must be obtained first.

Q: ? A: Yes, we shall attend.

PREFIXES:

A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word. For example, the word “unhappy”
consists of the prefix “un-” [which means “not”] combined with the root (or stem) word
“happy”; the word “unhappy” means “not happy.”

A short list of prefixes:

Prefix Examples
de- decode, decrease
dis- disagree, disappear
ex- exhale, explosion
il- illegal, illogical
im- impossible, improper
in- inaction, invisible
mis- mislead, misplace
non- nonfiction, nonsense
pre- prefix, prehistory
pro- proactive, profess, program
re- react, reappear
un- undo, unequal, unusual

Task:

Complete the sentences by writing the correct prefix in the blank space.

(dis- -in mis- re- un- under-)

1. I just can't believe it! The story is _____believable!

2. No, that answer is _____correct. It is wrong.

3. Let's look at this information again. We should _____view it before the test.

4. I saw Allison just a moment ago, but now I can't find her! It seems that she _____appeared!
5. Oh, I'm sorry, I didn't hear you correctly. I _____understood you.

6. The subway does not go over the land like a normal train. It moves _____ground.

SUFFIXES:

A suffix is a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example, the word flavorless
consists of the root word “flavor” combined with the suffix “-less” [which

Suffix Examples
-able comfortable, portable
-al annual comical
-er bigger, stronger
-est strongest, tiniest
-ful beautiful, grateful
-ible reversible, terrible
-ily eerily, happily, lazily

The table below has some common adjective suffixes, their meaning, and an example word.

Suffix Meaning Example word

-able, -ible able to be terrible

-ful full of beautiful

-less not having, without toothless

And here are some noun suffixes, their meaning, and an example word.

Suffix Meaning Example word

-dom place or state of being freedom

-er a person who does worker

-ment action or process payment

-ness state of being happiness

CHOOSE THE MOST SUITABLE SUFFIX:

Q 1. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Wind’?

a) Ful

b) Able

c) Y

Q 2. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Spoon’?

a) Y

b) Ful

c) Let

Q 3. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Crude’?

a) Ness

b) Ful

c) Y

Q 4. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Enjoy’?

a) Ful

b) Ness

c) Able

Q 5. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Suit’?

a) Ary

b) Able

c) Ness

Q 6. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Book’?

a) Let

b) Ledge

c) Able
Q 7. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Polite’?

a) Able

b) Ness

c) Ly

Q 8. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Agree’?

a) Ful

b) Ness

c) Able

Q 9. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Excite’?

a) Ment

b) Ful

c) Ness

Q 10. Which of the following is the suffix of ‘Imagine’?

a) Ly

b) Ary

c) Able
 END1183 General English I

Module IV Course Material

The Last Leaf – O Henry

Short Story:

In a small part of the city west of Washington Square, the streets have gone wild. They turn in different
directions. They are broken into small pieces called “places.” One street goes across itself one or two times. A
painter once discovered something possible and valuable about this street. Suppose a painter had some painting
materials for which he had not paid. Suppose he had no money. Suppose a man came to get the money. The man might
walk down that street and suddenly meet himself coming back, with- out having received a cent!

This part of the city is called Greenwich Village. And to old Greenwich Village the painters soon
came. Here they found rooms they like, with good light and at a low cost.

Sue and Johnsy lived at the top of a building with three floors. One of these young women came from Maine, the other
from California. They had met at a restaurant on Eighth Street. There they discovered that they liked the same kind of
art,the same kindoffood,andthe same kind of clothes. So they decided to live and work together.
That was in the spring. Toward winter a cold stranger entered Greenwich Village. No one could see him. He walked
around touching one person here and another there with his icy fingers. He was a bad sickness. Doctors called him
Pneumonia. On the east side of the city he hurried, touching many people; but in the narrow streets of Greenwich Village
he did not move so quickly.
Mr. Pneumonia was not a nice old gentleman. A nice old gentleman would not hurt a weak little woman from
California. But Mr. Pneumonia touched Johnsy with his cold fingers. She lay on her bed almost without
moving, and she looked through the window at the wall of the house next to hers. One morning the busy
doctor spoke to Sue alone in the hall, where Johnsy could not hear. “She has a very small chance,” he said.
“She has a chance, if she wants to live. If people don’t want to live, I can’t do much for them. Your little lady has
decided that she is not going to get well. Is there something that is troubling her?” “She always wanted to go to
Italyandpainta picture of the Bay of Naples,” said Sue.
“Paint! Not paint. Is there anything worth being troubled about?
A man?”
“A man?” said Sue. “Is a man worth—No, doctor. There is not a man.”
“It is weakness,” said the doctor. “I will do all I know how to do. But when a sick person begins to feel that he’s going
 to die, half my work is useless. Talk to her about new winter clothes. If she were interested in the future, her chances
would be better.”
After the doctor had gone, Sue went into the workroom to cry.

Then she walked into Johnsy’s room. She carried some of her painting materials, and she wassinging.
Johnsy lay there, very thin and very quiet. Her face was turned toward the window. Sue stopped singing,
thinking that Johnsy was asleep.
Sue began to work. As she worked she heard a low sound, again and again. She went quickly to the bedside.
Johnsy’s eyes were open wide. She was looking out the window and counting—counting back.
“Twelve,” she said; and a little later, “Eleven”; and then, “Ten,” and, “Nine”; and then, “Eight,” and, “Seven,”
almost together.
Sue looked out the window. What was there to count? There was only the side wall of the next house, a short
distance away. The wall had no window. An old, old tree grew against the wall. The cold breath of winter had
alreadytouchedit.Almostallitsleaveshadfallenfrom its dark branches.
“What is it, dear?” askedSue.
“Six,” said Johnsy, in a voice still lower. “They’re falling faster now. Three days ago there were almost a hundred. It
hurt my head to count them. But now it’s easy. There goes another one. There are only five now.”
“Five what, dear? Tell yourSue.”
“Leaves. On the tree. When the last one falls, I must go, too. I’ve known that for three days. Didn’t the doctor tell
you?”
“Oh, I never heard of such a thing,” said Sue. “It doesn’t have any sense in it. What does an old tree have to do with
you? Or with your getting well? And you used to love that tree so much. Don’t be a little fool. The doctor told me
your chances for getting well. He told me this morning. He said you had very good chances! Try to eat a little now.
And then I’ll go back to work. And then I can sell my picture, and then I can buy something more for you to eat
tomake youstrong.”
“You don’t have to buy anything for me,” said Johnsy. She still looked out the window. “There goes
another. No, I don’t want any- thing to eat. Now there are four. I want to see the last one fall before night. Then
I’ll go,too.”
“Johnsy, dear,” said Sue, “will you promise me to close your eyes and keep them closed? Will you promise not to look
out the window until I finish working? I must have this picture ready tomorrow. I need the light; I can’t cover the
window.”
“Couldn’t you work in the other room?” asked Johnsy coldly. “I’d rather be here by you,” said Sue. “And I don’t
want you to look at those leaves.”
“Tell me as soon as you have finished,” said Johnsy. She closed her eyes and lay white and still. “Because I want to see
the last leaf fall. I have done enough waiting. I have done enough thinking. I want to go sailing down, down, like one
of those leaves.”
“Try to sleep,” said Sue. “I must call Behrman to come up here. I want to paint a man in this picture, and I’ll make him
look like Behrman. I won’t be gone a minute. Don’t try to move till I come back.”
Old Behrman was a painter who lived on the first floor of their house. He was past sixty. He had had no success as a
painter. For forty years he had painted, without ever painting a good picture. He had always talked of painting a
great picture, a masterpiece, but he had never yet started it.
He got a little money by letting others paint pictures of him. He drank too much. He still talked of his great
masterpiece. And he bievled that it was his special duty to do everything possible to help Sue and Johnsy.
Sue found him in his dark room, and she knew that he had been drinking. She could smell it. She told him about
Johnsy and the leaves on the vine. She said that she was afraid that Johnsy would indeed sail down, down like the leaf.
Her hold on the world was growing weaker.
Old Behrman shouted his anger over such an idea.
“What!” he cried. “Are there such fools? Do people die because leaves drop off a tree? I have not heard of such a
thing. No, I will not come up and sit while you make a picture of me. Why do you allow her to think such a thing?
That poor little Johnsy!”
“She is very sick and weak,” said Sue. “The sickness has put these

strange ideas into her mind. Mr. Behrman, if you won’t come, you won’t. But I don’t think
you’re very nice.”
“This is like a woman!” shouted Behrman. “Who said I will not come? Go. I come with you. For
half an hour I have been trying to say that I will come. God! This is not any place for someone so
good as Johnsy to lie sick. Some day I shall paint my masterpiece, and we shall all go away from
here. God! Yes.”
Johnsy was sleeping when they went up. Sue covered the window, and took Behrman into the other
room. There they looked out the window fearfully at the tree. Then they looked at each other for a
moment without speaking. A cold rain was falling, with a little snow in it too.
Behrman sat down, and Sue began to paint. She worked through most of the
night.
In the morning, after an hour’s sleep, she went to Johnsy’s bed- side. Johnsy
with wide-open eyes was looking toward the window. “I want to see,” she
told Sue.
Sue took the cover from the window.
But after the beating rain and the wild wind that had not stopped through the whole night, there still
was one leaf to be seen against the wall. It was the last on the tree. It was still dark green near the
branch. But at the edges it was turning yellow with age. There it was hanging from a branch
nearly twenty feet above the ground.
“It is the last one,” said Johnsy. “I thought it would surely fall during the night. I heard the wind. It
will fall today, and I shall die at the same time.”
“Dear, dear Johnsy!” said Sue. “Think of me, if you won’t think of yourself. What would I do?”
But Johnsy did not answer. The most lonely thing in the world is a soul when it is preparing to go
on its far journey. The ties that held her to friendship and to earth were breaking, one by one.
The day slowly passed. As it grew dark, they could still see the leaf hanging from its branch
against the wall. And then, as the night came, the north wind began again to blow. The rain still
beat against the windows.

When it was light enough the next morning, Johnsy again commanded that she be allowed to see.
The leaf was stillthere.
Johnsy lay for a long time looking at it. And then she called to Sue, who was cooking something for her to eat.
“I’vebeena badgirl, Sue,”saidJohnsy.“Somethinghasmadethat last leaf stay there to show me how bad I was. It is wrong
to want to die. I’ll try to eat now. But first bring me a looking-glass, so that I can see myself. And then I’ll sit up
and watch you cook.”
An hour later she said,“Sue,someday I hope to paint the Bay of Naples.”
The doctor came in the afternoon. Sue followed him into the hall outside Johnsy’s room to talk to him.
“The chances are good,” said the doctor. He took Sue’s thin, shaking hand in his. “Give her good care, and she’ll get well.
And now I must see another sick person in this house. His name is Behrman. A painter, I believe. Pneumonia, too. Mike
is an old, weak man, and he is very ill. There is no hope for him. But we take him to the hospital today. We’ll
make it as easy for him as we can.”
The next day the doctor said to Sue: “She’s safe. You have done it. Food and care now—that’sall.”
And that afternoon Sue came to the bed where Johnsy lay.She put one arm around her.
“I have something to tell you,” she said. “Mr. Behrman died of pneumonia today in the hospital. He was ill
only two days.Someone found him on the morning of the first day, in his room. He was helpless with pain.”
“His shoes and his clothes were wet and as cold as ice. Everyone wondered where he had been. The night had been so
cold and wild.
“And then they found some things. There was a light that he had taken outside. And there were his materials for
painting. There was paint, green paint and yellow paint. And—
“Look out the window, dear, at the last leaf on the wall. Didn’t you wonder why it never moved when the wind was
blowing?
Oh, my dear, it is Behrman’s great masterpiece—he painted it there the night that the last leaf fell.”

Summary:

“The Last Leaf” takes place in Greenwich Village, a bohemian neighborhood in New York City,
sometime in the early 20th century. The narrator remarks that the labyrinthine, winding streets of
the neighborhood make it an ideal home for artists, since debt collectors find the area difficult to
navigate.

The story centers on Sue and Johnsy, two young women artists who met in a restaurant,
discovered their shared tastes in art, and decided to live and work together. They share an
inexpensive studio at the top of a run-down apartment building. When winter falls, a stranger
named “Mr. Pneumonia” visits the neighborhood, and people begin to fall ill. Johnsy, too,
becomes grievously ill with a case of pneumonia.

A doctor visits and tells Sue that Johnsy has a one in ten chance of living, and that her only
chance is to “want to live,” since depression can be as fatal as pneumonia. Without wanting to
live, the doctor’s medicine will have no effect and she won’t regain her health. The doctor
wonders if Johnsy is depressed about something in particular. Sue mentions her unfulfilled
ambition to paint the Bay of Naples, but the doctor dismisses this and asks if Johnsy is depressed
over a man. Sue tells him firmly that his suspicion is wrong, and there is no man in Johnsy’s life.

Sue sits by Johnsy’s bedside working on an illustration for a magazine while Johnsy counts the
leaves falling from the vine outside her window. When the last leaf falls to the ground, Johnsy
asserts, she will die. Sue tells Johnsy that she’s being silly and that the doctor has given her a
good chance of recovery (which is a lie). She promises Johnsy that she will buy more food and
wine after she sells the illustration, but Johnsy is unresponsive to Sue’s attempts to cheer her up,
and she asks Sue to draw in the other room. Johnsy says that she wants to “turn loose my hold on
everything, and go sailing down, down, just like one of those poor, tired leaves.”

Sue goes to visit their downstairs neighbor, an old, alcoholic, and unsuccessful artist named
Behrman who earns a small income posing as a model for artists in Greenwich Village.
Behrman, who has tried and failed his whole life to paint a masterpiece, is fiercely protective of
Sue and Johnsy. When Sue tells Behrman about Johnsy’s fixation on the last leaf, he is
contemptuous of what he calls her “foolishness,” but he agrees to come up to their studio to pose
for Sue’s illustration. While Johnsy sleeps, Sue and Behrman look solemnly at the ivy vine, and
then Sue begins her work.

There is a violent storm during the night. But in the morning, when Sue pulls up the shade
covering their window, the last leaf is still clinging tenaciously to the vine. Johnsy was sure that
it would have fallen during the night, but she says that it will fall today instead, and when it does
she will go, too. Sue begs her to reconsider, but Johnsy is silent. The narrator notes how lonely it
is to face death, and says that this depression possessed Johnsy increasingly as “one by one the
ties that bound her to friendship and to earth were loosed.”

After another night of wind and rain fails to shake the last leaf from the vine, Johnsy sits up and
asks for soup and a mirror, remarking that “something has made that last leaf stay there to show
me how wicked I was…it is a sin to want to die.” A little later, Johnsy mentions her ambition to
paint the Bay of Naples. The doctor visits and gives Johnsy a good prognosis (“even chances”),
predicting that she will recover.

The doctor tells the women that he has to visit another patient—Behrman has caught pneumonia
and needs to be taken to the hospital. The next day, Sue tells Johnsy that Behrman has died. The
janitor found him sick in his room dressed in cold, wet clothes as though he’d been out in the
storm. In his room, Behrman had a ladder and painting materials, which reveals that he had
stayed out all night, painting the image of a leaf onto the wall so that Johnsy would think the last
leaf had survived the storm. Finally, Sue remarks, Behrman has painted his masterpiece.

ENQUIRY LETTER:

Enquiry Letter: It is a letter written to enquiry the information related to something. It can be
written if a person wants to buy an item or wants to go on a trip, etc. The objective of the
Enquiry Letter is to make a request to the recipient. In other words, it is written to get the
response from the recipient with the action that satisfies the enquiry. The action benefits either
the sender or the recipient and sometimes both the parties.
The scope of the letter must include enough information to help the recipient to decide the best
response. The sender must mention what is inquiring and which type of favor he/she wants from
the recipient in response to the request. Read the complete article below to know more about the
letter of Enquiry Format.
Enquiry Letter Writing Tips :

 Inquiry Letter should be written like a formal letter. It must include the sender’s
contact details, address or email address at the beginning of the letter.
 Letter of Inquiry must contain all the aspects of the enquiring item.
 It should contain the date and address of the receiver.
 Add the subject of the letter precisely to give some idea of what will be discussed in
the letter.
 Make sure to add a salutation at the start and your signature, name, and designation at
the end of the letter.
 It should be written concisely and clearly.
 Mention the reason and enquiry details.
 Enquiry Letter Format

Rio

No.10 K.A. Street

Chennai: 05.

9840021052

12th Feb 2021

The HR

TCS Private Ltd.

Chennai: 50.

Dear Sir,

Sub: Enquiry about the Job vacancy-Reg.,

I am Rio MCA in Cloud Technology and having 4 years of experience in software industry.

I am interested to work in your organization and I feel confident that my skills and experience
will be an asset for your organization. So I am enquiring to you for a job vacancy in Cloud
Technology field in your organization. Presently I am working for Wipro as a senior officer.

Looking forward your response and consideration to get a chance to contribute to your office.

Thanking You,

Yours sincerely,

Rio.
 Sample Enquiry Letter for Purchasing Laptop

Susan

South Korea

9798930233

15th Jan 2021.

Whole sale laptop seller

London Street

South Korea.

Dear Sir,

Sub: Enquiring about Laptops – Reg.,

I am Susan writing this letter to you to enquire about the DELL laptop. I am planning to
purchase 20 DELL laptops for business purposes. I am running a media and advertising firm. I
require laptops with good graphic features and my budget for 20 laptops is 8 Lakhs. We would
like to buy laptops which are portable, light weight, 8GB RAM and that suits our budget.

I would like to know the details of all the available laptops with the above mentioned features.
So, please explain me to more about the available laptops and its features. Please contact me to
the above-given mobile number and can also email me at susan@gmail.com.

Thanking You,

Yours Faithfully,

Susan.
 TENSES

Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:

(1) Present Tense

(2) Past Tense
(3) Future Tense
They are further divided into:

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work
done on daily basis.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object

Example – She writes a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – She does not write a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she write a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the

time of speaking.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object
Example – she is writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – She is not writing a letter.

 INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a

letter?

(3) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has
just finished.
ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object
Example- She has written a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

Example – She has not written a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

Example- Has she written a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense shows the action which started
in the past and is still continuing.
 ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – She has been writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

Past Tense

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy
gathering moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Simple Past

Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of time.
Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.

Used for past habits.

Eg. I played football when I was a

child. Rule: Subject + V2

Eg She wrote a letter

1. Assertive Sentences
 – Subject + V2 +
Object + (.) She
wrote a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)
She didn’t.write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)
Did she write a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)
Did she not write a letter?

Past Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.

e.g. I was

driving a car.

Rule:

was/were +

ing

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)
She was writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)
She was not writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she writing a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)
Was she not writing a letter?
Past Perfect Tense

Used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the
action that took place earlier.

e.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)
She had written a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + had + not + Object + (.)
She had not written a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)
Had she not written a letter?

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued
up to some time in past.

e.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.

1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)
She had been writing a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)
She had not been writing a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?

 4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)
Had she not been writing a letter?

FUTURE TENSE

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of
speaking or writing is called as future tense.

For e.g- She will write a letter.

Simple Future

This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after
saying or in future

Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)

In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’
is used with all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or
emphasize something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’
and 'shall' is used with others.
In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and
normally ‘Will’ is used with all.

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will write a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)

She will not write a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)

Will she write a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
 Will she not write a letter?

Future Continuous Tense

It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.

e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to
be continued till sometime in future.

We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or
around a time in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will be writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will not be writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative
Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (?)

Will she not be writing a letter?

Future Perfect Tense

It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be

completed by a certain time in future.

We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time in
the future.
e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday

morning. Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd

form)

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will have written a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will not have written a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she have written a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she not have written a letter?

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will
continue for some time in future.

If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense. Without
continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense. Continued
time reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and Future
Perfect Continuous Tense.

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be
in progress before another time or event in the future.

e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.

It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.

e.g. They will be staying for a week’s

The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in
 progress before another time or event in the future.

Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing

Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object + (.)

She will have been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object+ (.)

She will not have been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she have been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +(?)

Will she not have been writing a letter?

Task:
I) Simple present tense, present continuous tense, present perfect tense &present
perfect continuous tense.
1) I ----------- (take) exercise daily.
2) She -------- (read) a book in the library.
3) He ----------(play) Football now.
4) I ----------(study) in a High school.
5) He ----------(make) this colorful chart.
6) I ----------(complete) my assignment just now.
7) I -----------(complete) my assignment for the last three days.
8) She ----------(work) in this department since 2005.

II) Simple past tense, past continuous tense, past perfect tense &past perfect
continuous tense.
1) He --------(finished) his homework yesterday.
2) I -----------(go) to Ooty last year.
3) He ---------(complete) his task just before.
4) I -------------(play) Football by this time last week.
III) Simple future tense, future continuous tense, future perfect tense &future perfect
continuous tense.

1) I ---------(go) to the park for a walk tomorrow.

2) She ---------(perform) her duty.
3) On Thursday, I ------------(knew) you for a week.
4) I -------------- (read) forty-five books by this Christmas.
5) Next month I ----------- (study) Chinese for two years.
 Business vocabulary
Business vocabulary is a specialized part of English language
teaching and learning that focuses on elements of English pertaining
to commerce, trade, business relations, and professional settings.

Business vocabulary enables you to communicate ideas with your

industry colleagues. It can also help you understand certain concepts
in your professional environment.
Avoid translating

Learn to understand business terms directly in English without even translating them in your mind.

It can be tempting to check what a new word means in your own language, it’ll create an extra
obstacle in your understanding.

You already do this with several names for objects such as computer, internet, budget,
report, etc.

So when you see or hear a word try to understand what it means from the context, and if it’s not
clear, look it up online using an English definition.

Create your own mini-dictionary

Using a small notebook, start creating your own simple dictionary of business vocabulary. You can
do this by creating a few sections related to a general business topic.

For example:

Finance

Technology

Production

HR

Marketing

Management

Sales

Whenever you get a new business word or phrase, add it to the appropriate section of your
notebook. Write your own simple definition next to each word and ideally write an example too
because it will help you consolidate your comprehension.

Start with what you know

When you start learning business vocabulary, concentrate primarily on the area of business that you
are doing, You already know a lot of words in English related to your job such as accounting terms
or logistics, it will obviously help you to learn more, and you’ll feel more stimulated as well to learn
language that you can immediately put into practice.

Listen out for business talk

The best way to learn and improve your business vocabulary is to hear it being used. You can also
hear words related to business English on news websites with videos on financial or economic news.
If you don’t understand every single word they say, just listen out for key words they repeat and
emphasize, and try to understand the general sense.

Read about business

Reading is another great way to widen your business vocabulary. There are lots of ways to read
about business and not only through business magazines and newspapers but also read (or listen
to) some interviews with a well-known business person you find interesting, from the present or the
past.

Focus on pronunciation

When you learn business words, focus on learning the right pronunciation. This is not only important
for how you pronounce the word but also for when you hear other people use it. If you learn the
wrong pronunciation, it leads to misunderstanding. Unfortunately many words in English are written
in one way and pronounced in another way. So note down a word in your new mini-dictionary and
mention how to pronounce the word. For example, salesperson /’seilz pur son/ – a person who sells
a product or service.

Advertising vocabulary
Advertisement

Item of publicity on TV, radio, the Internet etc that's meant to persuade people to do something like
buy a product, attend an event, etc

Are TV channels allowed to run advertisements for gambling websites in your country?

Advertising agency

Company specializing in producing and placing advertisements for clients

Before becoming a film director, Peter worked for an advertising agency.

AIDA

Attention, Interest, Desire, Action - the objective of all advertisements

The AIDA model lists the four stages consumers go through when being persuaded to buy
something.

Benefits
Advantage of a product or service, usually derived from its features

A good advertisement makes buyers think about a product's benefits more than the features that
create these benefits

Billboards

Billboard is a large signboard, usually on which a poster-style ad is displayed.

I wonder what it costs to advertise on one of those billboards you drive past on the way to the
airport.

Circulation

Average number of copies of a magazine or newspaper sold in a particular period

Our newspaper's circulation has dropped every year since people began going online for news.

Double-page spreads

Advertisement printed across two pages in a magazine or newspaper

Mercedes Benz has commissioned our agency to do a series of double-page spreads for their
latest models.

Prime time

Hours on radio and TV with the largest audience, esp. the evening hours

How much is a 30-second radio slot in prime time.

Air Travel Vocabulary

Aisle

Passage between rows of seats [on a plane there are usually one or two]

Would you like a window seat or a seat next to the aisle?

Baggage claim

Place from where passengers collect their luggage (suitcases etc) after arrival

After arriving, go through immigration and then collect your bags from the baggage claim.

Boarding pass

Special ticket showing the passenger has checked in and may board the plane.

After checking in you'll get a boarding pass. Make sure you don't lose it, OK?

Check in
To register for a flight, incl. checking of booking, passport, luggage etc.

The first thing you have to do at the airport is check in at one of the check-in counters.

Departures board

Large display in an airport showing times, destinations etc of departing flights

I just checked the departures board and our flight's boarding now at Gate.

Jet lag

The feeling of extreme tiredness after a long flight,

Whenever I go on a long flight, it takes me one or two days to get over the jet lag.

Transit passengers

A passenger who's stopped at an airport to change flights only and isn't required to go through
immigration

For transit passengers who are changing flights please follow the signs to the transfer counter.

Banking Vocabulary
Cheque

A written order to a bank to pay the stated sum from one's account;

They promised to send me a cheque, but I didn't get it.

Credit

Money in a bank a/c; sum added to a bank a/c; money lent by a bank - also v.

The bank gives her enough credit to pay her bills.

Credit card

Plastic card from a bank authorizing the purchasing of goods on credit

When Kim realized she'd left her credit card in the ATM machine, she ran back to get it

Paid in

To deposit or put money in to a bank account

My salary gets paid in every month, and then I withdraw it as needed.

Payee

Person to whom money is paid

When writing a check, make sure you spell the name of the payee correctly.

Paying –in slips

Small document recording money that you pay in to a bank account

Do you keep all your paying-in slips?

Standing order

An instruction to a bank to make regular payments

Ask your bank if they'll pay the rent by standing order for you.

Company Vocabulary

A.G.M

Abbr. Annual General Meeting of a company's shareholders

The A.G.M. is where shareholders get an annual report on their company's performance and
strategy.

R & D department

Department responsible for inventing new products or improving existing products

Steve Jobs made sure his R & D department created the most innovative and exciting new
products.

Purchasing department

Department responsible for finding and buying everything a company needs

The production department asked the purchasing department to buy some new equipment.

Personnel department

Department responsible for recruitment and welfare of staff or employees

If you have a job interview, go to the personnel department on the third floor.

Organization chart

A table or plan showing a company's structure graphically

Shouldn't the Chairman of the Board be at the top of the organization chart?

Law Vocabulary
Attorney

A person who acts for or represents another in business or legal matters.

An attorney will be appointed to represent you in court.

Barristers

A lawyer who pleads before a superior court

In the UK, barristers still wear wigs in court, don't they?

Brief

Instructions to a barrister or written statement of facts

My first brief was to defend a young man accused of stealing a bicycle.

Court of law

The place where law cases are heard and decided; court - courtroom

There's a special court of law for corruption and bribery cases.

Lawsuits

A trial at court between two private parties

Many parents brought lawsuits against the company for selling dangerous toys.

Verdict

The formal decision or finding of a judge or jury

After hearing the jury's verdict, the defendant's relatives cried and hugged one another.

References
https://www.wallstreetenglish.com/blog/improve-your-business-vocabulary

https://www.englishclub.com/business-english/vocabulary.htm

https://www.wallstreetenglish.com/blog/improve-your-busines

Voluntary Poverty
by M.K.Gandhi

Summary

Simplicity is the hallmark of Gandhi’s life. His ideas are also simple but, the impact of his ideas is great. In
“Voluntary Poverty” Gandhi presents how he accepted poverty willingly. Forced poverty can be tolerated. But,
imposing poverty on oneself willingly is a matter of greatness.
At the time when politics is considered as the breeding ground of immorality, untruth and political gain, Gandhi
entered politics. After entering politics Gandhi wished to be free from immorality, untruth and political gain. To
be free from these things one should shun prosperity. So, Gandhi decided to discard all his wealth. His thought
did not augur well in his family. So he put his thought of discarding wealth in to action. In the start it was not a
cakewalk. But, gradually he adapted to it and amazingly it even gave pleasure to Gandhi.

Defending is the difficulty in possession but when the possession is willingly surrendered then defending will not be
a burden. This way Gandhi felt pleasure after giving up treasure. To Gandhi possession seemed to be a crime. Only
thing which can be possessed by all is non-possession. It is a willing surrender. Gandhi says that the spirit behind
non-possession is important. One can live with essentials such as clothes, food and shelter and anything beyond
these basic needs, is a luxury.

According to Gandhi ‘To multiply wants is civilization’, is a wrong notion. By diminishing your wants, you serve
your fellow beings. Bliss is the dedication of body, soul and mind. Body is given to you as a temporary possession
by God. So, it must be used for service. God is the hardest task master in the view of Gandhi. He puts one in task
in every way. In the experience of Gandhi, trying is God’s nature but forsaking is not. Gandhi feels that he has
never forsaken though he tested him in every way.

Reference
https://www.scribd.com/document/434958354/Voluntary-Poverty-M-K-Gandhi

ORDER LETTER
An order letter, also known as a purchase order or PO, begins the
paper trail of a specific purchase.

A purchase order letter typically includes the delivery date,

address and other necessary details that should be written with
caution because it is a legal transaction between the parties
involved.
It is a document that approves the buying and selling of a
product and presents items’ details.

It may also include the features of order, quantity, color,

product, mode of payment and date(s) of shipment, etc.

The receiver will precede its demands on getting this letter. This
letter is an official paper and can have legal value.

Elements of the Order Letter:

 Contact information about yourself and the person/company
that will supply to you and the date.

A subject line that helps the recipient to understand your

purpose at once.

A salutation, like, if you know the name of the seller, write,

“Dear ……………”. If you don't know the name of your seller,
simply write “Dear Seller”

Information about your company; but this is totally optional.

However, this can ensure a long-term relationship. You can also
say a few words about your future plans related to the sale.

Include order details like model number, color, size, number,

etc.

If you are buying different items of different types, describe

them in separate paragraphs.

Mention your payment mode or if you've paid already, mention

that next.

Indicate your preferred delivery method and date.

Include any special instructions as a part of the terms and

conditions agreed between the parties.

Close with “Sincerely”, your signature and name.

Tips for writing an effective Order Letter:

The letter should be very precise.

The language should be simple while also being formal.

Do not make any mistakes in the specifications and quantities.

Avoid spelling and grammatical errors.

 Stick to the topic.

Be polite. You are ordering for goods,

Avoid using too many adjectives.

Don't use jargon.

Purchase order letter

September 01, 2012
Manager
Sales Division
National Paints Co. Ltd.

Subject: Order of various paints

Dear sir,
Thank you for your quotation and the price list. We glad to place our first
order with you for the following items:

Sl.No Description Quantity Amount

1. Enamel paint 25 Tins 20,000

2. Synthetic paint 10 Tins 10,000

3. White paint 15 Tins 20,000

Total 50,000

The above goods are required immediately as our stock is about to exhaust
very soon. We request you to send the goods through your “Motor” van as the
carriage inward is supposed to be borne by you.
We shall arrange payment within ten (10) days. Please send all commercial
and financial documents along with goods. We reserve the right to reject the
goods if received late.

Yours Faithfully,
Sales Executive,
Colors private Ltd.

References

https://www.businesscommunicationarticles.com/order-letter-sample-and-order-
confirmation-letter-sample/

https://www.aplustopper.com/order-letter-
samples/#:~:text=Order%20Letter%20Samples%3A%20An%20order,demands%20on%2
0getting%20this%20letter.

Complaint letter
 A Complaint Letter is a type of letter written to address any type of wrong-doing,
offense, grievance, resentment arising out of a product, service, etc.

 It is used to raise your concern about unfair things and seek a productive
outcome.

Why should we write a complaint letter?

 A complaint letter is important because it puts your complaint on record with
the company,
 It helps you to preserve any legal rights you may have in any difficult situation,
and lets the company know you're serious about pursuing the complaint.
 Complaint Letter is not only a pre-warning for the offender but also a chance for
them to rectify their act in time.
 These letters are not just meant for defective products, service. They can also
be written for any legitimate reason like ‘Smoking in Public’, ‘Misuse of Water
by any Person or an Organization’, pollution, water supply, traffic
problems, shortage of electricity and any issue happening in society which
needs to be addressed.

Types of Complaint Letters

 1. Personal Complaint Letters- When a letter is written at a personal level by an
individual is called as Personal Complaint Letter. These are written by
consumers to get refund, replace a product etc. These are also written for
grievances’ regarding a service or any issue affecting the individual or society at
large.
2. Professional Complaint Letters- When a letter is written on behalf of an
organization is called as Professional Complaint Letter. These letters are mostly
related to professional items and services.

Sample Complaint letter

October 18, 2021
Mr.Donald
Human Resource officer
Chennai-48

Ref: Delayed salary

Dear Sir,

I am writing this letter to seek a speedy resolution to the delayed release of the salary of
administrative staffs. The employees’ salaries are already two weeks late. This is a breach of
the collective negotiating agreement which ensures the payment of salary on time. It is also
affecting the atmosphere in the workplace since the employees are being burdened by the
lack of funds for their family’s needs.

I have already aired this concern to your department but there has been no action
taken until now. So, I decided to write an official complaint letter in the hope of receiving a
faster response.

I hope that the company recognizes the importance of the employees and their rights will
continuously be upheld by the company.

Thank You
Yours sincerely,
Thompson
President Employees Union.

References
https://www.aplustopper.com/complaint-letter-format/

https://www.consumer-action.org/alerts/articles/sample_complaint_letter_and_email

Motivational audios of Sunder pichai

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yLlMk41sro

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UShZZK6F3E

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JaUCiKTNBxQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2mI-aqz4vo
https://www.wallstreetenglish.com/blog/improve-your-business-vocabulary
Usage - Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-verb agreement describes the proper match between subjects and verbs.
Because subjects and verbs are either singular or plural, the subject of a sentence and
the verb of a sentence must agree with each other in number. That is, a singular subject
belongs with a singular verb form, and a plural subject belongs with a plural verb form. In
simple terms, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural,
its verb must also be plural.

Subject-Verb agreement rules

1. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.

Example: She writes every day.

2. If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.

Example: They write every day.

3. When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.

Example: The doctoral student and the committee members write every day.
Example: The percentage of employees who called in sick and the number of
employees who left their jobs within 2 years are reflective of the level of job
satisfaction.

4. When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must
agree with the subject.

Example: Interviews are one way to collect data and allow researchers to gain an in-
depth understanding of participants.

5. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees
with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.

Example: The student, as well as the committee members, is excited.

Example: The student with all the master’s degrees is very motivated.

6. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by "or" or "nor," use a singular
verb.

Example: The chairperson or the CEO approves the proposal before proceeding.
7. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
"or" or "nor," the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This
is also called the rule of proximity.

Example: The student or the committee members write every day.

Example: The committee members or the student writes every day.

8. The words and phrases "each," "each one," "either," "neither," "everyone," "everybody,"
"anyone," "anybody," "nobody," "somebody," "someone," and "no one" are singular and
require a singular verb.

Example: Each of the participants was willing to be recorded.

Example: Neither alternative hypothesis was accepted.
Example: I will offer a $5 gift card to everybody who participates in the study.
Example: No one was available to meet with me at the preferred times.

9. Uncountable nouns take a singular verb.

Example: Education is the key to success.

Example: Diabetes affects many people around the world.
Example: The information obtained from the business owners was relevant to include
in the study.
Example: The research I found on the topic was limited.

10. Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds,
contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.

Example: The earnings for this quarter exceed expectations.

Example: The proceeds from the sale go to support the homeless population in the city.
Example: Locally produced goods have the advantage of shorter supply chains.

11. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since "there"
is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.

Example: There is little administrative support.

Example: There are many factors affecting teacher retention.

12. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and
take a singular verb. Some examples are "group," "team," "committee," "family," and "class."

Example: The group meets every week.

Example: The committee agrees on the quality of the writing.
Exercises

Combine the following sentences using an appropriate form of the verb given in the
brackets.

1. Man and woman ………………… complementary to each other.

a) is

b) are

2. Plenty of mangoes and bananas ………………… available in this season.

a) is

b) are

3. A dictionary and an atlas …………………… missing from the library.

a) is

b) are

4. The leader as well as his brothers ………………… to the same tribe.

a) belong

b) belongs

5. Cats and dogs ……………….…….. not get along.

a) do

b) does

6. The brothers as well as their sister …………………… .. good at their studies.

a) is

b) are

7. The students accompanied by their teacher …………………. gone o n a picnic.

a) has

b) have

8. A lot of houses ………………… collapsed in the storm.

a) has

b) have

9. The children as well as their mother …………………. missing.

a) is

b) are

10. A large sum of money ………………… stolen.

a) Was

b) Were

11. Emily and Greg ---------- (come/ comes) to my house every Friday for lunch.

12. There --------------- (is /are) time to watch the movie.

13. My friends who are in the band---------- (wants/want) me to play a musical instrument.

14. My father or my brothers--------- (is/are) coming with me to the ball game.

15. Everyone--------- (needs/need) time to relax.

16. That bag of oranges-------- (looks/look) fresh.

17. The lacrosse team----------- (hopes/hope) to win the tournament next week.

18. Your trousers---------- (needs/need) to be cleaned.

19. Some of the books on the shelf--------- (is/are) dusty.

20. Even though the students like the class, a few ----------- (think/thinks) that it is too
complicated.
Answers

1. Man and woman are complementary to each other.

2. Plenty of mangoes and bananas are available in this season.

3. A dictionary and an atlas are missing from the library.

4. The leader as well as his brothers belongs to the same tribe.

5. Cats and dogs do not get along.

6. The brothers as well as their sister are good at their studies.

7. The students accompanied by their teacher have gone on a picnic.

8. A lot of houses have collapsed in the storm.

9. The children as well as their mother are missing.

10. A large sum of money was stolen.

11. Emily and Greg come to my house every Friday for lunch.

12. There is time to watch the movie.

13. My friends who are in the band want me to play a musical instrument.

14. My father or my brothers are coming with me to the ball game.

15. Everyone needs time to relax.

16. That bag of oranges looks fresh.

17. The lacrosse team hopes to win the tournament next week.

18. Your trousers need to be cleaned.

19. Some of the books on the shelf are dusty.

20. Even though the students like the class, a few think that it is too complicated.
References

https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/grammar/subjectverbagreement

https://webapps.towson.edu/ows/exercises/Subject%20Verb%20Agreement%20-
%20Exercise01.aspx

https://www.englishgrammar.org/subject-verb-agreement-exercise/

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl_exercises/sentence_structure/subject_verb_agreement/subject_v
erb_agreement_exercise.html

Motivational audios of Sunder pichai

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yLlMk41sro

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UShZZK6F3E

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l2mI-aqz4vo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vWLcyFtni6U&list=RDCMUCMDxbhGcsE7EnknxPEzC_Iw&s
tart_radio=1&rv=vWLcyFtni6U